Philosophical Psychological and Socio-Hi PDF

Philosophical,
Psychological and
Socio-Historical
Foundations of Education
Educ201A
Compilation of Reports of the Students

in Master of Arts in Education
in C.Y. 2015-2016
at New Era University
June, 2016
Dr. Florentino T. Doqueña, Jr. (Professor)

Palacpac, Julius John L.
Manuel, Arlen Viah D.
Forcado, Joyzee V.
Lalamunan, Lyn C.
Villegas, Gemalyn P.
Pauli, Sarisa A.
Torrano, Czarina R.
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1 (Motivation, Status and Preparation of the Teacher) 2
Chapter 2 (The Teaching Profession) 22
Chapter 3 (Origins of Our Educational Heritage) 39
Chapter 4 (Pioneers in Education) 62
Chapter 5 (Historical Development of American Education) 83
Chapter 6 (Philosophical Ideas in Education) 101
Chapter 7 (Governing and Administering Public Education) 112
Chapter 8 (Decentralization) 118
Chapter 9 (Legal Aspects of Education) 129
Chapter 10 (Culture, Socialization and Education) 143
Chapter 11 (Social Class, Race, and School Achievement) 162
Chapter 12 (Providing Equal Educational Opportunity) 174
Chapter 13 (School Effectiveness and reform) 180
Chapter 14 (Aims of Education) 187
Chapter 15 (Curriculum and Instruction) 197
Page 1
“Motivation, Status
and Preparation
of the Teacher”
Julius John L. Palacpac

Educ201A – Chapter 1
Page 2
Summary of Discussion:
1.0 Focusing Questions
1.1 Why Teach?

1.1.1 Motives for Becoming a Teacher
1.1.2 Satisfaction with Teaching as a Career
1.1.3 Stress and Coping
1.2 Status of Teachers
1.2.1 The Prestige Factor
1.2.2 Pay Scales and Trends
1.2.3 Supply and Demand
1.3 Preparation of Teachers
1.3.1 Preservice Teacher Education
1.3.2 Certification
1.3.3 Trends in Preservice Education
1.3.4 In-service Education and Staff Development
1.4 Efforts to Improve the Quality of Teachers
1.4.1 Ability of the Teaching Workforce
1.4.2 Testing of Teachers
1.4.3 Recommendations of National Reports
1.5 Summing Up
1.6 References
Page 3
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of becoming a teacher?
o Advantages according to Tanya Robertson, Demand Media
 Those passionate about teaching point to the benefits of
working with children and positively influencing the lives of
their students. Other advantages of teaching are the
summer-off schedules and the ability to pursue intellectual
interests. For example, someone who's interested in physics
may choose to pursue a college teaching career in physics
so they can further their own knowledge on the subject.
o Disadvantages according to Tanya Robertson, Demand Media
 Teachers often struggle with the challenges of school
budget cuts, large classroom sizes, increasingly demanding
curriculum requirements and lack of parental involvement.
School district financial woes may equate to pay cuts, layoffs
and a reduction of job benefits, such as healthcare and
retirement, for many teachers. Some states have changed
laws giving school districts more flexibility in eliminating
tenured teaching positions. By eliminating tenured positions,
districts are then able to hire new teachers for lower wages.
Page 4
- What is satisfying and dissatisfying in the job of teaching?
- How does teachers‘ prestige compare to that of other occupations?
- What are the employment trends for teachers?
- How are teachers prepared? How are they certified?
- What are the trends in teacher education?
- What developments are likely to take place regarding quality of the
teacher workforce and the conditions of teaching?
1.1 Why Teach?
- Average people enter the teaching profession
- Women
o Narrower range of professional choices
o Achieve more status in teaching
o Parents encourage them
o Work schedules for combining career goals and family
responsibilities
1.1.1 Motives for Becoming a Teacher
Main Motives
- A love of children
- A desire to impart knowledge
- An interest in and excitement about teaching
- A desire to perform a valuable service to society
Page 5
Other Motives
- Job security and pension benefits
- Relatively short working days and long vacations
- Relative ease of preparing for teaching compared with other professions
- Ability to earn a reasonable income while preparing for another
profession.
1.1.2 Satisfaction with Teaching as a Career
- Selected Aspects of Teaching
o Flexibility in deciding how to teach
o Personal fulfillment derived from teaching
o Present teaching situation
o Support from principal
o Quantity of instructional material available
o Number of students taught
o Support from parents
o Fringe benefits
o Respect received as a professional
o Time on school-work after school hours
o Salary
o Amount of stress associated with job
o Amount of time of time on record keeping and clerical duties
Page 6
1.1.3 Stress and Coping
- ―How stressful is your work environment?‖
- Burnout = ―physical, emotional and attitudinal exhaustion‖
- Recommendations for avoiding burnout
o Advise teacher to participate in professional renewal activities
o Separate their jobs from home life
o Try to maintain flexibility
o Open-minded attitude toward change
- Activities or projects undertaken by professional organizations and school
districts to help teachers avoid burnout
o Train volunteers to conduct rap sessions for teachers (Chicago)
o Program of counseling and possible leaves of absence for teachers
experiencing stress (Tucson Education Association)
o Prevention and Management of Educational Stress workshops
(Northwest Staff Development Center in Wayne Country, Michigan)
1.2 Status of Teachers
- Prestige, salaries and supply (interrelated factors)
- Relative positions (concerns)
Page 7
1.2.1 The Prestige Factor
- Prestige
o estimations an individual or group occupies in the eyes of others in
a social system
o Connotes that individual‘s or group‘s status within the society
o In our society, income is closely related to prestige. As teacher
salaries increased, the occupational rating of teaching also rose.
1.2.2 Pay Scales and Trends
- Decline in Purchasing Power
o While the average salaries of teachers increase, prices increased
at an even faster pace.
- Salary Levels and Differentials
o Based on regions/states
o Greatest variation in salaries is based on years of experience and
education
- Comparison with other fields
o The annual average salary of other fields are higher than teachers
o The price of goods and services increased faster than teacher
salaries
o Opportunities to increase their salaries by taking on additional
responsibilities
Page 8
Elementary Public Teachers Salary (P17, 957.83 in a month)
Junior High School Public Teachers Salary (P18, 051.42 in a month)
Private Companies / Institutions Salary in Lipa City (P7, 716.50 in a month)
Page 9
1.2.3 Supply and Demand
- A widespread shortage of teachers developed in the 1950s and early
1960s (United States).
- A general oversupply of teachers was available in the 1970s and early
1980s (United States).
- Teacher shortage fields (special education, bilingual education and early
childhood education)
- According to DepEd, they will hire more than 33,000 teachers in 2014 to
address teacher shortage.
- The world needs to hire an additional 2.7 million primary school teachers,
according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics in 2015.
1.3 Preparation of Teachers
- During the colonial period and well into the early nineteenth century, an
individual who wanted to become a teacher usually obtained approval
from a local minister or a board of trustees associated with a religious
institution.
- High school and college diploma is not considering a prerequisite.
- If you could read, write, and spell and were of good moral character, you
could teach in a school.
- 1820s future teacher began attending normal schools to prepare for
teaching.
- They did not grant a degree; they offer courses in preparation for teaching
Page
10
1.3.1 Preservice Teacher Education
- Preparation of teachers in three components:
o General education
 To provide knowledge of self and culture worthy of a citizen
in a free country
 This program combines the arts and sciences and seeks to
give the student a broad cultural background
o Specialized subject-field education
 A cluster courses in a specific subject area and provides the
prospective teacher with in-depth preparation for his or her
chosen teaching field
 ―major‖ or ―minor‖
 Secondary Teachers
 One subject field
 Elementary Teachers
 Responsible for all subject fields
 Music, art, physical education and foreign language
o Professional education
 Educational courses designed to provide professional
orientation and training in the art and science teaching
Page
11
1.3.2 Certification
- Passed the Licensure Examination for Teachers
- Certification requirements
- Reciprocity of teacher certificates
1.3.3 Trends in Preservice Education
- Competency-based Teacher Education (CBTE)
o An alternative approach to teacher education, requires prospective
teachers to demonstrate minimum levels of performance
o Expensive if done well
- Problems in CBTE
o CBTE may further fragment teacher education (2700 modules in
Michigan State University)
o Reliability and validity of competency tests are not well established
o How shall the information regarding a prospective teacher‘s
competency be translate into certification units and communicated
to licensing authorities?
- To make CBTE programs operational, it is necessary to;
o Identify appropriate competencies
o Assess those competencies accurately
o Define good teaching while accommodating different teaching
styles and roles
o Develop and prepare instructional materials
Page
12
o Switch to an analytical and research focus in teacher education
o Train educators to manage these programs.
- School-based Field Centers
o Training at cooperating elementary or secondary schools
specifically designated to provide preservice preparation
- Early field experience
o Requiring or encouraging future teachers to spend a significant
amount of time in elementary or secondary schools shortly after
they enter the preparation program
o ―practice teaching‖
1.3.4 In-service Education and Staff Development
- In-service education, it is hope would transmit the findings of research on
effective teaching and effective schools and respond to demands for
improving student achievement.
o Occasional workshops and training sessions
o Continuing education
o Work on advanced degrees in education
o Enrollment in summer training sessions
Page
13
- Staff Development
o Collaborative planning in which teachers work together to plan and
implement instructional improvement
o Its design and implementation typically reflect such principles as
the following;
 Growth should be toward more complex levels of cognitive
development
 Learning should be based on experience
 Emphasis should be on continuous, guided reflection
 Instruction should provide for both personal support and
challenge
1.4 Efforts to Improve the Quality of Teachers
- Testing of teachers, on a variety of recommendations publicized, and
supported in influential national reports on the problems of our educational
system.
Page
14
1.4.1 Ability of the Teaching Workforce
- Other groups always focus entirely on ―ability‖ scores derived from
standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)
- It is important that teachers possess sufficient intellectual ability to master
the subject matter they teach and to function successfully in a difficult job
- ―quality‖, ―academic ability‖, and ―effective teachers‖
1.4.2 Testing of Teachers
- Basic skills testing
- Some schools now require that prospective teachers pass some form of
minimum skills tests in reading and language, math, subject-area
specialty, and/or professional knowledge
- Others used the National Teacher Examination
1.4.3 Recommendations of National Reports
- Recommendations in A Nation at Risk
o Content of education
o Standards and expectations
o Time
o Teaching
- Content Education
o Increase high school graduation requirements in ―Five New Basics‖:
English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and Computer
Science
Page
15
- Standards and expectations
o Adopt higher expectations for student performance and conduct at
the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary levels, and raise
admission requirements at four-year colleges and universities
- Time
o Devote more time to the new basics. Make effective use of the
existing school day, extend the school day, and/or lengthen the
school year.
- Teaching
o Make teaching a more rewarding and respected profession
o Set higher standards for entry into the profession
o Increase salaries so that they are ―professionally competitive,
market-sensitive, and performance-based‖
o Making them part of a system that gives greater rewards to superior
teachers (institute merit pay)
o Add an additional month of employment with pay for teachers
o Institute a ―career ladder‖ that distinguishes between beginning,
experienced, and master teachers
o Use incentives such as grants and loans to attract outstanding
candidates into teaching, particularly into shortage areas as
science and mathematics
o Involve master teachers in preparing and supervising probationary
teachers
Page
16
- Governor Alexander and his committee had prepared a series of reforms
o An across-the-board pay increase for all teachers
o Intensive staff development for new teachers
o A probationary year before licensing
o A possible reduction in class size in elementary and secondary
schools
o Establishment of ―centers of excellence‖ at selected colleges and
universities
- Governor Alexander and his committee had prepared a career ladder
arrangements to designate and offer greater rewards as teachers move
through ranks of;
o Apprentice Teacher
o Professional Teacher
o Senior Teacher
o Master Teacher
Page
17
- Governor Mark White took the lead in formulating legislation for statewide
improvement in public schools in Texas
o Limitation of elementary school class size to 22 students
o Establishment of required prekindergarten classes for
disadvantaged students
o Increase in beginning teachers salaries
o Allocation of up to $6000 each year for additional pay for
experienced teachers
- Forum of Educational Organization Leaders summarized the most
important changes that its member organizations will work to bring about:
o Enact a substantially higher base pay schedule for all teachers
o Establish a career ladder with differing roles and responsibilities for
the beginning teacher, the experienced teacher, and the master
teacher
o Though a variety of recruitment efforts, forgivable student loans,
and year-round employment, attract future teachers from the
highest-achieving 25 percent of college graduates
o Guarantee safe schools, with defined codes of discipline and
orderly classrooms
Page
18
o Provide financial incentives, such as quicker advancement on
salary scales, to retain career teachers in the classroom and
profession
1.5 Summing Up
- Most people enter the profession to help young children and to provide a
service to society
- Most teachers are satisfied with most aspects of their jobs, but there is
significant dissatisfaction with salaries and other nonteaching
considerations
- The occupational status of teachers has probably declined over the past
two decades
- Salary increases for teachers did not keep pace with rising prices during
the 1970s, but teachers can probably anticipate an improved salary
situation in the future
- There was a sharp drop in demand relative to supply of teachers in the
1970s. This situation has reversed, and there probably will be a shortage
of teachers in the future
- The preservice preparation of teachers rests upon a threefold set of
components: general education, specialized subject-matter education, and
professional studies. Each of these interrelated areas is important for the
proper education of teachers.
- Requirement for teacher certification vary among states and institutions of
higher learning.
Page
19
- In general, teacher education is becoming more practical and reality
oriented. Trends in this direction include the establishment of school-
based centers for preparing future teachers and provision of early field
experience in elementary and secondary classrooms.
- There is widespread national concern with the quality of the teaching
workforce. Efforts to improve the quality of teachers include an emphasis
on testing new and future teachers. The major national reports on
education have expressed concern with teacher quality, and efforts are
underway to improve salaries and other conditions of teaching.
1.6 References
Department of education (2014). Retrieved April 28, 2016, from
www.philstar.com/campus/.../deped-hire-33k-teachers-address-shortage
Elementary school teacher salary in the Philippines (January 11, 2016).
Retrieved April 28, 2016, from
http://www.payscale.com/research/PH/Job=Elementary_School_Teacher/
Salary
Employee salary in growth corridor area (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2016, from
http://www.nwpc.dole.gov.ph/pages/rb-4a/cmwr.html
Page
20
High school teacher salary in the Philippines (January 11, 2016).
http://www.payscale.com/research/PH/Job=High_School_Teacher/Salary
Kadtong, M. and Usop, D. (2013). Work performance and job satisfaction among
teachers. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3,
http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_5_March_2013/25.pdf
Robertson, T. (n.d.). Advantages of becoming a teacher. Retrieved April 28,
2016, from http://work.chron.com/advantages-disadvantages-becoming-
teacher-4302.html
UNESCO institute for statistics (2015). Retrieved April 28, 2016, from
http://www.philstar.com/opinion/2015/10/06/1507641/editorial-
empowering-teachers
Page
21
“The Teaching
Profession”
Julius John L. Palacpac

