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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. The Notion of Curriculum

The tern curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a

usschool or in a specific course or program. Depending on how broadly educators

define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills

students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards or learning

objectives they are expected to meet, the units and lessons that teachers teach, the

assignments and projects given to students, the books, materials, videos and

presentation and readings used in a course and tests or assessments and other

methods used to evaluate students learning. For teachers, curriculum guides to

structure their lessons and courses. Curriculum may also encompass a school’s

academic requirements for graduation such as the courses students have to take

and pass, the numbers of credits students must complete and other requirements.

John Dewey (1902) defines curriculum as continuous reconstruction

2.2.Typees of Syllabus

2.3.Curriculum 2013

Since curriculum is one of the foundational elements of effective

schooling and teaching, it is often the object of reforms, most of which are
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intended to either mandate or encourage greater curricular standardization and

consistency accross states, schools, grade levels, subject areas, and courses.

In 2013, the governemnt of Indonesia introduced a new curriculum called

Curriculum 2013. This curriculum is for primary and secondary education. For

Indonesian context, primary education includes primary or elementary school

called Sekolah Dasar (SD) and junior secondary school called Sekolah Menengah

Pertama (SMP). Secondary education includes senior high school called Sekolah

Menengah Atas (SMA) and vocational high school called Sekolah Menengah

Kejuruan (SMK). The curriculum was first implemented in academic year

2013//2014 at grade 1, 4, 7 and 10 of some selected schools mandated around the

country.

The English Language National Curriculum 2013 concentrates on four basic

elements in instructional design: materials, objectives, method and evaluation. It

is integrated each other to run curriculum effectively.

2.4. Syllabus of English Language National Curriculum 2013 for Secondary

Level

Based on the view of Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986) that define syllabus as

a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements,

which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps

leading towards more narrowly defined objectives, English Syllabus of

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Curriculum 2013 contains basic competence, materials, learning activities and

assessment.

Basic competence is learning experience that the learners achieve in teaching

learning process. This competence is gained through learning activities which

facilitate students to utilize any kinds of genre in spoken and written English with

correct and proper language features contextually and acquire factual, conceptual,

procedural and metakognitif knowledge. Obviously, the materials learned are

stressed on language competence as a means for communicating ideas and

knowledge.

Tomlinson in Carter Ronald and Nunan David (2001) proposes that Language

learning materials comprise anything that can be used to facilitate the learning of a

language.

In general, the materials consists of:

1) Structure/organization of interpersonal, transactional and functional texts

2) Skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing the text.

3) Language features which include grammatical rules, sentence structure,

vocabs, phrases, modality, etc.

Learning activities part of the syllabus describes the activities the

students accomplish during teaching learning process. The steps of scientific

approach are described detailly which are all concentrated on student-centered

learning.

In assessment part, the syllabus prepares the clue for the teachers to measure

how far the students have achieved their learning goals presented in basic
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competence. The assessment is done authentically which is most handled by the

teachers during the teaching learning process.

2.5.The goal of Learning English in Curriculum 2013

In Indonesia, English is learnt as a foreign language. The terms of Learning

English as a Foreign Language is explained by Elliot L. Judd in Long M.H. and

Richards C. Jack (1987) as learning English by a non-native English speaker in an

environment where the dominant population speaks a language other than of

English. Mostly Indonesian learners speak Bahasa Indonesia as their daily

communicative language formally and informally, even studying English in

Indonesian.

English Curriculum 2013 states that the goal of learning English for

secondary level is to train students to attain interpersonal, transactional and

functional communicateive competence. Therefore, there are three aspects of each

genre need to be acquired, they are the social function, the text

structure/organization and the language features based on their contextual use. In

learning the texts, the learners develop factual, procedural dan conceptual

knowledge. Factual knowledge is related to the facts, information or the topic of

the texts. Procedural knowledge is about the knowledge in organizing the parts of

the texts and conceptual knowledge is how the learners understand about the text

structure, social function and language features of the texts.