Page
22
2.1 Is Teaching a Profession?
2.1.1 A Defined Body of Knowledge
2.1.2 Control over Requirements for Entry and Licensing
2.1.3 Autonomy in Deciding about Spheres of Work
2.1.4 High Prestige and Economic Standing
2.2 Trends toward Professionalism
2.2.1 The Scope of Collective Bargaining
2.2.2 Professional Practice Commissions
2.2.3 Teacher Centers
2.2.4 Mediated Entry
2.2.5 Merit Pay
2.3 Teacher Organizations
2.3.1 National Education Association (NEA)
2.3.2 American Federation of Teachers (AFT)
2.3.3 Past Differences between the NEA and AFT
2.3.4 Current Differences Between the NEA and AFT
Page
23
2.3.5 Areas of Agreement
2.4 General Professional Organizations for Teachers
2.4.1 Specialized Professional Organizations
2.4.2 Religious Education Organizations
2.4.3 Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs)
2.4.4 Organizations for Prospective Teachers
2.5 Summing Up
2.6 References
Page
24
- In what ways is teaching not fully a profession?
- What trends show that teaching is becoming more of a full-fledged
profession?
- How does merit pay help (hinder) the teaching profession?
- What are the essential differences between the NEA and the AFT? Can
these differences be reconciled?
- What are some other important professional organizations for teachers?
Teachers today:
- They aspire to be professionals with expert knowledge concerning the
content and methods of instruction in their particular fields
- They are well organized as a group and have gained greater rights to be
judged mainly on the basis of the performance rather than on the basis of
their behavior outside the school and to participate in making decisions
about the conditions in which they work
2.1 Is Teaching a Profession?
- Characteristics of a full profession, based on the works noted authorities in
the field:
o A sense of public service; a lifetime commitment to career
o A defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by
laypersons
o Application of research and theory to practice (to human problems)
Page
25
o A lengthy period of specialized training
o Control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements
o Autonomy in making decisions about selected spheres of work
o An acceptance of responsibility for judgments made and acts
performed related to services rendered; a set of standards of
performance
o A commitment to work and client; an emphasis on service to be
rendered
o Use of administrators to facilitate work of professionals; relative
freedom from detailed on-the-job supervision
o A self-governing organization comprised of members of the
profession
o Professional associations and/or elite groups to provide recognition
for individual achievements
o A code of ethics to help clarify ambiguous matters or doubtful
points related to services rendered
o A high level of public trust and confidence in individual practitioners
o High prestige and economic standing
- Teaching may be viewed as a ―semiprofession‖ or an ―emerging
profession‖
Page
26
- According to Amitai Etzioni, teaching is a semiprofession because ―the
training (of teachers) is shorter, their status less legitimated (low or
moderate), their right to privileged communication less established; theirs
is less of a specialized knowledge, and they have less autonomy from
supervision or societal control than ‗the profession‘.
- According to Robert Howsam, teaching should be viewed as an emerging
profession and higher in status than a semiprofession, near the periphery
of full professional status
- Four most important characteristics of a profession:
o A defined body of knowledge and skills beyond that grasped by
lawpersons
o Control over licensing standards and/or entry requirements
o Autonomy in making decisions about selected spheres of work
o High prestige and economic standing
2.1.1 A Defined Body of Knowledge
- All professions have a monopoly on certain knowledge that separates their
members from the public and allows them to exercise control over the
vocation.
- Teaching out of license
- Non-accredited training institutions
Page
27
2.1.2 Control over Requirements for Entry and Licensing
- Most professions have uniform standards and requirement to ensure
minimum competencies, this is not the case in the teaching profession
- Noncertified teachers
- Different licensing procedures
2.1.3 Autonomy in Deciding about Spheres of Work
- According to Peter Blau and W. Richard Scott, ―professional service
requires that the (professional) maintain interdependence of judgment and
not permit the clients‘ wishes as distinguished from their interests to
influence his decisions.‖
2.1.4 High Prestige and Economic Standing
- Teacher pay remains lower than that of the average college graduate
- Teachers still earn far less than lawyers, business executives, and some
other professionals with similar levels of formal education.
- There is no realistic salary comparison between teachers with a master or
doctor‘s degree between them.
- Teaching is still not fully a profession in terms of its economic standing
and occupational prestige.
2.2 Trends toward Professionalism
- Collective bargaining can enhance teachers‘ capacity to make decisions
about their work in the classroom.
Page
28
2.2.1 The Scope of Collective Bargaining
- The extent and nature of collective bargaining varied from negotiations
conducted in the absence of a law allowing or forbidding it to full-scale
contract bargaining backed by the right to strike.
- Collective bargaining is often concerned with educational problems and
issues, such as class size, grouping of students in classes, instructional
materials, testing, classroom discipline and management, teacher-
supervisory relations, and community relations.
- Collective bargaining as a movement in education now seems to be an
integral part of teacher unionism and teacher militancy.
2.2.2 Professional Practice Commissions
- Teachers have been gaining a greater role in setting professional
standards than they formerly had
- They compose a majority of the commission members and set standards
for the preparation of teachers and maintenance of minimal competence in
professional practice.
2.2.3 Teacher Centers
- Teachers are exercising more control over their own affairs involves the
important area of staff development.
- In-service training = ―cafeteria of courses and workshops‖
Page
29
2.2.4 Mediated Entry
- It refers to the practice of inducting persons into a profession through
carefully supervised stages that help them learn how to apply professional
knowledge successfully in a concrete situation.
- Medicine profession = they serve one or more years as an intern and then
as a resident before being considered a full-fledged professional.
- Dan Lortie has studied that the teaching ranks in between occupations
characterized by ―casual‖ entry and those that place protracted and
difficult demands on would-be members.
- They reported that they learned to teach through trial and error in the
classroom
- They also report that the beginning years of teaching can be ―a period of
anxiety and fear, even of trauma‖.
- Probationary period for new teachers
- The notion of mediated entry would focus in the school as the workplace
as well as the training place for beginning teachers; like teacher centers, it
would address the practical nature of teaching, involve experienced
teachers in training beginning teachers, establish closer ties between
teacher educators and school people, and insure greater control by the
profession over teacher training.
Page
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2.2.5 Merit Pay
- A supplement to a teacher‘s base salary to reward superior performance
- Milton Friedman, the well-known economist who believes in a competitive
market, interestingly rejects the idea of merit pay for teachers. He argues
that merit pay would work only in a truly competitive marketplace, one in
which consumers had a variety of genuine choices.
- Productive teachers would be in demand, and schools would vie for them
- Career ladder = combines rewards for good teaching with improved in-
service education for all teachers.
- Houston school district incentive plan has six categories for incentive
qualification:
o Service in a high-priority school
o Teaching a special subject where staff shortages exist
o Teacher attendance that exceeds minimum requirement
o Professional growth or in-service training appropriate to one‘s
current teaching assignment or in an area where critical shortages
exist
o Service in a school where the average academic gain of students,
as measured by standardized tests, is greater than statistical
predictions
Page
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o Service at a unique or experimental school site
- School officials claim that;
o Standardized test scores in the district have improved for three
consecutive years, since the plan began
o Teacher absenteeism and teacher turnover have dropped,
especially in inner-city schools
o Teacher shortages in areas like science, mathematics, special
education, and bilingual education have been reduced sharply
o Teacher morale has increased
- The teaching profession can benefit from merit pay in terms of money and
prestige so long as certain guidelines or principles are followed:
o Teachers must be evaluated objectively on clear and agree-upon
standards
o Teacher raters, those who evaluate teachers, must receive training
in the use of objective measures
o Teachers must be afforded appeal procedures, but those
procedures cannot be time consuming
o Teachers should receive assistance to meet the standards for merit
Page
32
o Public disclosure of merit awards should be minimized, since it
often humiliates non-recipients before students, parents and
colleagues
o The expense of incentive pay should not be offset by lowered
annual salaries
2.3 Teacher Organizations
- Wisconsin teacher‘s contract for 1922, calling for a salary of $75 a month
Miss ________ agrees:
o Not to get married. This contract becomes invalid immediately if the
teacher marries.
o Not to keep company with men
o To be home between the hours of 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. unless in
attendance at a school function
o Not to loiter downtown in ice-cream parlors
o Not to leave town at any time without the permission of the
chairperson of the Trustees
o Not to smoke cigarettes
o Not to drink beer, wine or whiskey
o Not to ride in a carriage or automobile with any man except her
brother or father
o Not to dress in bright colors
o Not to dye her hair
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o Not to wear less than two petticoats
o Not to wear dresses shorter than two inches above the ankles.
o To keep the schoolroom clean:
 To sweep the classroom floor at least once daily.
 To scrub the classroom floor at least once weekly.
 To clean the blackboard at least once daily
 To start the fire at 7 A.M. so that the room will be warm at 8
A.M. when the children arrive
 Not to wear face powder, mascara or to paint the lips.
2.3.1 National Education Association (NEA)
- Founded in 1857 by 43 educators, is a complex, multifaceted organization
involved in many areas of education on local, state, and national levels.
- They publishes the NEA Research Bulletin and Today‟s Education
2.3.2 American Federation of Teachers (AFT)
- Formed in 1916
- Affiliated with the AFL-CIO and is open to classroom teachers only
- They publish a professional magazine, Changing Education, a Consortium
Yearbook and a monthly newspaper, American Teacher
2.3.3 Past Differences between the NEA and AFT
- NEA = a professional association, not a union
- Teacher Strikes = 1966 to 1980s
- Administrative Membership
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2.3.4 Current Differences between the NEA and AFT
- Conflict over labor affiliation
- The battle for professors
- Organizing non-educational workers
- The fight over existing members
- Different styles of leadership
o Albert Shanker, president of the AFT, who has a distinctive
leadership and style (10 years)
o NEA president is elected for two years with only one additional term
- Divided over bread-and-butter issues
The two organizations have locked horns
o merit pay (the AFT is willing to consider this plan, the NEA is more
reluctant to do so)
o competency tests for students and teachers (the AFT wants the
tests to count, the NEA is unwilling to accept the results as a
standard or criterion for achievement or entrance)
o block grants and favors for urban and rural school districts (the AFT
is opposed to block grants and favors urban schools, the NEA is
more neutral on this issue)
o public employee bargaining laws (the AFT favors collective
bargaining for municipal workers, the NEA feels the issue is not a
matter for teachers
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35
o student rights and the handling of disruptive students (the AFT
emphasizes student responsibilities, the NEA wishes to expand
student rights)
o multicultural education (the AFT sees potential danger in
emphasizing ethnic and racial differences, the NEA feels that
cultural differences should be encouraged.
o school equality and academic standards (the AFT wants tough
academic requirements, the NEA stresses school equality)
2.3.4 Areas of Agreement
- Enlarging the demand for teachers by extending free public education to
all children and youth from prekindergarten to grade 14
- Convincing the public of the proved value of smaller classes
- Increasing tax-free fringe benefits
- Raising teacher pay and implementing cost-of-living adjustments
- Increasing teacher retirement benefits
- Stepping up teacher militancy to resist possible cutbacks
2.4 General Professional Organizations for Teachers
- NEA and AFT has more than three hundred other national teacher
organizations
2.4.1 Specialized Professional Organizations
- Subject-related teacher organizations
- Student-relater teacher organizations
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36
2.4.2 Religious Education Organizations
- Catholic teacher organizations
o National Association of Catholic School Teachers (NACST)
founded in 1978 is the largest of these religious teacher
organizations
o National Catholic Education Association founded in 1904 is the
oldest Catholic education organization
2.4.3 Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs)
- It is a forum for parent and teachers to work together to plan and to
resolve educational problems on the local, state, and national levels
- PTA Today and What‟s Happening in Washington are the official monthly
magazines of the association
- Parent-Teacher Organizations (PTO)
- Parent-Teacher Students Organization (PTSO)
2.4.4 Organizations for Prospective Teachers
- Education-related organizations open to students include the following:
o Student National Education Association
o Honorary Educational Associations
o American Education Research Association
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37
2.5 Summing Up
- It is generally agreed that teaching is not as yet a full profession, although
it is moving towards becoming one.
- Many trends in education are increasing the status of teacher
professionalism
- During the past few decades teachers have become more militant and
have gained increased status as professionals
- The NEA and AFT now represent the large majority of classroom teachers
- There are other professional organizations that teachers can join that work
to improve education.
2.6 References
National organization of professional teachers (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2016,
from
en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php/National_Organization_of_Professional_Tea
chers/
Philippine teachers organizations (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2016, from
tagalog.wikipilipinas.org/index.php/Catagories:List_of_Philippine_Teachers_O
rganizations/
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38
“ORIGINS OF OUR
EDUCATIONAL
HERITAGE”
Arlen Viah D. Manuel

Educ201A - Chapter 3
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39
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Education in Primitive Societies
3.4 Education in Greece
3.4.1 The Sophists
3.4.2 Protagoras‘ Method
3.4.3 Socrates: Education by Self-examination
3.4.4 Plato: Eternal Truth and Values
3.4.5 Aristotle: Cultivation of Rationality
3.4.6 Isocrates: Oratory and Rhetoric
3.4.7 The Greek Contribution to Western Education
3.5 Education in Ancient Rome
3.5.1 Cicero: Master Orator
3.5.2 Quintillian: Teacher of Rhetoric
3.5.3 The Roman Contribution to Western Education
3.6 Influence of Arabic Learning on Western Education
3.7 Medieval Culture and Education
3.7.1 Aquinas: Scholastic Education
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3.8 Renaissance Classical Humanism
3.8.1 Erasmus: Critic and Reformer
3.9 Religious Reformation and Education
3.9.1 Luther: Advocate of Reform
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1) Why should teachers study the history of education?
2) How did the leading educators of the past define knowledge, education,
schooling, teaching, and learning?
3) What concepts of the educated person were dominant during each period
of Western history discussed in this chapter?
4) How have educational ideas changed over the course of time?
5) How have the educational theories of the leading educators of the
Western world contributed to modern education?
3.2 Introduction
The ideas of John Dewey, one of the world‘s leading educational philosophers,
suggest a rationale for studying and using history. As he emphasized in his
momentous book, Democracy and Education,
―The past just as past is no longer our affair. If it were wholly gone and done with,
there would be only one attitude toward it. Let the dead bury their dead. But
knowledge of the past is the key to understanding the present. History deals with
the past, but this past is the history of the present.‖
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History of education is valuable for the following reasons:
1. Educational issues and problems are often rooted in the past; the study of
educational history can help us to understand and solve today‘s problems.
2. Realistic efforts to reform education begin with present conditions, which
are a product of our past; by using our past, we can shape the future.
3. The study of education‘s past provides a perspective that explains and
illuminates our present activities as teachers.
3.3 Education in Primitive Societies
Historical Educational Influence on
Group or Goals Curriculum Agents Western
Period Education
Primitive To teach group Practical skills Parents, tribal Emphasis on
societies survival skills; to of hunting, elders and the role of
7000B.C.- cultivate group fishing, food priest informal
5000B.C. cohesiveness gathering, education in
stories, myths, transmission of
songs, poems, skills and
dances values
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Earliest patterns of education:
 tool or instrument making
 the mores of group life
 language learning
3.4 Education in Greece
Group or Goals Agents Western
Period Curriculum Education
Greek To cultivate Athenian: Athens: private Athens: The
1600B.C.- civic reading, writing, teachers and concept of the
300B.C. responsibility arithmetic, schools; well-rounded,
and identify drama, music, Sophists; liberally
with city state; physical philosophers educated
Athenian: to education, Sparta: military person
develop well literature, poetry teachers, drill Sparta: The
rounded people Spartan: drill, sergeants concept of the
Spartan: to military songs military state
develop and tactics
soldiers and
military leaders
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44
3.4.1 The Sophists
The first professional educators were the Sophists, a group of wandering
teachers who developed a variety of methods for instructing the rising
commercial class of Athens and other Greek city-states in needed intellectual
and rhetorical skills. They specialized in teaching grammar (helped them express
ideas clearly), logic (the rules of argument, aided students in clarifying their own
thinking), and rhetoric (the power to persuade others through speech).
3.4.2 Protagoras‟ Method
1. The presentation of a simple lecture or declamation to his students to
provide them with an excellent model of speech;
2. An examination of great orations that could be used as models of speech;
3. The study of rhetoric, grammar, and logic;
4. Practice orations by the young orator, which were criticized by teachers
5. A public oration delivered by the student
3.4.3 Socrates: Education by Self-examination
Unlike the Sophist, the Athenian philosopher Socrates
(469-399 B.C.) sought to discover the universal principles
of truth, beauty and goodness, which he believed should
govern human conduct. Socrates is important in Western
educational history because he firmly defended the freedom to think, to question,
and to teach.
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He was significant as teacher of Plato, who later systematized many of Socrates‘
ideas. In fact, what we know about Socrates is through the writing of Plato.
Socrates also developed Socratic Method, which is the methodology of
searching questions and answers, or dialogue, that bears his name.
3.4.4 Plato: Eternal Truth and Values
His pupil, Plato (429-347B.C), continued Socrates‘
educational efforts. A speculative philosopher, Plato
founded the Academy in 387 B.C. and wrote Protagoras, a
discourse virtue, and the Republic and the Laws, treatises
on political, legal, and educational theory. In general, Plato was a conservative
social and educational philosopher who disliked the changes encouraged by the
Sophists and held the reality consisted of an unchanging world of perfect ideas
which is universal concepts such as truth, goodness, justice, and beauty. As
these images appear to our senses, however, individual examples are imperfect
representations of these universal and eternal ideas. In structuring and
unchanging order of reality, Plato challenged the Sophists‘ methodology of sense
experience. In contrast, he asserted those human beings are good and
honorable only when their behavior agrees with the ideal concepts of justice and
goodness.
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46
Theorist Philosophical View of Human Views on Contribution
Orientation Nature Education and and Influence
Curriculum
Plato Philosophical Human being Music, Use of schools
420-348B.C. idealist; can be classified gymnastics, for testing and
sociopolitical on the basis of geometry, sorting students
conservative their intellectual astronomy, basic according to
capabilities literary skills, intellectual
philosophy for abilities;
ruling elite of education closely
philosopher tied to civic
kings purposes of
―Great Books‖
curriculum
3.4.5 Aristotle: Cultivation of Rationality
Plato‘s student Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was the tutor of
Alexander the Great. Aristotle founded the Lyceum, an
Athenian philosophical school, and wrote extensively on
such subjects as physics, astronomy, zoology, botany,
logic, ethics, and metaphysics. Aristotle‘s Nicomachean Ethics and Politics
examine education in relation to society and government.
As philosophical realist, Aristotle held that reality posited in an objective order.
Objects, composed of form and matter, exist independently of our knowledge of
them.
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47
Human beings are rational; therefore, they have the ability to know and observe
the natural laws and govern them. The truly educated person exercises reason in
judging ethical and political behavior. Humankind‘s goal is happiness, and the
good life is one of moderation.
Philosophical View of Human Views on Contribution
Orientation Nature Education and and
Theorist Curriculum Influence
Aristotle Philosophical Human beings Objective and Emphasis on the
384-322 B.C. realist; view of have the power scientific liberally
society, politics , of rationality emphasis; basic educated, well-
and education which should literary skills, rounded person;
based on guide their mathematics, importance of
classical realism conduct natural and reason; basis of
physical ―Great Books‖
sciences, curriculum and
philosophy the ―Paideia
Proposal‖
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48
3.4.6 Isocrates: Oratory and Rhetoric
The Greek rhetorician Isocrates (436-388 B.C.) is significant
to Western educational history because he developed a
well-constructed educational theory based on rhetorical
skills and knowledge. Isocrates opposed Sophists who
taught rhetoric as a set of isolated persuasive routines or public relations
techniques. Rather, he believed that rhetorical education should be completely
humanistic and cultural, including the tools and techniques of speech.
Although Isocrates opposed the cass opportunism of the Sophists, he also
rejected the Platonic perspective that education was to lead to the purely
speculative and the abstract. For Isocrates, education had objectives that led to
public service because informed action was based on and guided by knowledge.
Philosophical View of Human Views on Contribution
Theorist Orientation Nature Education and and
Curriculum Influence
Isocrates Rhetorician; Human being Rhetorical Use of
436-388 B.C. oratorical have the power studies; basic knowledge
education in of using their literary skills, pursuit of public
service of self speech for social politics, history, affairs and as
and society and political rhetoric, means of
improvement declamation, exercising
public speaking political
leadership;
teacher
education having
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49
both a content
and a practice
dimension
3.4.7 The Greek Contribution to Western Education
1. A profound conviction of the possibility of achieving human excellence
2. The idea that education had civic purpose related to the political well-
being of the community
3. A distinction between liberal education and vocational training
4. The legacy of the Socratic Method, by which skilled teachers might use
dialectical process to ask universal questions relating to truth, goodness
and beauty
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3.5 Education in Ancient Rome
Historical Educational Curriculum Agents Influence on
Group or Goals Western
Period Education
Roman To develop Reading, Private schools Emphasis on
sense of civic writing, and teachers; ability to use

750B.C.-A.D.
responsibility for arithmetic, schools of education for
450
republic and Laws of Twelve rhetoric practical
then empire; to tables, law, administrative
develop philosophy skills; relating
administrative education to
and military civic
skills responsibility
3.5.1 Cicero: Master Orator
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.) was a Roman
philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator, political theorist,
consul, and constitutionalist.
As a public speaker, the orator had to select his words with
care so that he could structure his arguments persuasively. He needed to use
psychology to excite the emotions of his audience and to influence public affairs.
The orator needed to be quick intellectually; he needed to be versatile in using a
number of speaking styles and types of argument.
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Cicero also believed that oratory was functional study that could actively
influence public opinion and shape state policy. The word humanitas, which
signifies all that is worthy in an individual as a humane and intelligent being, best
expresses his ideal of the educated man.
3.5.2 Quintillian: Teacher of Rhetoric
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (A.D. 35-95) was a Roman
rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval
schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing.
For Quintillian, oratorical perfection depended on the
speaker‘s own moral excellence. To persuade, the orator had to be trustworthy.
Quintillian‘s significance in Western educational history lies in his attention to the
theory and practice of teaching and learning. In anticipating the modern teacher‘s
concern for the learner‘s individual differences, he recommended that instruction
must be made appropriate to the learner‘s abilities and readiness. He also
recommended that the teacher motivate students by making learning interesting
and attractive.
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Curriculum
Influence
Quintilian Rhetorician; Certain Basic literacy Role of motivation
oratory for individuals have skills, grammar, in learning;

A.D.35-A.D.95
personal gain and the capacity for history, literature, recognition of
public service leadership, drama, individual
based on philosophy, differences
humane public speaking,
disposition, law
liberal
knowledge; and
oratorical skill
3.5.3 The Roman Contribution to Western Education
1. An emphasis on training administrators and civil servants who could
maintain the political infrastructure of a vast and diverse empire
2. A pragmatic propensity to translate theories into practices
3. An instructionalization of informal educational practices into more formal
school arrangements
4. The practice of cultural and educational borrowing and readaptation,
which reached a high point in Rome‘s selective use of Greek philosophy
and education
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3.6 Influence of Arabic Learning on Western Education

Curriculum
Period Education
Arabic To cultivate Reading, Mosques; court Arabic
A.D. 700- A.D. religious writing, schools numerals and
1350 commitment to mathematics, computation;
Islamic beliefs; religious re-entry of
to develop literature; classical
expertise in scientific materials on
mathematics, studies science and
medicine, and medicine
science
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3.7 Medieval Culture and Education

Curriculum
Period Education
Medieval To develop Reading, Parish, chantry Establishing the
A.D.500- religious writing, and cathedral structure, content
A.D.400 commitment, arithmetic, schools; and organization
knowledge and liberal arts; universities; of the university
ritual; to philosophy, apprenticeship; as a major
establish social theology; knighthood institution of
order to crafts; military higher education;
prepare tactics and the
persons for chivalry institutionalization
appropriate and preservation
roles of knowledge
3.7.1 Aquinas: Scholastic Education
Tommasod'Aquino(1225 – 7 March 1274), also known as
Saint Thomas Aquinas is a Doctor of the Church. He was
an Italian Dominican friar and Roman Catholic priest, who
was an immensely influential philosopher, theologian and
jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the
"Doctor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis".
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The Latin name "Aquinas" identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino
(in the present-day Lazio region), an area where his family held land until 1137.
By the eleventh century, medieval educators had developed scholasticism-
-- a method of inquiry, scholarship, and teaching, The Scholastics, as teaching
clerics were called, relied on faith and reason as complementary sources of truth.
Theorist Philosophical View of Views on Contribution and
Orientation Human Education and Influence
Nature Curriculum
Aquinas Christian Human Education Teacher as moral
A.D.1225- theology and being should be agent; education
A.D.1274 Aristotelian possess based on related to
(realist); both human nature universal
philosophy spiritual with theological goals;
nature appropriate synthesis of the
(soul) and a studies for both theological and
physical spiritual and philosophical
nature physical basis of
(body) dimensions philosophy used
in today‘s Roman
Catholic schools
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3.8 Renaissance Classical Humanism
Renaissance To cultivate a Latin, Greek Classical An emphasis
A.D.1350- humanist who classical humanist on literary
A.D.1500 was experts in literature, educators and knowledge,
the classics- poetry; art schools such excellence,
Greek and as lycee, and style as
Latin; to gymnasium, expressed in
prepare Latin grammar classical
courtiers for school literature; a
service to two-track
dynastic system of
leaders schools
3.8.1 Erasmus: Critic and Reformer
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (28 October 1466 – 12
July 1536), known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, or simply
Erasmus, was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic
priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a
classical scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed
the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists", and has been called "the crowning glory
of the Christian humanists".
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Erasmus recommended that the child‘s education begin as early as possible.
Parents were to take their educational responsibilities seriously. Children should
receive gentle instruction in good manners and hear stories that had a beneficial
effect on the development of their character.
Erasmus Christian Human beings Education for a Concept of the
A.D.1465- orientation; the are capable of literary elite that role of secondary
A.D.1436 educator asocial great stressed criticism and higher
and intellectual achievements but and analysis education in
critic also of profound literary and social
stupidity criticism;
emphasis on
critical thinking
as an educational
goal
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3.9 Religious Reformation and Education
Reformation To cultivate a Reading, Vernacular A commitment
A.D.1500- sense of writing, elementary to universal
A.D.1600 commitment to arithmetic, schools for the education to
a particular catechism, masses; provide literacy
religious religious classical to the masses;
denomination; concepts and schools for the origins of
to cultivate ritual; Latin and upper classes school systems
general literacy Greek; theology with
supervision to
ensure
doctrinal
conformity
3.9.1 Luther: Advocate of Reform
Martin Luther (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German professor
of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant
Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Late
Medieval Catholic Church. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from
God's punishment for sin could be purchase with money.
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59
He proposed an academic discussion of the power and
usefulness of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of
1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand
of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the
Pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther Reformed Human being Elementary Emphasis on
A.D.1483- theology are saved by schools to teach universal literacy;
A.D.1546 stressing faith; individual reading, writing, schools to stress
salvation by faith conscience arithmetic, religious values,
and individual shaped by religion; vocational skills
conscience Scripture and secondary knowledge; close
Reformed schools to relationship of
theology prepare leaders religion;
by offering schooling, and
classics, Latin, the state
Greek, ad
religion;
vocational
training
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3.10 References
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uvY3VWe4O4k
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDiyQub6vpw
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csIW4W_DYX4
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TsGnFLLT5ng
 https://youtu.be/GJvoFf2wCBU
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yMXPnFaQk5I
 http://www.biography.com/people/martin-luther-9389283
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“PIONEERS IN
EDUCATION”
Arlen Viah D. Manuel
Educ201A - Chapter 4
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4.2 Introduction
4.3 Comenius: The Search for A New Method
4.3.1 Stages of Growth and Development
4.3.2 Principles of Teaching
4.4 Locke: Empiricist Educator
4.5 Russeau: The Natural Person
4.5.1 Stages of Growth
4.6 Pestalozzi: Theoretician and Experimenter
4.6.1 from Concrete to Abstract
4.7 Froebel: The Kindergarten Movement
4.7.1 Kindergarten Curriculum
4.8 Herbart: Moral and Intellectual Development
4.8.1 Foundations of Moral Character
4.8.2 Herbart‘s Formal Steps of Instruction
4.8.3 Herbatian Method
4.9 Spencer: Utilitarian education
4.9.1 Spencer‘s Curriculum Rationale
4.10 Montessori: Preplanned Experiences
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4.11 Dewey: Learning Through Experience
4.11.1 Dewey‘s Educational Theory
4.12 Counts: Building a New Social Order
4.13 Hutchins: Liberal Educator
4.13.1 Perennialist Educational Ideas
4.14 Piaget: Developmental Psychologist
4.14.1 Sequential Steps
4.14.2 Piaget School Environment
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1. What constitutes an educational pioneer?
2. How did the pioneers modify the traditional concepts of the child and the
curriculum? What major innovations in teaching and learning did they
bring about?
3. How have the pioneers expanded definitions of knowledge, education,
schooling, instruction, and learning?
4. What aspects of the pioneers‘ ideas or practices can be found in current
educational practices in modern thought about schools and the
educational process?
4.2 Introduction
Many distinguishd individuals have contributed to educational theory and
practice, but it is not possible to treat them all here. Therefore, judgment must be
made on the basis of two criteria: Was the person a pioneer in education? Is the
educator‘s work significant for you as a teacher? Educational history provides the
means for identifying those pioneers who were the first or earliest to work in the
field of educational theory and practice and who succeeded in opening that area
to further development by others.
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4.3 Comenius: The Search for A New Method
John Amos Comenius (28 March 1592 – 15 November
1670) was a Czech philosopher, pedagogue and theologian
from Margraviate of Moravia. He served as the last bishop
of Unity of the Brethren and became a religious refugee
and one of the earliest champions of universal education, a concept eventually
set forth in his book Didactica Magna. He is consider, the ―father of modern
education‖.
His educational theory contained pioneering ideas that stressed the
establishment of a permissive school environment based on the natural
principles of child growth and development.
Pioneer Purpose of Role of the Significance Influence in
Education Teacher Today‟s School
Comenius To relate To be a Helped to Schools
1592-1670 instruction to permissive develop a more organized
(Czech) children‘s natural facilitator of humane view of according to
growth and learning to base the child devised children‘s stages
development; to instruction on in educational of development
contribute to child‘s stages of method
peace and development
human
understanding
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4.3.1 Stages of Growth and Development
1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Adolescence
4. Youth
4.3.2 Principles of Teaching
1. Teaching should involve presenting of object or idea in a concrete and
direct way, not merely through symbols or concepts
2. Teaching should involve practical application in everyday life
3. Whatever is taught should be presented straightforward and
uncomplicated way
4. Whatever is taught should be related to its true nature and origin
5. General principles should be taught first; then details may be considered
6. All things should be learned with reference to the whole and to how the
parts are connected
7. Things should be taught in succession, and one thing should be taught at
a time
8. The teacher should not leave a specific subject until it is completely
understood
9. Differences among things should be taught so that the knowledge that is
acquired may be clear
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4.4 Locke: Empiricist Educator
John Locke FRS (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was
an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as
one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and
commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism". Considered
one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Sir Francis
Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work greatly affected
the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced
Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the
American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal
theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.
Locke To develop ideas To encourage Develop a theory Schooling that
1632-1704 in the mind sense of knowledge emphasizes
based on sense experience; to based on sensory