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2.6. The Implementation Of Curriculum 2013

2.6.1. Teacher’s Role in Implementing Curriculum 2013

The 2013 curriculum is a curriculum that can educate future

competency, communication skills, ability to think clearly and critically, ability to

consider the moral aspects of a problem (Kemdikbud, 2013). In this curriculum,

the students are encouraged to have a responsibility to the environment,

interpersonal skills, and ability to think critically (Kurniasih & Sani, 2014). It is

characterized by the development of attitudes, knowledge, thinking skills, and

psychomotor skills in a variety of subjects. It should be relevant with the needs of

life, developing abilities and interest, and responsive to the development of

science and technology. Lazim (2013) states that the 2013 curriculum should be

applied in the atmosphere of focusing on student-centered learning, forming the

students’ self concept, increasing students’ thinking skills, providing opportunities

for students to assimilate and accommodate the concept, laws, and principles, and

providing opportunities for students to perform the skills of communication.

The curriculum that concerns with student-centered learning requires

teachers to help students having a sense of “ownership” of their learning and so

doing add to their intrinsic motivation (Brown H. Douglas: 2001). Teachers stand

to assist students to develop their own capability and creativity in learning.

Related to the execution of curriculum, the teacher is the key point in the

development of curriculum for teachers is the spearhead implementation on the

ground. This is in line with Murray Print (1993) who views that teachers are

required to implement the curriculum, to adapt the curriculum with school

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characteristics and local needs, to design curriculum and to conduct curriculum

research. In other words, it could be considered that curriculum development

starts from the class. Therefore, teachers should have a creative idea and examine

the curriculum in class as an important phase and as an element of the overall

administrative support.

2.6.2. Approach and Learning Models in Implementing Curriculum 2013

In implementing Curriculum 2013, scientific approach is applied together

with four learning models. Through five steps of scientific approach and syntaxes

of learning models, students are expected to be active, innovative, creative, critical

and skillful in learning activities that lead them gain their learning cempetences

optimally.

Those kinds of approach and learning models are implemented well when

the teachers as facilitators and guides in learning process are skillful in playing

their important roles in implementing the curriculum.

The recommended learning models used in implementingCurriculum 2013

are Inquiry Learning, Discovery Learning, Project Based Learning and Problem

Based Learning. The spirits of syntaxes of these determined learning models are

in line with the steps of scientific approach as they are applied in the atmosphere

of learning that focus on student-centered learning, forming the students’ self

concept, increasing students’ thinking skills, providing opportunities for students

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to integrate and adjust the concept, rules, and theory, and giving chances for

students to perform the skills of communication.

2.6.2.1. Scientific Approach

Scientific approach is defined as the process of finding out information in

science, which involves testing the ideas by performing experiments and making

decisions based on the result of analysis (Longman, 2014). It means that scientific

approach is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new

knowledge, and correcting and integrating previous knowledge. Tang et al. (2009)

says that scientific approach has the characteristics of “doing science”. This

approach allows teachers to improve the process of learning by breaking the

process down into steps or stages which contains detailed instructions for

conducting students learning. These two ideas became the basic of using scientific

approach to be the basis for implementing the 2013 curriculum.

In accordance with the standard competence of the 2013 curriculum,

learning objectives should include the development of the realm of attitudes,

knowledge, and skills. Attitudes are acquired through activity: accept, execute,

respect, appreciate, and practice. Knowledge was gained through the activity of

remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. Skills were acquired

through activities of observing, asking, experimenting, reasoning, serving, and

creating (Kemdikbud, 2013a). So, the teaching learning process in scientific

approach referred to the process of observing, asking, reasoning, experimenting,

and establishing network for all subjects.

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Kemdikbud (2013) and Hosnan (2014) state that there are five steps of

applying scientific approach in teaching learning process, they are observing,

questioning, experimenting, associating, and communicating. The activities of

each steps can be explain as follows.