(English)
perception; to base instruction sensation observation
educate on empirical
individuals method
capable of self-
government
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4.5 Russeau: The Natural Person
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was
a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer
of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the
Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as
aspects of the French Revolution and the overall development of modern political
and educational thought.
Rousseau's novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the
whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was
of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction.
Rousseau's autobiographical writings — his Confessions, which initiated the
modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker — exemplified the
late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, and featured an
increased focus on subjectivity and introspection that later characterized modern
writing. His Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in
modern political and social thought.
Rousseau To create learning To assist nature; Led a romantic Permissive

environment that not to impose revolt against the schooling based
1712-1778
allows the child‘s
(Swiss-French) social doctrine of child on child‘s
innate, natural
conventions on depravity; a freedom
goodness to
the child forerunner of
flourish
child-centered
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69
4.5.1 Stages of Growth
1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Boyhood
4. Adolescence
5. Youth
4.6 Pestalozzi: Theoretician and Experimenter
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February
17, 1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational
reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He
founded several educational institutions both in German-
and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining
his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto was "Learning by
head, hand and heart". Thanks to Pestalozzi, illiteracy in 18th-century
Switzerland was overcome almost completely by 1830.
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70
Pestalozzi To develop the To act as loving Devised an Schooling based
1746-1827 human being‘s facilitator of educational on simultaneous
(Swiss) moral, mental learning by method of instruction,
and physical creating a home simultaneous emotional
powers like school instruction that security and
harmoniously; environment; changed object learning
use of sense skilled in using elementary
perception in the special education
forming clear method
ideas
4.6.1 from Concrete to Abstract
1. Begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts
2. Begin with the learner‘s immediate environment before dealing with that
which is distant and remote
3. Begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones
4. Always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly
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71
4.7 Froebel: The Kindergarten Movement
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel or Froebel (21 April 1782 –
21 June 1852) was a German pedagogue, a student of
Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education
based on the recognition that children have unique needs
and capabilities. He created the concept of the "kindergarten" and coined the
word now used in German and English. He also developed the educational toys
known as Froebel Gifts.
Froebel To bring out and To facilitate Created the Preschools
1782-1852 to develop the children‘s growth kindergarten, a designed to
(German) latent spiritual through gifts, special early liberate the
essence of the occupations, learning child‘s creativity
child in a songs and environment
prepared stories
environment
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4.7.1 Kindergarten Curriculum
 Songs
 Story
 Games
 Gifts
 Occupation
4.8 Herbart: Moral and Intellectual Development
Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841)
was a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of
pedagogy as an academic discipline.
Herbart is now remembered amongst the post-Kantian
philosophers mostly as making the greatest contrast to Hegel—in particular in
relation to aesthetics.
Herbart To contribute to To stimulate the Devised a formal Schooling that
1776-1841 the human learner‘s method of stresses literary
(German) being‘s moral intellectual and instruction based and historical
development moral on the planned materials
through development by and sequenced designed to
knowledge and formal stages of lesson enlarge the
ethics instruction learner‘s interest
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4.8.1 Foundations of Moral Character
 the idea of inner freedom
 the idea of perfection
 the idea of benevolence
 the idea of justice
 the idea of retribution
4.8.2 Herbart‟s Formal Steps of Instruction
1. Clearness
2. Association
3. System
4. Method
4.8.3 Herbatian Method
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Association
4. Systematization
5. Application
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4.9 Spencer: Utilitarian education
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was
an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist,
sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist
of the Victorian era. Spencer developed an all-embracing
conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world,
biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was
"an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before
Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including
ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature,
astronomy, biology, sociology, and psychology.
Spencer is best known for the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined
in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of
Species.
Spencer To enable human To organize A leading Schooling that
1823-1903 beings to live instruction in curriculum stresses
(English) effectively, terms of basic theorist who scientific
economically and life activities stressed knowledge and
scientifically scientific competitive
knowledge values
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4.9.1 Spencer‟s Curriculum Rationale
• Educational priorities should be based on those human activities that
sustain life
• Education that is valuable should prepare men and women to perform
these activities efficiently
• Science should have curricular priority since it aids in the effective
performance of life activities
4.10 Montessori: Preplanned Experiences
Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (August 31, 1870 – May
6, 1952) was an Italian physician and educator best known
for the philosophy of education that bears her name and
her writing on scientific pedagogy. Her educational method
is in use today in some public and private schools throughout the world.
Montessori To assist To act as a Developed a Early childhood
1870-1952 children‘s facilitator or wisely used schooling that is
(Italian) sensory, director of method and intellectually and
muscular, and learning by using philosophy of developmentally
intellectual didactic early childhood stimulating
development in a materials in a education
prepared prepared
environment environment
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4.11 Dewey: Learning Through Experience
John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an
American philosopher, psychologist, and educational
reformer whose ideas have been influential in education
and social reform. Dewey is one of the primary figures
associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the
founders of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey
published in 2002 and ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the
20th century. A well-known public intellectual, he was also a major voice of
progressive education and liberalism. Although Dewey is known best for his
publications about education, he also wrote about many other topics, including
epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory, and ethics.
Dewey To contribute to To create Develop the Schooling that
1859-1952 the individual‘s learning pragmatic uses the
(American) personal, social environment experimentalist scientific method
and intellectual based on the philosophy of of problem
growth shared education solving
experience of the
community of
learners
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4.11.1 Dewey‟s Educational Theory
• The learner has a ―genuine situation of experience‖
• Within this experience, the learner has a ―genuine problem‖ that stimulates
thinking.
• The learner possesses the information or does research to acquire the
information needed to solve the problem.
• The learner develops possible and tentative solutions that may solve the
problem.
• The learner tests the solutions by applying them to the problem.
4.12 Counts: Building a New Social Order
George Sylvester Counts (1889–1974) was an American
educator and influential education theorist.
An early proponent of the progressive education movement
of John Dewey, Counts became its leading critic affiliated
with the school of Social reconstructionism in education. Counts is credited for
influencing several subsequent theories, particularly critical pedagogy. Counts
wrote dozens of important papers and 29 books about education. He was also
highly active in politics as a leading advocate of teachers' unions, the head of the
American Federation of Teachers, the founder of the New York State Liberal
Party, and as a candidate for the U.S. Senate.
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Counts To create a new To become an Originated the Schools
1889-1974 society that educational social designed to
(American) encompasses statesperson reconstructionist stimulate social
science, who serves as a view of the school planning and
technology and leader in reconstruction
democracy reconstructing
society
4.13 Hutchins: Liberal Educator
Robert Maynard Hutchins (January 17, 1899 – May 17,
1977), was an American educational philosopher, dean of
Yale Law School (1927–1929), and president (1929–1945)
and chancellor (1945–1951) of the University of Chicago.
He was the husband of novelist Maude Hutchins. Although his father and
grandfather were both Presbyterian ministers, Hutchins became one of the most
influential members of the school of secular perennialism.
Hutchins To educate To ask leading A leading Schooling that
1899-1977 human beings to and challenging spokesman for emphasizes the
(American) search for truth, questions that the perennialist liberal arts
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which is found in stimulate perspective in curriculum
the wisdom of students to education
the human race pursue truth
4.13.1 Perennialist Educational Ideas
1. Education is based on humankind‘s perennial and constant search for
truth
2. Education should also be about ideas; education‘s primary function is to
cultivate human rationality
3. The true purpose of education is to stimulate and encourage students to
think carefully about important ideas
4.14 Piaget: Developmental Psychologist
Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a
Swiss clinical psychologist known for his pioneering work in
child development.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of
the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 "only education is
capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or
gradual." Piaget's theory and research influenced several people.
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His theory of child development studied in pre-service education programs.
Educators continue to incorporate constructionist-based strategies.
Piaget To organize To organize the Formulated a Schooling
1896-1980 education in instruction theory of organized around
(Swiss) terms of stages according to cognitive cognitive
of cognitive stages of development development
development cognitive stages
development
4.14.1 Sequential Steps
1. Sensorimotor, form age eighteen months to two years
2. Preoperational, from two to seven years
3. Concrete operations, from seven to eleven years
4. Formal operations, from eleven to fifteen years
4.14.2 Piaget School Environment
 Teachers should encourage children to explore and experiment
 Instruction should be individualized so that children can learn in
accordance with their own readiness
 Children should be provided with concrete materials to touch, manipulate
and used
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4.15 References
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Fr%C3%B6bel
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Counts
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart
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“Historical
Development of
American
Education”
Joyzee V. Forcado
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83
5.1 Historical Events that Changed the Evolution of American Schools
5.1.1 The Colonial Period
5.1.2 The Early Period of Nationhood
5.1.3 The Rise of Universal Education
5.2.1 The Secondary School Movement
5.2.2 The American College and Universities
5.2.3 The Education of Minorities
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5.1 Historical Events that Changed the Evolution of American Schools
5.1.1 The Colonial Period
 New England Colonies
 The colony of Massachusetts – enacted the first laws that governed
formal education
- settled by Puritans – a Protestant group that adhered to
the theology of the Swiss religious reformer John Calvin
 The first schools established in New England were closely related to
the Puritan Church
 Implications of Calvinist theology for education
(1) The doctrine of predestination held that those souls who were
elected (predestined) by God for salvation were to exhibit
outward signs of correct and religiously defined behavior.
(2) The good person respected the sanctity of property and would
prosper. As a steward of wealth, the good man would use his
income wisely and for the enlightenment of his fellows.
(3) Educated persons who knew God‘s commandments, as
revealed by Calvin and preached by the Puritan ministers, were
likely to resist the temptations of world, especially the flesh and
the devil.
 Schooling for economic and social usefulness (Puritan outlook)
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 The good citizen of the Puritan commonwealth was to be an
economically productive individual who would produce wealth
by hard work in farming, manufacturing, and the trade.
 Schooling would contribute to a person‘s economic and social
usefulness by cultivating literacy, resourcefulness, enterprise.
Punctuality and thrift.
 Child Depravity
 The child was regarded as being naturally depraved –
conceived in sin and born in corruption.
 Childish play was regarded as idleness, and the child‘s talk
was considered gibberish.
 In order to civilize the child, the Puritan teacher applied
constant discipline
 The good child appeared to be a miniature of adult
 Children of New England had always before them the vision
of their own evil and the punishment that they would receive
in the hell fires of eternity.
 They began to learn the alphabet with the rhyme: ― The
Adam‘s fall/ we sinned all‖
 1642 – General Court of Massachusetts Law- Required that children
attend school. First attempt to make education compulsory
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 1647 – “Old Deluder Satan”- Required every town of 50 or more
families to appoint a reading and writing teacher. Towns of 100 or more
families were to employ a teacher of Latin so that the students could be
prepared for entry to Harvard College; beginnings of American school
law
 The Town School
 a locally controlled institution attended by both boys and
girls.
 might range in age from five or six to thirteen or fourteen
 attendance was not always regular
 School‘s Curriculum: Reading, Writing, Arithmetic,
Catechism, and the singing of religious hymns.
 Child learned the alphabet, the syllables, words, and the
sentences by memorizing the hornbook.
 Older children read the New England Primer, which
include more detailed materials of a religious nature
 Combined memorization of the Ten Commandments, the
Lord‘s Prayer, and the Creed with instruction in Reading.
 Arithmetic – counting, adding, and subtracting
 often crude structure, dominated by the teacher‘s pulpit,
located at the front of the single room. Students sat on
benches.
 studied their assignments until called before the
schoolmaster to recite.
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 Teachers were males; earned their living while preparing for
ministry, or took the job to repay the passage money that had
brought them to North America
 Characterized by rote learning, memorized responses, and
corporal punishment
 Children who attended were often the lower classes
 Latin Grammar School
 The son of the upper classes attended LGS to prepare
them for entry to the colleges of Harvard or Yale
 Learned to read and write English from private tutor
 age of 8 – a boy would enter the LGS and remain there for
8 years.
 Lessons were based on such Latin authors – Cicero,
Terence, Caesar, Livy and Horace
 Advanced students (already mastered the Latin grammar
and composition) read Greek authors – Isocrates, Hesiod
and Homer
 Little or no attention – Mathematics, Science, History, or
Modern Languages
 Masters – possessed college degrees and were generally
held in high esteem
 After completing the LGS, the student applied for
admission to Harvard College(established in 1636)
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 Harvard – bases on the Puritan conception that those
called to the ministry and other positions of leadership
needed to be soundly educated in the classics and the
Scriptures.
 Harvard College
 Student had to demonstrate his competency in Latin and
Greek to be admitted
 Curriculum consisted of grammar, logic, rhetoric,
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics,
and natural sciences
 Scriptural Study – Hebrew, Greek, and ancient history
were offered
 Middle Colonies
 Characterized by linguistic, religious, and cultural pluralism
 English people were in the majority
 Dutch – New York, Swedes – Delaware, German –
Pennsylvania
 Religious diversity
 Dutch – Dutch Reformed Church, Quakers – dominated
Pennsylvania, German – Lutherans or member of small
pietistic denomination
 There were also Baptists, Roman Catholics and small
Jewish population
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 No single system of school could established
 Used parochial and independent schools that were closely
related to the different churches
 New York
 under Dutch control; continued to operate the schools of
the Dutch Reformed Church
 Dutch parochial school – taught reading, writing, and
religion
 A number of charity schools were established by a
missionary society of the Church of England
 Private School – to teach specific trades or skills
 Subjects taught: navigation, surveying, bookkeeping,
Spanish, French, and geography.
 “Academies” – made education available to middle-
class children whose parents could afford tuition.
 Philadelphia Academy – founded in 1751 by Benjamin
Franklin.
 Pennsylvania
 became a haven for Quakers under the leadership of
William Penn.
 Quakers – a religious sect that rejected violence (The
Society of Friends)
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 Maintained a number of schools in Pennsylvania that
were open to all children including blacks and Native
Americans
 Teachers – rejected corporal punishment, respected the
dignity of the child, and opposed the view of child
depravity
 Quaker School taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and
religion;
 Vocational Training – handicrafts, domestics science
and agriculture
 Southern Colonies
 The population was dispersed over a large land area.
 Wealthy families engaged private teachers to educate their
children; a few families sent their children to private schools.
 Plantation System – resulted from the unique agricultural economy
in the region
- produced a single, staple crop
- became the mainstay of the economy
- Mechanization was minimal or non-existent
- Large numbers of black men and women work as unpaid work
 No schooling for blacks and poor whites
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 Black Slaves - trained to be agricultural workers, field hands,
craftsman or domestics servants; forbidden to learn to read and
write.
 Poor Whites – formal education was non-existent; usually grew up
to be subsistence farmers like their parents
 Children of privileged class o white plantation owners had the
benefit of private tutor.
5.1.2 The Early Period of Nationhood
 Land Ordinance – 1785 –Northwest Ordinance: Thirty-six
sections in a township – Section (block) no. 16 was the center of the
township and designated as a site for a school.
 Few educational interventions introduced and unskilled workers
needed for growing industries including farming.
 Tenth Amendment. . . The powers not delegated to the United
States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are
reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
 Franklin (1706-1790): The Academy
 Private secondary school, which offered a practical curriculum
that included a variety of subjects and useful skill.
 Mid 19th century – many academies functioning throughout the
nation
 Late 19th- 20th century – emerge of high schools, junior and
middle school
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 He founded the first public library in America in 1731 and
chartered it in 1742 as the Philadelphia Library.
 He believed that science could solve the problems of human
life and that knowledge came from the senses, observation,
and experimentation.
 began the English Academy in the early 1700s
 Jefferson(1743-1826): Education for Citizenship
 established the University of Virginia
 “Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge”
- introduced in Virginia legislature 1779
- state responsibility for education
- education as a civic concern – school should be financed
through public taxes
 Jefferson‘s plan
- divided the Virginia into wards
- Wards would have elementary school to teach reading,
writing, arithmetic and history
- All white children- attend the ward school for 3 years
supported by taxes
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 Scholarship based on merit
- most academically gifted students who could not afford to pay
tuition
- Additional three years in the grammar school
- After completing grammar school – assigned positions as
elementary or ward school-teachers
 Jefferson‘s Philosophy of Education
- Primary purpose of education was to promote good
citizenship
 Webster: Schoolmaster of the Republic
 Argued that U.S should have its own system of ―language as
well as government‖
 Cultural independence of England (by the act of revolution)
 Spelling book and dictionaries
 The American Spelling Book , The American Dictionaries –
widely used throughout the U.S
 His work helped to create a sense of American language,
identity, and nationality
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5.1.3 The Rise of Universal Education
 First two decades – Education designed for frontier society
 Infant School – children from 3 to 6 are given play activity and
intellectual experiences
 Early 19th century – America was undergoing the first phase of
industrialization
 Sunday School by Robert Raikes – take children off the street on the
Lord‘s Day and give them some basic literary and religious instruction
 Classes were conducted when the factories were closed; writing,
reading, arithmetic and religion were taught
 Monitorial Method by Andrew Bell /Joseph Lancaster
 - use of student teachers or monitors who were trained by a master
teacher in the rudiment of the subject
- supported by private funds and by some state and city
appropriations (New York and Philadelphia)
 1853 – New York Free School Society turned its property over to the
public school system
 Early 1840‘s – interest faded when people realized that the monitorial
approach provided only the barest minimum of learning
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95
 The Common School
 Institution devoted to elementary education in the basic tools of
reading, writing, and arithmetic
 Its purpose was to integrate children of various social,
economic, and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American
community.
 Its curriculum was to cultivate the basic tool of literacy that could
be used in everyday life and for ongoing practical education
 Mann( 1796-1859): The Fight for Free Schools
 Horace Mann - Massachusetts lawyer and legislator, believed
in having taxpayers help finance public education.
- Wanted a public school for all including education for
women, felt women were better suited to teach the young.
- Common schools were first public state-supported schools
- 1839 - first Normal School set up to prepare people for
careers as teachers.
- Established the trend of education available to all, NOT just
the rich
 Taxes used to support public schools
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5.2.1 The Secondary School Movement
 The comprehensive high school attempts to meet the needs of all
students.
 Latin grammar school (1635) is design to help boys prepare for the
ministry or law.
 Academy (1751) focused on practical subjects such as math,
navigation, and bookkeeping; open to boys and girls.
 English classical school (1821) was a free secondary school for
students not planning to attend college
 Junior High and Middle School
 Junior high schools, popular in the early and mid-1900s, were
miniature versions of high schools with emphasis on individual
academic subjects.
 Middle schools, popular from the 1970s, attempted to address
adolescents‘ developmental needs
 Currently, some districts, dissatisfied with both junior highs
and middle schools, are experimenting with K–8 schools.
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5.2.2 The American College and Universities
 Colleges began to establish for two reasons.
 First, most are found by religious denominations
 Second, colleges were the pride of the community evoked
by the revolution, the strange American pursuit of progress,
and migration to the west.
 Land- Grant Colleges
 The Morill Act of 1862 - also known as the Land-Grant
College Act
- granted each state 30, 000 acres of public land for
each senator and representative in Congress, based on
the appointment of 1860
- income from this grant was to be used to support at
least one state college for agricultural and mechanical
instruction
- Provided education in useful professions
- Made higher education available to all Americans
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5.2.3 The Education of Minorities
 Native Americans
 Mission schools in the 1700s and 1800s, run by religious
groups, were the first educational attempt to assimilate Native
Americans.
 Federally funded and run boarding schools attempted to
―Americanize‖ Native American students.
 Currently, most (91%) of Native American students attend
public schools, but problems persist:
- Underachievement
- High dropout rates
- Low rates of college attendance
 Hispanic Americans
 Education of Hispanic Americans began in the Southwest
with Catholic mission schools.
 Early emphasis on Hispanic American education was on
assimilation.
 Language has been a major controversial issue in the
education of Hispanic Americans.
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 Black Americans
 1865- Congress created the Freedmen‘s Bureau to help
formers slaves to freedom
 Established schools that followed a ―New England‖ common
school curriculum ( reading, writing, grammar, geography,
arithmetic and music)
 Usually staffed by northern school teachers; small number of
black teachers were trained in the school
 Since 1950
 1950 – American society has experienced concerted social,
legal, political, and educational efforts to expand
the opportunities of minority groups
 Civil Rights Act of 1964- involved the federal government in
efforts to end practices of racial discriminations
 1960s-1970s – gave greater attention to tribal integrity and
traditions; Native Americans showed a marked
increase in attendance and completion of
secondary schooling
 1960s-1970s – Hispanic Americans organized to achieve
greater social. Economic, and educational
opportunities
- Development of bilingual and bicultural
educational programs
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100
“Philosophical
Ideas in Education”
Joyzee V. Forcado
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101
Summary of Discussion
6.0 Introduction
6.1 What is Philosophy?
6.2 What is Education?
6.3 What is Philosophy of Education?
6.4 Special Terminology
6.4.1. Metaphysics
6.4.2 Epistemology
6.4.3 Axiology
6.5 What are the different Philosophical Ideas in Education?
6.5.1 Idealism
6.5.2 Realism
6.5.3 Pragmatism
6.5.4 Existentialism
6.5.5 Philosophical Analysis
6.6 Theories of Education
6.6.1 Perennialism
6.6.2 Essentialism
6.6.3 Progressivism
6.6.4 Reconstructionism
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6.0 Introduction
―Education without philosophy is blind and philosophy without education is
invalid‖
6.1 What is Philosophy?
 The term has been derived from two Greek words, „Philos‘ means love
and ‘Sophia‘ means wisdom.
 Philosophy means love for knowledge or passion for learning.
6.2 What is Education?
 In literary sense, education owes its origin to the two Latin words:
‗Educare‘ and ‗Educere‘.
 ‗Educare‘- means ‗to nourish‘, ‗to bring up‘, ‗to raise‘; ‗Educere‘- means ‗to
bring forth‘, ‗to draw out‘, ‗to lead out‘. „Educatum‘- means- ‗the act of
teaching and training‘.
6.3 What is Philosophy of Education?
 Philosophy of education may be defined as the application of the
fundamental principles of a philosophy of life to the work of education.
 Philosophy of education offers a definite set of principles and establishes
a definite set of aims and objectives.
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103
6.4 Special Terminology
6.4.1. Metaphysics
 Metaphysics examines the nature of ultimate reality
 Metaphysics is somewhat related to epistemology and asks
the question ―What is real?‖
 Are the things that are real only the things that can be
touched and measured?
6.4.2 Epistemology
 Epistemology deals with knowledge and knowing
 Epistemology—‖How do we know what is true?‖
 This is a live question today—Do we listen to standardized
test results to determine how much students know, or read
their portfolios?
6.4.3 Axiology
 Axiology is the study of values; it asks the question of ―What
is good?‖
 Ethics – examine moral values and the rules of right
 Aesthetic- deals with values in beauty and art
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6.5 What are the different Philosophical Ideas in Education?
6.5.1 Idealism
 Reality is spiritual or mental and unchanging
 Knowing is the rethinking of latent ideas
 Values are absolute and eternal
 Curriculum
o Focus on reading and writing
o History, Literature, Philosophy, and Religion (constant
for all)
o Teach students to think
o Believes that only the brightest students should be
educated
o Women were the majority of schoolteachers
 Method of Teaching
o Socratic Dialogue – a method of teaching that uses
questioning to help students discover and clarify
knowledge
o Dialectic (Plato)
o Intuitive Approach (St. Augustine)
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105
 Role of the Teacher
o Serves as exemplary model: intellectually and morally
excellent
o Assist students in choosing important material
o Forces student to think for himself through
questioning
o ―When a pupil becomes a disciplinary problem, the
idealist teacher tries to show him the effect of his
misconduct on the rest of the class. The teacher asks
the wrongdoer what would happen if everyone
behaved as he does. Is he setting a good example for
his classmates to follow?‖ – George Kneller
6.5.2 Realism
 Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form; it is
fixed, based on natural law
 Knowing consist of sensation and abstraction
 Values are absolute and eternal; based on natural laws
 Curriculum
o Developed according to Utility and Needs
o Subjects concerning day to day activities
o Main subjects are – natural science, physical science,
health culture, physical exercise, maths, geography,
history, astronomy
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o Scientific and objective Method
o Informal Method
o Self experience and Research
o Experimental Method
o Heuristic Method
o Correlation Method
 Role of the Teacher
o Supreme – brings the child in touch with external
realities of life
o Imparts scientific knowledge in an easy and
effective way
o Gets testing results that can help prove that the
students are learning the material
6.5.3 Pragmatism
 Reality is the interaction of an individual with environment or
experience; it is always changing
 Knowing result from experiencing use of scientific method
 Values are situational or relative
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 Curriculum
o Principle of utility form.
o Principle of interest of the child.
o Principle of integration.
o Principle of organization.
o Principle of activity and experience of the child.
 Role of the teacher
o Not the authoritarian but the facilitator…encourages,
offers suggestions, questions and helps plan and
implement courses of study…has command of
several disciplines
o Inquiry method, problem solving, integrated
curriculum
6.5.4 Existentialism
 Reality is subjective, with existence proceeding essence
 Knowing for personal choice
 Values should be freely chosen
 Curriculum
o The curriculum would avoid systematic knowledge on
structured discipline and students are free to select
from many available learning situations.
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 Role of the teacher
o Teacher cultivates personal choice and individual self-
definition
o Experimentation
o Self-expressive activities
o Method and media that illustrates emotions, feelings
and insight.
6.5.5 Philosophical Analysis
 Reality is verifiable
 Knowing involves empirical verification or logical analysis of
language
 Values are regarded as emotional feelings
6.6 Theories of Education
6.6.1 Perennialism
 Goal
o To educate the rational person
 Curriculum
o Subject matter that is hierarchically arranged to
cultivate the intellect
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 Proponents
o Adler
o Hutchins
o Maritain
6.6.2 Essentialism
 Goal
o To educate the useful and competent person
 Curriculum
o Basic education: reading, writing, arithmetic, history,
English, Science, foreign languages
 Proponents
o Bagley
o Bestor
o Conant
o Morrison
6.6.3 Progressivism
 Goal
o To educate the individual according to his or her
interest and needs
 Curriculum
o Activities and projects
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 Proponents
o Dewey
o Johnson
o Kilpatrick
o Parker
o Washburne
6.6.4 Reconstructionism
 Goal
o To reconstruct society
 Curriculum
o Social sciences used a reconstructive tools
 Proponents
o Brameld
o Counts
o Stanley
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111
“Governing and
Administering
Public Education”
Lyn C. Lalamunan
Page
112
7.1 Local Responsibilities and Activities
7.2 The School Superintendent and Central Office Staff 7.6 Consolidation Trends
7.3 Functions of Superintendent:
7.4 The Principal
7.5 Size of School District
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113
7.1 Local Responsibilities and Activities
Local School Boards- delegated by the state with the power and duties for the
purpose of assuring that their schools are operated properly.
- Their power is limited only for those specifically delegated to them by the
state legislatures.
- The school board must conform to federal guidelines to qualify for state
aid.
- Methods of selecting board members are prescribed by state law through
election
3 General Types of Board Meetings:
1. Regular
2. Special
3. Executive
- The first two are usually open meetings and the public is invite to enhance
school community relations and answering the parents‘ questions.
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7.2 The School Superintendent and Central Office Staff
- The Superintendent is the executive officer of the school system.
- He gathers and presents data for the school board members to make
intelligent policy decisions.
- He also advises the school board and keeps them abreast of problems.
7.3 Functions of Superintendent:
1. Supervisor and Organizer of all Personnel
2. Makes recommendations
3. Ensures compliance with directives from higher authorities
4. Prepares the school budget for board review
5. Serves as leader of long range planning
6. Develops and evaluates curriculum and instructional program
7. Determines internal organization of the school district
8. Makes recommendations regarding school building needs and maintenance
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7.4 The Principal
- The single administrative of each school
- May a part-time teacher as well in small schools.
- Responsible for administering all aspects of a school operations
- Work with some type of community group such as PTA.
- Main task is to provide instructional leadership.
- Spending 50 – 75 % of their time in improving instruction
- To whom the teachers can openly share their problems
- To whom the teachers can count expertise.
- Encourages the professional growth of the teachers
- Rewards and recognizes competent teachers.
7.5 Size of School District
-10,000 to 12, 000 students was needed to justify specialized and adequate staff
size , as well as varied program, in relation to reasonable costs of the
educational programs.
- Optimal size is from 10,000- 50, 000.
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7.6 Consolidation Trends
- Resulting the decreasing of numbers of school districts due to the
combination of a number of smaller school districts into one or two larger
ones
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“Decentralization”
Lyn C. Lalamunan
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8.1 Decentralization
8.1.1 Top 8 Reasons for Decentralization
8.2 Community Involvement
8.3 Federal Role of Education
8.4 Department of Education- Philippines
8.4.1 Non-Governmental Influences on Public Schools
8.4.2 Financing Public Education
8.4.3 Aid to Local School District
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8.1 Decentralization
It divides the school system into smaller units, but the focus of power and
authority in a single central administration and board of education remains intact.
8.1.1 TOP 8 REASONS FOR DECENTRALIZATION
1. To enhance school-community relations;
2. To provide greater community input at the local level;
3. To provide local schools with more field and resource personnel;
4. To provide efficient maintenance and support for local schools
5. To reduce administrative span of control;
6. To provide greater linkages between local schools and the central school
board
7. To redirect spending for local school needs
8. To provide greater curriculum continuity from Kindergarten through Grade 12
8.2 Community Involvement
Roles of all the stakeholders of education to improve the school community
Involvement of all the Administrators, faculties, parents, Non-governmental
organizations, local up to national sectors, and other concerned citizens for the
welfare of all the students and the whole school community (Video Clip)
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8.3FEDERAL ROLE OF EDUCATION
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8.4 Department of Education- Philippines
8.4.1 Non Govermental Influences on Public Schools
1. Political Parties
2. National and State Commissions
3. Pressure and Lobbying Groups
4. Professional Groups
5. Private Foundations
6. Colleges and Universities
7. Textbook Publishers and Authors
8. Testing Companies and Services
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9. Opinion Poll Agencies
10. Educational Consultants
11. Research Community
12. Citizen Groups
8.4.2 Financing Public Education
Tax Sources of School Revenues
Local Financing of Public Schools
State Financing of Public Schools
(Video Clip)
8.4.3 Aid to Local School District
Voluntary contributions from different foundations.
(Video Clip)
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“LEGAL ASPECTS
OF EDUCATION”
Gemalyn P. Villegas
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9.0 The Court System
9.0.1 State Courts
9.0.2 State Courts
9.1 Teacher‘s Right and Responsibilities
9.1.1 Testing and Investigation of Applicants for Certification or
Employment
9.1.1.1 Background Checks
9.1.1.2 Standards & Assessment
9.1.1.3 Nondiscrimination requirements
9.1.2 Employment Contract and Tenure
9.1.2.1 Breach of contract
9.1.2.2 Probationary period
9.1.2.3 Continuing employment
9.1.3 Academic Freedom
9.1.4 Tort liability and negligence
9.1.5 Copyright Laws
9.1.5.1 Fair use guidelines
9.2 Students‘ rights and responsibilities
9.2.1 Freedom of expression
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9.2.1.1 Student use of internet and electric devices
9.2.1.2 Dress code and regulation
9.2.1.3 Zero tolerance and its effects on school
9.2.2 Search and seizure
9.2.3 Protect from violence
9.2.4 Video surveillance and Search
9.2.5 Testing athletes for drugs
9.2.6 Classroom discipline and Corporal punishment
9.2.7 Students records and Privacy rights
9.2.8 Compulsory Attendance and Home Schooling
9.3 Need for Balance between Rights and Responsibilities
9.4 Government Regulation and Support for Nonpublic school
9.4.1 Religion and the Schools
9.5 Summary
9.6 References
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9.0 The Court System
Most education cases can be heard either in federal or state courts. The
charges or allegations of the plaintiffs (the persons who sue) determine where
case heard.
Both federal and state court usually requires that perspective litigants
exhaust all administrative avenues available for resolution before involving to
court system.
9.0.1 State Courts
-adjudicate cases that involve state laws, state constitutional
provisions, school board policies, and other non-federal problems
9.0.2 State Courts
-decide cases that involve federal law and regulation constitutional
issues
9.1 Teacher‟s Right and Responsibilities
9.1.1 Testing and Investigation of Applicants for Certification
or Employment
9.1.1.1 Background Checks
-Almost everywhere in the U.S, individuals who wish to teach
in grades k-12 must possess teaching certificate, which are usually
granted by the state
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9.1.1.2 Standards & Assessment
-Using fingerprints .checking with local, state, and federal
enforcement agencies
- Criminal records
9.1.1.3 Nondiscrimination requirements
-Teachers have to pass competency tests for continued
employment
-Minority and nonminority are equal
9.1.2 Employment Contract and Tenure
9.1.2.1 Breach of contract
- One side fails to perform as agreed, the party that
breaded contracts may be sue for damages.
- Revoke the teacher‘s certificate
- If the school breaks a contracts, teacher may be awarded
payment for damages
9.1.2.2 Probationary period
-tenure teacher is not referred to all districts mean they have
to take period of probationary , which lasts three years of
consecutive, satisfactory service, but some states try to establish
much shorter.
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9.1.2.3 Continuing employment
- granted tenure teacher are employed under a continuing
contract. The term means that their reemployment for next year is
guarantee unless school officials give notice by a special date that
the contract will not be renew.
9.1.3 Academic Freedom
-refers to the teacher‘s freedom to choose subject matter and
instructional materials relevant to course without interference from
administrators.
9.1.4 Tort liability and negligence
-these are civil wrongs. Under tort law, individuals who have
suffered through the improper conduct of other may sue for damages.
9.1.5 Copyright Laws
-gives authors and artists control over the reproduction and
distribution of works they create.
9.1.5.1 Fair use guidelines
-a legal principle that allows use of copyrighted materials
without permission from the authors under specific, limited
condition
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9.2 Students‟ rights and responsibilities
9.2.1 Freedom of expression
 Guarantees of Free speech
 Limits of Free speech
 Regulate Students Publication.
 Legitimate Regulation
9.2.1.1 Student use of internet and electric devices
 Acceptable policies for internet use
 Suspension for digital ridicule
 Cell-phone bans
9.2.1.2 Dress code and regulation
 Mixed ruling
 A rational basis
 Minimum due process
 Written policies
9.2.1.3 Zero tolerance and its effects on school
 Gun free school act
 Zero tolerance
 Zero tolerance sometimes out of contro
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9.2.2 Search and seizure
 Four Amendment Rights
-A legal search usually requests a lawfully issued warranty. But
rising drug use in school and accompanying acts of violence have
led some school officials to install metal detectors or X-ray
machines to search for weapons. Four Amendment which help
people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects.
9.2.3 Protect from violence
 School may be liable for violence.
-Educators have a duty to protect students against violence
actions that occur at school or at school sponsored events.
 Reasonable cause: Search usually are conducted because
administrators have reasons to suspect that illegal or dangerous
items are premise.
 T.L.O searching a purse
 Two-sponged standard
-Whether the search is justified at its conception
-Whether the search, when actually conducted is relates in
scope to the circumstances, which justified the interference in the
first place.
 Drug –sniffing dogs
 Strip-search unconstitutional
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 Guideline for searches
- Search must particularized
- Lockers are considering school property and searched if
reasonable cause exists.
- Dogs may use to sniff lockers and cars. Generalized canine
sniffing of students is permit only when the dogs do not touch them.
- Strip searches are unconstitutional and should never be
conduct.
- School officials may conduct searches on field trips, but the
usual standards for searches still apply.
- School officials‘ judgments protect by government immunity
if the search is not knowingly illegal
9.2.4 Video surveillance and Search
-Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other
changing information, usually of people for influencing, managing,
directing, or protecting.
-Video surveillance is very useful to governments and law
enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and
prevent/investigate criminal activity.
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9.2.5 Testing athletes for drugs
-Some school-board members and other policy makers have urged
administrators to introduce random testing of student athletes‘ urine to
detect marijuana, steroids, and other illegal substances.
-U.S. Supreme court has permitted drug testing of students
engaged in other extracurricular (unusual) activities.
9.2.6 Classroom discipline and Corporal punishment
-Classroom discipline was the issue in a case involving a sixth
grader who was place in a time-out area of the classroom whenever his
behavior became disruptive (causing trouble).
-During Time-out (break-time), students are allow to take rest, but
of course, they could do more than resting, but causing trouble, etc.
-Some teachers have decided to use corporal punishment (hitting)
in order to control those students even though it is not acceptable for
some parents and school.
9.2.7 Students records and Privacy rights
- Until 1974, students or their parents could not view most student
records kept by schools, only government agencies could do so.
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- Later on, Public schools districts develop policies allowing parents
access to their children‘s official school records.
- Private notes, criminal behavior and memoranda of teachers and
administrators are not allowing viewing.
9.2.8 Compulsory Attendance and Home Schooling
- Every state has a law requiring children to attend school, usually
from age six or seven to age sixteen or seventeen.
- Laws is usually been asked to demonstrate the home program‘s
essential equivalence to public-school offerings with respect to
subject matter covered.
- State government allows for home schooling, but depending on
state legislation, they impose regulations dealing with hours of
study, testing, etc.
- In some states, they also must show test results indicating that their
children‘s education is comparable to that school-educated peers.
9.3 Need for Balance between Rights and Responsibilities
- During the past several decades, many educators and parents have
decided that the legal process is out of balance. They believed that the
courts place too much emphasis on students rights and too little on the
need for school discipline.
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- Schools rules are set to be reasonable and acceptable. Court is now
placing considerable confidence in school officials trusting those officials
to maintain a proper balance between students‘ rights and the school‘s
needs.
9.4 Government Regulation and Support for Nonpublic school
-Government gave nonpublic school reasonable choice and discretion in
respect of teacher, curriculum and textbooks. States have passed various kinds
of legislation to regulate nonpublic school. They require the employment of
certified teachers; specify the number of days or hours the school must be in
session insist that schools meet state accreditation standards.
-State can legally offer many types of support for nonpublic schools, including
transportation, books, and health services because it directly benefits child.
9.4.1 Religion and the Schools
-US government always prevents itself from experiencing the
serious and often bloody conflicts that had occurred in Europe.
-Government is neutral government, and while protecting all, it
prefers none, and it disparages (criticize) none. Meaning that individuals
have rights to hold and freely practice their religious beliefs by anyhow,
they want to do it.
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-Government still needs to set regulations for those religious
activities to make sure that it is orderly and rightly do at school.
9.5 Summary
-Education-related court cases have significantly increased in the last
twenty years. Such cases can heard in both federal and state courts depending
on the issues involved. Only opinions of the U.S. Supreme Court apply nationally.
-Tenure protects teachers from dismissal except on specified grounds.
These grounds include incompetency, immorality, insubordination, and
unprofessional conduct. Teachers accused of such conduct are entitled to due
process protections.
-Teachers have the right to form and belong to unions and other
professional organization, but most states prohibit teachers from striking.
-Teacher is right involving freedom of expression, academic freedom, and
censorship depend on a balance between individual and governmental interests.
Teachers have rights guaranteed to individuals under the Constitution, but school
boards have obligations to ensure the ―proper‖ and ―regular‖ operation of the
schools, taking into account the rights of parents, teachers and students.
- Restraints on teachers‘ behavior outside school and on their grooming
are not as stringent as they once were. Teachers still are expecting to serve as
role models and to behave in an exemplary manner. Definite standards must
uphold to avoid legal suits charging negligence when students are injured. In
addition, teachers must obey copyright laws.
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- Students‘ rights have been clarified and expanded by the courts and
include freedom of expression, due process in the case of suspension or
expulsion, prohibition against bodily searches in the absence of specific grounds,
limitations on the use of corporal punishment, and privacy of records.
- Organized and mandated prayer and bible reading are not allowing in
public schools.
-The situation with respect to government support for nonpublic schools is
mixed. For example, government may provide textbooks, tests, and
psychological services for students at nonpublic schools, but it may not provide
funds for field trips, projectors, science kits, or maps. Providing the latter is
through to entangle church and state.
-Federal laws prohibit discrimination in educational employment and
programming on the grounds of race, religion, national origin, and sex. School
districts have an obligation to act affirmatively in providing equal opportunity to
minorities and women. Teachers have an obligation to help ensure that equal
opportunities are available to minority group members and females.
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“Culture,
Socialization and
Education”
Gemalyn P. Villegas
Educ202 – Chapter 10
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10.0 Introduction
10.0.1 Aspects of culture
10.0. 2 School as cultural agent
10.1 Agents of Socialization
10.1.1 Major socializing institutions
10.1.1.1 The Family
10.1.1.2 Home environment and preparation for school
10.1.1.3 Single-parent families
10.1.1.4 Impact on children
10.1.1.5 Super babies
10.1.1.6 School responses to hurried children
10.1.1.7 Reports of abuse and neglect increasing
10.1.1.8 School and teacher responses
Implications for the schools
Overall effects on children
Decline of the nuclear family
The post nuclear family
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Agencies overloaded
10.1.2 The Peer Group
10.1.2.1 Peer group influence
10.1.2.2 Qualities that students esteem
10.1.2.3 School Culture
10.1.3 Student Roles and the Hidden Curriculum
10.1.3.1 The pupil role
10.1.3.2 The receptive learner role
10.1.3.3 The active learner role
10.1.4 John Goodlad
10.1.5 Why so much passive learning?
10.1.6 Television and Digital Media
10.2 Gender Roles and Sex Differences
10.2.1 Gender roles and school problems for boys
10.2.2 Gender roles school problem for girls
10.2.3 Girls not encouraged in competition or leadership
10.2.4 Boys‘ versus girls‘ peer group
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10.3 Sex Differences in Achievement and Ability
10.3.1 Reading and mathematics
10.3.1.1 Innate differences
10.3.1.2 Different brain function
10.3.1.3 Math anxiety and fear of success
10.4 Educational and Occupational Attainment of Women
10.4.1 Ways to improve gender equity in education
10.5 Adolescent and Youth Problem
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10.0 Introduction
We are all aware that the world is changing rapidly.
Communications and the economy are becoming globalize career success
request increasingly advanced skills, immigration has accelerated in the
United States and many other countries, and family patterns today differ
greatly from those thirty years ago. Each such change has a major impact
on education from elementary school through university.
10.0.1 Aspects of culture
Culture is a way of thinking and behaving; it is a group‘s traditions,
memories, and written records, its shared rules and ideas, its accumulated
beliefs, habits, and values.
10.0. 2 School as cultural agent
Many individuals and institutions play a part in socializing children
and youth. The family, of course is most important for young children, but
in modern societies, formal institutions also help determine what a child
learns and how well he or she is prepared to function in society.
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10.2 Agents of Socialization
10.1.1 Major socializing institutions
Various social institutions help to transmit culture to children and
youth. For many societies, the most important historically have been the
church, peer group, school and of course family.
10.1.1.1 The Family
Early influence of family
Although its organization varies, the family is the major
early socializing agent in every society.
10.1.1.2 Home environment and preparation for school
Many children do well in school because their family
environments have provided them with good preparation for
succeeding in the traditional classroom. Others do poorly, in part
because they have been poorly prepared and the schools generally
have failed to help them overcome this disadvantage. A few studies
assess little measurable impact on children, but most others find a
variety of negative effects, including a greater likelihood that
families will fall into poverty and that children will suffer serious
emotional and academic problems.
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10.1.1.3 Single-parent families
Many observers connect the substantial poverty rates
among children and youth with the high incidence of single-parent
families. Some observers conclude that modern marriage is a
roulette game, as likely as not to land children in single-parent
families.
10.1.1.4 Impact on children
Much research has concentrated on the specific effects of
growing up in a home where the father is absent.
10.1.1.5 Super babies
Hurried and/or Over parented Children Awareness of the
growing importance of education in contemporary society has
stimulated many parents to push their children to excel in learning
beginning in infancy.
10.1.1.6 School responses to hurried children
Some developmental psychologists characterize such
parental pressure as a type of ―miseducation‖ that creates hurried
children and deprives young people of childhood. Responses to this
problem include raising the age for enrolling in kindergarten and
retaining five-year-olds not ready to advance to first grade for an
additional year in kindergarten.
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10.1.1.7 Reports of abuse and neglect increasing
Child Abuse and Neglect Children from any social class may
suffer abuse or neglect by their parents or other household
members. As we noted in the chapter on Legal Aspects of
Education, as a teacher, you will have a major responsibility to
report any evidence that a student is maltreat.
10.1.1.8 School and teacher responses
In any case, educators must recognize that abused or
seriously neglected students might not only have difficult time
learning but might also behave in ways that interfere with other
students learning.
10.1.1.9 Implications for the schools
Homelessness several studies indicate that homeless
children disproportionately suffer from child abuse and physical ill
health.
10.1.1.10 Overall effects on children
Assessments of Trends Related to the Family the various
interrelated trends we have been discussing have produced a
significant change in the structure and function of families in the
United States.
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10.1.1.11 Decline of the nuclear family
Historically according to many analysts, our system of
universal education drew support from the development of the
nuclear family (two parents living with their children), which grew to
prominence in western societies during the past two centuries.
10.1.1.12 the post nuclear family
David Popenoe, examining family trends in highly
industrialized countries such as Sweden and the United States,
concluded that these trends are creating the post nuclear family,
which emphasizes individualism (individual self-fulfillment,
pleasure, self-expression, and spontaneity) as contrasted with the
nuclear family‘s child-centered familism.
10.1.1.13 Agencies overloaded
In the context of these family changes and the problems they
create, social agencies established to help children and youth
sometimes become too overloaded to provide services effectively.
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10.1.2 The Peer Group
10.1.2.1 Peer group influence
Whereas family relationships may constitute a child‘s first
experience of group life, peer-group interactions soon begin to
make their powerful socializing effects felt.
10.1.2.2 Qualities that student esteem
Peer Culture and the School Educators are particularly
concerned with the characteristics of student culture within the
school. Peer culture frequently works against academic goals at
school.
10.1.2. c School Culture
Aspect of school culture: Education in school, compared with
learning experiences in family or peer-group contexts, occurs in
relatively formal ways. Students are tested and evaluated; they are
tell when to sit, when to stand, how to walk through hallways, and
so on.
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10.1.3 Student Roles and the Hidden Curriculum:Gita kedar-Voivodas
-She identified three main types of expected student roles
10.1.3.1 The pupil role
-is one in which teachers expect students to be ‗patient,
docile, passive, orderly, conforming, obedient, and acquiescent to
rules and regulations, respectful to authority, easily controllable,
and social adept.‘
10.1.3.2 The receptive learner role
-requires students to be ‗motivated, task-oriented, good
achieves, and as such receptive to the institutional demands of the
academic curriculum.
10.1.3.3 The active learner role
-students go ‗beyond the established academic curriculum
both in terms of the content to be mastered and in the processes‘ of
learning.
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10.1.4 John Goodlad
-conducts ‗a study of schooling‘ have described the following
widespread patterns:
1. The classroom is generally organizes as a group that the
teachers treats as a whole.
2. ―Enthusiasm and joy and anger are kept under control.‖
3. Most student work involves ―listening to teachers, writing
answers to questions, and taking tests and quizzes.‖
4. These patterns become increasingly rigid and predominant as
students proceed through the grades.
5. Instruction seldom goes beyond ―mere possession of
information.‖ relatively little effort is made to arouse curiosity or
to emphasize thinking.
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10.1.5 Why so much passive learning?
The reasons they have offered include the following:
1. Institutional requirements to maintain order
2. Student preferences for passive learning
3. Accommodations, bargains, and compromises between
students and teachers.
4. Teacher‘ allocation of attention
5. Society‘s requirement that students learn to conform
6. Teacher overload
10.1.6 Television and Digital Media
 More television time than school time
 Television and school achievement
 General mass media effects
 Correlation with aggressive
 Positive uses of television
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10.2 Gender Roles and Sex Differences
10.2.1 Gender roles and school problems for boys
Teachers generally suppress fighting and aggressive. Boys receive
many more reprimand from teachers than do girls do, and by the time
students enter the secondary grade, boys greatly outnumber girls in
remedial class and in classes for those with emotional disturbances.
10.2.2 Gender roles school problem for girls
Most girls were not encouraged to prepare for high-status fields
such as law or medicine or high-paying technical occupations.
Furthermore, verbal skills of the kind in which girls tend to excel failed to
prepare them for success in mathematics.
10.2.3 Girls not encouraged in competition or leadership
In the elementary school frequently intends to make boys obedient
and cooperative, in high school the emphasis placed on athletics.
10.2.4 Boys‟ versus girls‟ peer group
Best reported that boys‘ peer group stress ―canons‖ such as
―always be first‖ and ―don‘t hang out with a loser‖, whereas girls‘ peer
groups place relatively more emphasis having fun rather than winning and
on cooperation rather than competition.
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10.3 Sex Differences in Achievement and Ability
10.3.1 Reading and mathematics
Data on the reading performance of 9, 13, and 17 year old indicate
that girls score only a litter higher than boys but in 1970s; 9,13 and 17
year old show little meaningful difference in mathematics scores for boys
and girls. It indicates that female gains in mathematics probably are partly
due to greater participation in math courses during the past few decades.
10.3.1.1 Innate differences
Boys are more likely to be either markedly high or markedly