2.6.2.1.1. Observing

There are two main activities that should be done to lead to the observing

steps. First, the teachers give students a wide opportunity to do observation. The

observation can be done through reading, listening, or seeing the object. Second,

the teachers facilitate the students to do observation and train the students to

observe the important things from the object. There are seven steps in observing

process, (1) determining the object to be observed, (2) determining the purpose,

(3) determining the way of observation, (4) limiting the object, (5) doing

observation carefully, (6) reporting the result of observation, and (7)

comprehending the result.

2.6.2.1.2. Questioning

Questioning functions to encourage and inspire learners to actively learn

and develop questions of and for itself; to raise skills of students in talking, asking

questions, and the other can answer logically, systematically using proper and

correct grammar; to encourage students’ participation in discussing, arguing,

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developing the ability to think and draw conclusions; and to build an attitude of

openness to give and receive opinions or ideas, enrich vocabulary, as well as

developing social tolerance in gregarious.

2.6.2.1.3. Experimenting

In experimenting, the steps are preparation, working, and follow up. There

are five activities that can be done in experimenting, (1) Grouping students into

several groups, (2) asking students to discuss, (3) recording the finding, (4)

supervising the learning process to ensure that all learners are actively involved in

the discussion, and (5) directing the group that need help.

2.6.2.1.4. Associating

Associating is the ability to analyze and associate the information occurred

within the group. Associating is the process of analyzing the information to find

the relationship between one information to other information and to find the

patterns of interrelationship of the information so that one can make conclusion

from the patterns found.

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2.6.2.1.5. Communicating

Communicating is the ability to conclude the facts that have been observed

and experimented. There are four activities that can be conducted in

communicating steps, (1) asking the students to read their work to the class, (2)

asking each group to listen well and provide additional input with regard to the

work of each group, (3) giving explanation after the group discussion ended, and

(5) structuring tasks and providing opportunities to the students to demonstrate

attitude, skills, and understanding of the substance of learning given.

From the explanation about the steps of doing scientific approach in

teaching learning process above, it can be seen that by doing scientific approach

students are hoped to be actively involved in class activities by integrating skills,

attitude, and knowledge.

2.6.2.2.Inquiry Learning

Inquiry learning model requires a learning atmosphere in which students

are led to expose optimally their capability to search and analyze a phenomenon

sistematically, critically and logically and the end, the students can they can

formulate their own findings. The learning phases in this learning model are:
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a) Observation

Observation prepares students to get in touch with the environment where

they get their learning experience through investigating the phenomenon

related to certain subject matters/materials.

b) Asking question(s)

After doing observation, students propose some questions about the

phenomenon they have had investigated. This step is aimed to increase the

students’ curiousity to explore more about the phenomenon. The questions

could be raised to the teacher, peers or other sources.

c) Building up hypothesis.

The learners associate or analyze the possible answers toward the

questions they raise about the phenomenon.

d) Collecting data

The learners obtain supporting evidence(s) to answer the questions.

e) Formulating conclusion based on the data analyzed, provide prsentation to

the class.

2.6.2.3.Discovery Learning

Bruner argues that “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to

acquire information in a way that make that information more readily viable in

problem solving”. This philosphy later became the discovery learning movement

in 1960s. The spirit of this philosophical movement suggets that we should “learn
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by doing”. Discovery happens when the learners take in part using their mental

processing in discovering concept and principle. This is in line with Robert B

Sund in Malik (2001) who proposes that discovery is a mental process of

assimilating concepts and principles in the mind. Discovery learning can occur

whenever the student is not provided with an exact answer but rather the materials

in order to find the answer themselves.

Discovery learning is typically characterized by having minimal teacher

guidance, fewer teacher explanations, solving problems with multiple solutions,

use of hand on materials, minimal repetition and memorization.