low in ability but girls and women constitute growing percentage of
the highest-ability students.
10.3.1.2 Different brain function
Among right-handed people (the majority), women handle
spatial function more with the left hemisphere than do men. Women
also use the right hemisphere more in verbal function.
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10.3.1.3 Math anxiety and fear of success
Particular attention has been paid to ―math anxiety‖ among
girls, the possibility that the relatively poor performance of certain
women in math stems from socialization practices that make them
anxious and fearful about mathematics analysis.
10.4 Educational and Occupational Attainment of Women
10.4.1 Ways to improve gender equity in education?
- Increase teacher training dealing with gender issues.
- Attend more closely to gender equity in vocational education.
- Eliminate any bias in standardized tests and reduce the role of
these tests in college admissions.
- Reduce sex stereotyping and further increase the representation
of females in instructional materials.
-Protest the right of pregnant girls and teenage parents.
- Introduce ―gender fair‖ curricula that accommodate learning-style
differences.
- Introduce special programs to encourage girls to participate in
math, computing, and science programs.
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- Work to counteract the decline in self-esteem that many girls
experience as they become concerned with their appearance.
10.5 Adolescent and Youth Problem
In recent decades, this isolation has intensified many youth-centered
problems: drug use, drinking, suicide, early pregnancy, and delinquency.
Youth has become a separate stage of life markedly by immersion in
various subculture and teenage drug use and drinking, suicide,
pregnancy, delinquency, and violence raise serious concerns about the
development of adolescent and youth both inside and outside the school.
10.6 Summary
-Changes in the family may be having a determined influence on
children‘s behavior and performance in school. Although the situation is
complicated and research has not been conclusive, increase in single-parent
families and in the number of mothers who work appear to be having a negative
effect for many students, while the decline in the fertility rate and in size of the
family may be having a positive effect.
-The peer culture becomes more important as children proceed through
school, but it has an important influence on education at all levels of schooling.
Educators should be aware of the importance of peer culture in the school and
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classroom, including the potentially positive effects of participation in
extracurricular activities.
-The culture of the school appears to stress passive, rote learning in may
elementary and secondary schools, particularly in working-class schools and
mixed-class schools with relatively large numbers of low-achieving students. This
happens in part because schools are institutions that must maintain orderly
environments, because many students prefer passive learning, teachers
generally cannot attend to the learning needs of all students very adequately,
because little practical knowledge has been available on how to change this
situation, and students must learn to function within the rules and regulations of
organizations and groups.
-Television probably increases aggressiveness and violent behavior
among some children and youth, and it may detract from achievement-
particularly in reading-among some children. The effects of video games, movies,
and other mass media and the larger cultural effects of mass media should not
understand.
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-Girls traditionally have been disadvantaged in terms of preparation for full
participation in the larger society, and both girls and boys have experienced
important sex-role-related problems and difficulties in the school. However,
educational and occupational opportunities for women have been improving
rapidly. Although differences in school achievement by sex have been declining,
there may be some sex differences in ability patterns regarding verbal skills
(favoring females) and abilities related to advanced mathematics (favoring
males)
-In some ways, youth has become a separate stage of life marked by
discernible subcultures involving adolescents and young adults. Problems
involving drugs and drinking, suicide, delinquency, and related behaviors raise
serious concerns involving the development of adolescents and youth both inside
and outside the school.
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“Social Class,
Race, and School
Achievement”
Sarisa A. Pauli
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theguardian.com/education/2010/dec/07/social-class-parenting-study
The researchers, from the University of London's Institute of Education,
took into account factors such as ethnicity and family size. They found that
parents' social class had a bigger influence on a child's progress between the
ages of five and seven than a range of parenting techniques, including reading
before bedtime.
Alice Sullivan, the main author of the study, said the research showed that "while
parenting is important, a policy focus on parenting alone is insufficient to tackle
the impacts of social inequalities on children".
This contradicts comments made in August this year by Nick Clegg, the
deputy prime minister, who suggested that good parenting could make a bigger
difference than class to the destiny of a child.Clegg said: "Parents hold the
fortunes of the children they bring into this world in their hands. All parents have
a responsibility to nurture the potential in their children. I know, like any mother or
father, how difficult it can be to find the time and the energy to help, for example,
with your children's homework at the end of a busy day. But the evidence is
unambiguous: if we give them that kind of attention and support when they are
young, they will feel the benefits for the rest of their lives."
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163
I. Social Class and School Achievement
The American social class system, understood to consist of three broad
classes- working, middle, and upper. It is know that there is a high relationship
between social class and educational achievement in America.
II. Social-Class Categories
Most social scientists believe that populations can be classified within a
number of social-class groups, which differ in their economic, social, and political
interests and characteristics. One of the most commonly used classifications for
social groups in the United States was developed in the 1940s by W. Lloyd
Warner and his associates at the University of Chicago. Warner and his
colleagues frequently used four variables (occupation, education, income, and
housing value) to classify individuals and families in five groups: upper class;
upper middle class; lower middle class; upper lower class; and lower lower class.
Individuals very high in occupational prestige, amount of education, income, and
housing value are high in socioeconomic status (SES); they are viewed by others
as upper class persons and are influential and powerful in their communities.
Conversely, persons low in socioeconomic status are viewed as lower
class.
Today the term working class is more widely used than lower class, but
social scientists still generally use measures of occupation, education, and
income to describe three to six levels of SES.
Page
164
II.aUpper class- defined as including wealthy persons having substantial
property and investment.
II.bMiddle class- includes nonmanual workers- distinguishing between
small business owners and professionals (upper middle) and sales or clerical
workers (lower middle).
II-c Working class- is generally divided into upper working class (skilled
manual workers, such as craftspersons and construction workers).
II-d Underclass- generally resembles the lower working class.
III. Social Class and College Attendance
Social class is associated with many educational outcomes in addition to
reading achievement.
IV. Race/ Ethnicity and School Achievement
IV.aEthnicity- refers to shared culture and background.
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165
IV.bEthnic group- usually have common ancestry and generally are similar in
language, religion, and other cultural patterns.
IV.cRace- generally is used to refer to groups of people with common ancestry
and physical characteristics.
V. Relationships between social class, race/ ethnicity, and achievement
Because social class, race/ethnicity, and school achievement are so closely
interrelated, researchers frequently ask whether race and ethnicity are
associated with performance in the educational system even after one takes into
account the low socioeconomic status of blacks and other disadvantaged
minority groups.
VI. Reasons for Low Achievement Among Working-Class Students
VI.aIncreasing importance of education
Educators and lay leaders became much more aware of and concerned
about the low achievement of working-class students during 1950s and 1960s,
when expectations for high scholastic performance were rising.
VII. Home Environment
Social-class differences in home environment
Page
166
One way to categorize school-class-related home environment differences
in socialization for success in school to view these differences as involving
knowledge and understandings, cognitive and verbal skills, and values and
attitudes.
VIII. Cognitive and Verbal skills
Differences in cognitive and verbal skills in particular reflect social-class
differences in family language environments. The relatively wide and diverse
experience of the middle-class child is important in developing cognitive and
verbal skills, but advantages centering on the language used in the home are
probably even more important.
IX. Language in the home
Snow and her associates have reported that working-class mothers are less
likely than middle class mothers to establish productive conversational routines
and to provide responsive talk that helps children improve in abstract language.
X. Working-Class stress on Obedience
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167
Regarding values and attitudes associated with social-class differences in
child-raising, working-class children are at a disadvantage because their
socialization appears to emphasize obedience and conformity to a greater
degree than the independence and self-directed thinking emphasized in middle
class families.
Victor Gerkas reviewed fifty years of research on social-class differences in
socialization and concluded that working-class parents are more likely to:
(1) Emphasize physical punishment rather than reasoning, shame and guilt; and
(2) stress didactic teaching-learning, rather than self-regulated, independent
learning.
XI. Social-class patterns not universal
It is important to emphasize that socialization differentials such as those
described above reflect average differences across social-class groups, not
universal patterns that distinguish all middle-class families from all working-class
families. Thus, many working-class families do provide a home environment that
is conducive to achievement, and the great majority of low-income parents try to
provide their children with a positive learning environment.Nevertheless,
differences in home environment and the difficulties that go along with poverty
hamper the intellectual development of many working-class children.
XII. Socioeconomic Environment
Page
168
It is an important determinant of a child‘s academic achievement.
XIII. Pre school Experience
According to the theory, education to compensate-or make up- for
environmental disadvantages can do the most good at an early age, since the
cognitive abilities of the child are developed at a rapid rate.
XIV. Stimulation in the home
The language variables of abstraction, verbalization, and vocabulary are
found to be correlated significantly with social class, race, and grade level.
XV. Early Cognitive Development
The child‘s intellectual development is affected even during the prenatal
stages, by the mother‘s general health, her diet, her alcohol intake and smoking
habits, and biochemical changes related to stress and other emotional factors.
XVI. Overcoming Learning Deficits
Page
169
This does not mean that once a learning deficit occurs, remediation is
impossible. But it does clearly imply that it is more difficult to effect changes for
older children, and that a more powerful environment is needed to effect these
changes.
Environmentalist View
By the 1950s, most social scientists took the environmentalist position that
environment is more important than heredity in determining intelligence.
Environmental Factors
Environmentalists continue to conduct research and report data they
believe indicate that environment is much more important than heredity in
determining intelligence.
Hereditarian View
The hereditarian point of view underwent a major revival in the 1960s and
1970s, based on the writings of Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and Richard
Herrnstein. Basing their data on a review and reanalysis of previous research, as
well as on their own studies, they each concluded independently that heredity is
the major factor in determining intelligence-accounting for up to 80 percent of the
variance.
Do Schools Make a Difference?
Page
170
Research described to this point demonstrates that most elementary schools,
as they have been organized and operate, have not generally been effective in
educating large proportions of students from working-class families.
Traditional Versus Revisionist Interpretations
Growing recognition during the past few decades of the strong relationship
between social class and school achievement has led to a fundamental
disagreement between those who support the traditional view of the role and
function of schools in our society and those who accept one another variation of
what is frequently called the revisionist view.
The traditional view perceives the educational system as established and,
to substantial degree, functioning successfully to provide economically
disadvantaged students with meaningful opportunities for social and economic
advancement.
Revisionists, by way of contrast, believe that the schools fail to provide
most disadvantaged students with meaningful chance to succeed in society.
Most revisionists also believe that schools are not even designed to
accomplish this purpose, but instead are actually established and operated to
Page
171
perpetuate the disadvantages of working-class students from one generation to
the next.
Revisionist View
This group of observers contends that the upper middle class has successfully
conspired to enhance its own proper and prestige relative to lower-class and
minority groups, both immigrants and native-born Americans.
Discrimination built into the social class system
Many of the revisionists also believe that the educational system has been
set up specifically to produce disciplined workers at the bottom of the class
structure.
Traditional View
From this point of view, each individual is afforded the opportunity to
succeed in elementary and secondary schools and go to college.
The traditional view admits that schools serve as screening device to sort
different individuals into different jobs. But this screening process is not
Page
172
fundamentally based on race, ethnic, origin, or income, as the revisionists
contend. Along with recognizing marked differences in individual abilities, the
traditional view recognizes that certain qualities lead to success in school and
asserts that these are related to qualities that make the individual more
productive on job.
Page
173
“Providing Equal
Educational
Opportunity”
Sarisa A. Pauli
Page
174
Desegregation of schools refers to enrollment patterns wherein students
of different racial groups attend the same schools, and students are not
separated in racially isolated schools or classrooms.
Integration refers to situations in which students of different racial groups
not only attend schools together, but effective steps have been taken to
accomplish two of the underlying purposes of desegregation:
(1) To overcome the achievement deficit and other disadvantages of minority
students and
(2) To develop positive interracial contacts and relationships.
Attention has shifted during the past three decades from simply placing
students in desegregated schools to bringing about productive integration that
provides equal and effective educational opportunity for students of all
backgrounds. Much remains to be done, however, to fully achieve both
desegregation and integration.
Compensatory Education
An improved school environment with remedial programs and special
activities-believe that it can compensate for many of the disadvantages
experienced by these students and can result in more effective learning and
greater educational achievement.
Page
175
Education For All in the Philippines
Nearly a quarter century ago the Education for All (EFA) movement was
born in Jomtien, Thailand where delegates from around the world signed
the Declaration on Education for All, a historic commitment to ―meet the basic
learning needs of all‖ by universalizing primary education and slashing illiteracy
rates. In 2000, the six EFA goals, covering all aspects of basic education from
early learning and adult literacy to education quality, were formalized at
the World Education Forum in Dakar, with a target to achieve the goals by 2015.
Early Childhood Development
 Expansion of self-sustaining community-based ECCD
 Use of innovative approaches to parent education
 Promotion of preparatory education
 Accreditation of private pre-school programs and institutions
 Differentiated approaches for special categories of children.
 Strengthening of health, nutrition and other allied services.
 Socio-cultural adaptation of curriculum, materials and approaches.
 Single agency to coordinate programs for ECCD
Page
176
Universalization of Quality Primary Education
 Enhancing the holding power or student retention of schools
 Using alternative teaching-learning delivery modes
 Strengthening home-school partnership
 Emphasis on higher-level thinking skills
 Upgrading teacher competencies
Alternative Learning Systems
 Eradication of illiteracy in selected areas
 Promotion of continuing education and development
 Implementation of integrated programs
Philippine EFA Vision
Aim
 Universal coverage of out-of-school youths and adults in the provision of basic
learning needs. All persons who failed to acquire the essential competence to be
functionally literate in their native tongue, in Filipino, and in English.
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177
 Universal school participation and elimination of drop-outs and repetition in first
three grades. All children aged six should enter school ready to learn and
prepared to achieve the required competencies for Grades 1 to 3.
 Universal completion of the full cycle of basic education schooling with
satisfactory achievement levels by all at every grade or year.
 Total community commitment to attainment of basic education competencies for
all: Every community should mobilize all its social, political, cultural and economic
resources and capabilities to support the universal attainment of basic education
competencies in Filipino and English.
Production Tasks
 Make every school continuously perform better.
 Make expansion of Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) coverage to
yield more EFA benefits.
 Transform non-formal and informal interventions into an alternative learning
system (ALS) yielding more EFA benefits.
 Promote practice of high quality teaching.
 Adopt a 12-year program for formal basic education to the existing 10-year basic
education schooling.
 Accelerate articulation, enrichment, development of the basic education
curriculum in the context of the pillars of new functional literacy.
Page
178
Enabling Tasks
 Provide adequate and stable public funding for country-wide attainment of EFA
goals.
 Create a network of community-based groups for local attainment of EFA goals.
 Monitor progress in efforts towards attainment of EFA goals. Of particular
importance is the development and implementation of indicators of ―quality
education‖.
Larger Concerns to the Nation
 Language. Education for all should enable everyone to speak in the vernacular,
Filipino and English.
 National Identity. Education should not only develop critical thinking, but also
enlarge horizons and inspire self-reflection and hope in every generation.
 Social capital. Education for all builds social capital. It makes possible the
achievement of certain ends that would not otherwise be attainable in its
absence.
 Cultural practices. Cultural values can be a highly productive component of social
capital, allowing communities and the whole country to efficiently restrain
opportunism and resolve problems of collective action such as individual refusal
to serve the public good, etc.
 Individual freedom. Education for all is really about assuring the capacity to fully
exercise freedom by all.
Page
179
“School
Effectiveness and
reform”
Czarina R. Torrano
Page
180
13. 0 Characteristic of effective schools
13.0.1. Classroom Management
13.0.1.1Effective Teachers
13.0.1.2Effective Instruction
13.0.1.3Grouping of Students
13.1Some approaches used by effective schools
13.1.1Effective arrangements for low achievers
13.1.2 Emphasis on higher order skills
13.1.3. Emphasis on guidance and personal development
13.1.4 High institutional expectations
13.2The School Improvement and Reform Process
Page
181
13. 0 Characteristic of effective schools
13.0.1. Classroom Management
13.0.1.1Effective Teachers do the following:
 They make sure that the students know what the teacher will
not tolerate.
 They make certain that the students know what to do if they
need help or if they complete assignments early.
 They follow through with reminders and rewards to enforce
the rules.
 They provide a smooth transition between activities.
 They give students assignments of sufficient variety to
maintain interest.
 They monitor the class for signs of confusion and inattention.
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182
13.0.1.2Effective Instruction
 Effective teachers provide an overview of what is to be
learned.
 Readiness activities emphasize the linking of new
information to prior knowledge and the pre-teaching of
difficult vocabulary.
 Emphasis isplaced on examples and applications of
concepts, principles, and vocabulary terms.
 Explanations are provided of examples utilized in instruction.
 Teachers monitor students‘ comprehension.
 Stress is placed on continuous feedback to correct learning
errors and provide positive reinforcement
13.0.1.3Grouping of Students
 Homogenous grouping of low achievers can be successful if
adequate steps are taken to eliminate low expectations,
stigmatization and related problems.
 The number of low achieving students must be kept small
enough for the teacher to instruct them effectively.
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183
 Either homogeneous or heterogeneous grouping can be
effective, provided that there are appropriate scheduling of
students, preparation of teachers, provision of supplies, and
related matters.
13.1Some approaches used by effective schools
13.1.1 Effective arrangements for low achievers
 Small classes of low achievers taught by highly-skilled teachers
 More time devoted to reading, language, and math
 Individual and small group tutoring
 School-within-a school units for low achievers
13.1.2 Emphasis on higher order skills
 Availability off elective courses emphasizing these skills.
 Instructional materials designed to teach higher-order skills.
 Improved coordination between electives and regular courses
 Instructional strategies designed to develop thinking and
comprehension skills.
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184
13.1.3. Emphasis on guidance and personal development
 Large numbers of counselors and guidance personnel
 Elective courses emphasizing personal development
 Utilization of community agencies
 Group counseling
13.1.4High institutional expectations
 Contracts with students and parents
 Required summer school for failure in any subjects
 School-wide point system for students
 Weekly or biweekly report card
Page
185
13.2The School Improvement and Reform Process
 Adaptive problem solving
 School level focus
 Leadership and shared agreements
 Teacher involvement
 Multiple obstacles
 Combination top-down and bottom-up approach
 Data collection
 Training of staff
Page
186
“Aims of
Education”
Czarina R. Torrano
Page
187
14.0 Aims
14.1 Difference between Aims and Objectives
14.1.1 Aims
14.1.2 Objectives
14.1.2.1 Intermediate Objectives
14.1.2.1 Instructional Objectives
14.2 Basic Guidelines in Formulating Instructional objectives
14.3 Stating Objectives
14.3.1 Cognitive Domain
14.3.2 Affective Domain
14.3.2.1Different Levels:
14. 3.3 Psychomotor Domain
Page
188
14.0 Aims
- are important guides in education, although they cannot be
directly observed or evaluated, they are statements that
connote a desired and valued competency, a theme or concern
that applies to education in general.
- They are intended to guide schools in defining the nature of
their subject matter and student activities.
Example:
Preparing the students to for democratic
citizenshipPreparing students for vocation
14.1 DifferencebetweenAims and Objectives
14.1.1 Aims- are too broad to be specifically applied to a particular
curriculum or instructional procedure.
- For each aim, many objectives can be formulated.
14.1.2 Objectives are formulated at the classroom level to achieve
the aims of the school.
- When translating aims into objectives, many educators first
formulate intermediate objectives and then formulate
instructional objectives
Page
189
14.1.2.1 Intermediate Objectives
- are usually nonbehavioral objectives written in terms
of grade levels or subjects.
- they describe what the schools intend to accomplish
and provide general direction but they are still to vague.
Example: The development of reading skills
The appreciation of the art
14.1.2.1 Instructional Objectives
-are specific descriptions of what is to take place in the
classroom or of learning outcomes.
-are stated in behavioral terms that can be observed and
measured.
Example: The student will understand mathematical
computations. He will be able to add 10+15+36 without the use of any
book, slide rule, or mechanical device. They will use paper and pencil ,
show all the work on the spaces provided, and finish within 30 seconds.
Page
190
14.2 Basic Guidelines in Formulating Instructional objectives
 Objectives shouldberelated to aims.
 Theyshouldbeappropriate to the subject and the academiclevel of
yourstudents
 Theyshoulddescribebehaviorsthatyouactuallyintend to bring about
in class.
 Theyshouldbestated in the form of learningoutcomes.
 Theyshouldbestated in behavioralterms. Theyshouldbemeasurable
and observable.
 Theyshouldbestatedthrough action verbs.
 Theyshouldbebrief and trimmed of excessive wordiness.
 Theyshouldbegroupedlogicallyso as to makesense in
determiningunits of instruction and evaluation.
 Theyshouldbeperiodicallyrevised.
 In developing objectives, youshouldfeel free to consultother
sources for help.
Page
191
14.3 Stating Objectives
The taxonomy of educational objetives is divided into three
domains namely:
 Cognitive - knowledge-based objectives
 Affective - affective-based objectives (values, interests and
attitudes)
 Psychomotor- skills-based objectives
14.3.1Cognitive Domain
a. Knowledge- the student can recall, define, recognize or identify
specific information presented during discussion.
Some verbs we may use:Name, Identify, State, Select, List, Match,
Label and Extend
b. Comprehension- the studentdemonstrateunderstanding of
information by translatingitinto a differentform or by recognizingit in
translatedform.
Some verbs we may use:Compare, Classify, Describe, Giveexamples,
Predict, Modify, andDistinguish
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192
c.Application- the studentcanapply the information in
performingconcrete actions.
Some verbs we may use:Demonstrate, Solve, Applyrule, Show, Measure,
Compute, Use, andIllustrate
d. Analysis- the studentcanrecognize the organization and
structure of a body of information, break this information down
intoitsconstituents parts, and specify the relationshipsbetweenthese parts.
Some verbs we may use:Differentiate, Select, Prove. Infer, Define,
Analyze, and Categorize
e. Synthesis- the studentcanbring to bear information fromvarious
sources to create a productuniquelyhis or herown.
List of action words:Summarize, Design, Combine, Draw, Relate,
Create, Produce, and Devise
f. Evaluation- the studentcanapply a standard in making a
judgment on the worth of something.
List of action words:Interpret, Explain, Criticize, Justify, Suggest, Support,
Conclude, Deduce
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193
14.3.2 Affective Domain
Bloom‘staxonomydivides affective objectives into five categories. They are
described as follows:
a. Receiving- the studentdemonstrates a willingness to
participate in the activity.
b. Responding- the student shows interest in the objects,
phenomena, or activity by seeking it out or pursuing it for
pleasure.
c. Valuing- the student internalizes an appreciation for (values)
the objectives, phenomena, or activity.
d. Organization- the student begins to compare different
values, and resolves conflicts between them to form an
internally consistent system of values.
e. Characterization of value- the student adopts a long-term
value system that is "pervasive, consistent, and predictable―.
14.3.2.1Different Levels:
Level 1: Simple behavioral objectives
Some verbs we may use:Find, Gather, Investigate, Make, Do, Use,
Recognize, Recall, Examine, andIllustrate
Page
194
Level 2: Behaviorrequiring application of more complex mental
operation
Some verbs we ayuse :Prove, Analyze, Apply, ConstructRelate,
Estimate, State, Suggest, Compare, Contrast, and Plot a graph
Level 3: Behaviorshowingthatstudent has firmgrasp of major
concept or shows original thoughts
Some verbs we may use:Generalize data,
Synthesize,Discusscritically, Integrate, Explain, Justify, Discover,
Recommendmeasures, and List of reasons for
14. 3. 3 Psychomotor Domain
There are six categories of ojectives in the psychomotordomain. They are:
a. Reflex movements- the studentcanoccurinvoluntarily in
response to some stimuli.
b. Basic fundamentalmovements- the student has
innatemovement pattern formedfrom a combination of reflex
movements.
c. Perceptualabilities- the studentcan translate stimulus
receivedthrough the
sensesintoappropriatedesiredmovement.
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195
d. Physicalabilities- the student has developed basic
movementsthat are essetial to the development of more
highlyskilledmovements.
e. Skilledmovements- the student has developed more
complexmovementsrequiring a certain degree of efficiency.
f. Nondiscursive communications- student has the ability to
communicate through body movement.
Page
196
“Curriculum and
Instruction”
Czarina R. Torrano
Page
197
15.0 Curriculum Organization
15.0.1 Subject-Centered Curriculum
15.0.2 Student-Centered Curriculum
15.1Curriculum Organization Approaches
15.1.1 Subject-Centered
15.1.2 Student-centered
15.2 Techniques in Curriculum Development
15.3 Instructional Innovations
15.3.1 Additional Innovations
15.4 Several broad trends that are likely to have a major impact on curriculum
planning in the educational system:
Page
198
15.0 Curriculum Organization
15.0.1 Subject-Centered Curriculum
The curriculum is viewed as a body of content-or subject matter-
leading to certain achievement outcomes or products.
15.0.2 Student-Centered Curriculum
Views curriculum in terms of the needs and attitudes of the student;
the concerns is with the process-in other words, with the climate of the
classroom or school
15.1Curriculum Organization Approaches
15.1.1 Subject-Centered
Curriculum Corresponding Content Instructional Emphasis
Approach Philosophy Emphasis
Subject-Area Perennialism Three Rs; Knowledge, concepts and principles,
academic, specialized knowledge

Curriculum Essentialism
vocational and
elective subjects
Perennialist Perennialism Three Rs; liberal Rote memorization, specialized
arts classics;
Page
199
Curriculum timeless values knowledge and mental discipline
and academic rigor
Essentialist Essentialism Three Rs; liberal Concepts and principles, problem
Curriculum arts and science, solving, essential skills.
academic
disciplines and
academic
excellence.
Subject Essentialism Science, Math, Concepts and principles problem
structure and Foreign solving, intuitive thinking, learning
curriculum Language, how to learn
academic
disciplines,
academic
excellence
Back-to- Essentialism Three Rs; Specific knowledge and skills, drill;
Basics academic subjects attainment of measurable ends or
Curriculum competencies
Higher Perennialism Academic Knowledge, concepts and principles;
Standards subjects, computer learning how to learn; attainment of
Page
200
Curriculum Essentialism literacy; academic measurable ends or competencies
execellence and
Reconstructionism
educational
productivity
15.1.2 Student-centered
Curriculum Corresponding Content Emphasis Instructional Emphasis
Approach Philosophy
Child-centered Progressivism Student needs and Play-oriented, creative
interests, student expression, tree learning

Curriculum
experiences environment
Activity- Progressivism Student needs and Active experimental
centered interests, student environment, project methods,
activities, school effective living

Curriculum
community activities
Relevant Progressivism Student experiences Social and personal problems,
and activities, felt reflective thinking.

Curriculum Reconstructionism
needs
Page
201
Curriculum Corresponding Content Emphasis Instructional Emphasis
Approach Philosophy
Hidden Progressivism Implicit process Hard to recognize
unaccounted for factors,

curriculum Reconstructionism Social norms
cultural assimilation,
conformity and control
Humanistic Progressivism Introspection choice Individual and group learning
Curriculum flexible artistic, psychological

Reconstructionism
methods, self-realization
Values- Reconstructionism Democratic values, Feelings, attitudes, and
centered crosscultural, and emotions, existentialist
universal values, thinking, decision making

Perennialism
choice and freedom
15.2Techniques in Curriculum Development
 Assessing the needs of the learners
 Developing objectives
 Selecting or creating instructional materials and activities
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202
15.3 Instructional Innovations
 Team Teaching
 Teacher Aides
 Flexible Scheduling
 Individualized Instruction
 Instructional Television
 Programmed Instruction
 Computer-Assisted Instruction
15.3.1 Additional Innovations
 Resource Center
 School-within-a school
 Open space facilities
 Language Laboratories
 Telephone Amplification
 Simulation or gaming
 Pass-fail
 Nongraded programs
 Criterion-referenced tests
 Independent study
 Community study
 Instructional materials center
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203
15.4 Several broad trends that are likely to have a major impact on
curriculum planning in the educational system:
 Communications
 Computers
 Lifelong learning
 International cooperation
 Environmental education
 Energy education
 Ethic education and cultural pluralism
 Nonsexist curriculum
 Dieting and exercise
 Sex education
 Aging education
 Career education
 Values education
Page
204

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Philosophical,

Compilation of Reports of the Students

Dr. Florentino T. Doqueña, Jr. (Professor)

Chapter 1 (Motivation, Status and Preparation of the Teacher) 2

Chapter 2 (The Teaching Profession) 22

Chapter 3 (Origins of Our Educational Heritage) 39

Chapter 4 (Pioneers in Education) 62

Chapter 5 (Historical Development of American Education) 83

Chapter 6 (Philosophical Ideas in Education) 101

Chapter 7 (Governing and Administering Public Education) 112

Chapter 8 (Decentralization) 118

Chapter 9 (Legal Aspects of Education) 129

Chapter 10 (Culture, Socialization and Education) 143

Chapter 11 (Social Class, Race, and School Achievement) 162

Chapter 12 (Providing Equal Educational Opportunity) 174

Chapter 13 (School Effectiveness and reform) 180

Chapter 14 (Aims of Education) 187

Chapter 15 (Curriculum and Instruction) 197

Julius John L. Palacpac

1.0 Focusing Questions

1.1 Why Teach?

1.2 Status of Teachers

1.2.1 The Prestige Factor

1.2.2 Pay Scales and Trends

1.2.3 Supply and Demand

1.3 Preparation of Teachers

1.3.1 Preservice Teacher Education

1.3.3 Trends in Preservice Education

1.3.4 In-service Education and Staff Development

1.4 Efforts to Improve the Quality of Teachers

1.4.1 Ability of the Teaching Workforce

1.4.2 Testing of Teachers

1.4.3 Recommendations of National Reports

- What are the advantages and disadvantages of becoming a teacher?

o Advantages according to Tanya Robertson, Demand Media

 Those passionate about teaching point to the benefits of

working with children and positively influencing the lives of

their students. Other advantages of teaching are the

summer-off schedules and the ability to pursue intellectual

interests. For example, someone who's interested in physics

may choose to pursue a college teaching career in physics

so they can further their own knowledge on the subject.

o Disadvantages according to Tanya Robertson, Demand Media

 Teachers often struggle with the challenges of school

budget cuts, large classroom sizes, increasingly demanding

curriculum requirements and lack of parental involvement.

School district financial woes may equate to pay cuts, layoffs

and a reduction of job benefits, such as healthcare and

retirement, for many teachers. Some states have changed

laws giving school districts more flexibility in eliminating

tenured teaching positions. By eliminating tenured positions,

- How does teachers‘ prestige compare to that of other occupations?

- What are the employment trends for teachers?

- How are teachers prepared? How are they certified?

- What are the trends in teacher education?

- What developments are likely to take place regarding quality of the

teacher workforce and the conditions of teaching?

1.1 Why Teach?

- Average people enter the teaching profession

o Narrower range of professional choices

o Achieve more status in teaching

o Parents encourage them

o Work schedules for combining career goals and family