There are essential components that are required for successful discovery-

based learning which include the following steps:

a) Stimulation

The students are given stimulus in the form like reading text, picture or

situation which correlate to the learning materials/topic through which the

students can attain learning experiences.

b) Problem Statement

Teacher guidance is emphasized on building up students’ capability in

looking into problems and then asking questions in order to find things out

for themselves. The problem solvings are drawn from their own

experiences and prior knowledge.

c) Data Collecting

The students seek and collect data /information to find the solution for

problem solving. In this phase the students are trained to be creative,

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accurate, and honest and customize them to prepare some alternative

solutions in solving problems.

d) Data Processing

The students attempt to apply their prior knowledge in analyzing data and

are trained to have skills to think logically and accurately.

e) Data Verification

The students verify the data to prove their accuracy and validity through

asking peers, discussion, or searching in some relevant sources, then

associating the findings to draw the conclusion/generalization.

f) Drawing Conclusion

The students are directed to generalize their findings with the similar

case/problem and eventually draw conclusion on their own. It implies that

the students exersise themselves to increase their metacognitive concept.

2.2.4. Project Based Learning

Project Based instruction (also referred to as Project Based Learning or

PBL) has been defined differently by various experts, but to make it simplest, it is

an instructional approach that contextualizes learning by presenting learners with

problem to solve and products to develop ( Moss and Duzer, 1998). Project based

instruction is one way to reflect the principles of student-centered teaching.

Organizing projects is seen as an effective way to teach language and content

simultaneously. The use of projects establishes a direct link between language

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learning and its apllication as well as to create opportunities which allow students

to develop their abilities in target language. Project Based Learning develops

students’ skills in areas such as problem-solving, critical thinking, visualizing,

decision making, cross cultural understanding and reasoning, as well as written

and oral communication.

Direktorat Pembinaan SMA Kemendikbud Republic Indonesia states six

steps in doing projec-based learning:

a) Stating the subject and subsubject and organizing the group

Students explore the resources and in order to create a frame of the project,

they state questions.

b) Design the project

Group members create a project plan.

c) Design the schedule to execute projects

It is important to establish the schedule in running the work to make it

suitable with the period of time and the target in finishing it.

d) Monitoring

Teacher needs to supervise the students’ work to see the realization and the

development of the project. The students evaluate their work based on the

teacher’s feedback.

e) Result Verification

The output of the project is examined and adjusted by correlating the data

used in project with other data from any aother sources.

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f) Evalution

This phase is aimed to evaluate the learning experiences from participants

and discussions about whether the initial aims have achieved,

imlementation of the process and the product. Evaluation also entails

assessment of the experience at individual and and group level,

identification of errors and problems but also the appraisal of the rich

cognitive and experiential material gathered. Evaluation includes

evaluation from others and self-evaluatiom.

2.2.5. Problem Based Learning

Problem Based Learning is a student-centered instruction in which

students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended

problem PBL is also argued as learning method that can promote the development

of critical skills. In PBL students learn how to analyze problem, identify relevent

facts and generate hypothesis, identify necessary information/knowledge for

solving the problem and make reasonable judgement about solving the problems.

This kind of learning model stimulate students to learn through actual problems

that they experience in daily life correlated to their prior knowledge or the further

knowledge they are going to attain. Problem Based Learning encourages self-

directed learning by confronting students with problems and stimulates the

development of deep learning.

The steps of applying the model in learning are as follows:

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a) Problem Orientation

Learners are presented with a problem and through discussion within their

group, activate their prior knowledge

b) Within their group, they develop possible theories or hypotheses to

explain the problem. Together they identify learning issues to be

researched.

c) After the initial teamwork, students work independently in self-directed

study to research the identified issues.

d) The students re-group to discuss their findings and refine their initial

explanations based on what they learned.

e) Analyze and evaluate the process of problem solving that would probably

be beneficial for the further learning.

2.3. Language Assessment in Curriculum 2013

2.3.1. Definition of Language Assessment

Instructional objectives are essentially the desired change in student

behavior. Therefore, the assessment should be examined to what extent the

changes of student behavior has occurred through the learning process. I t i s

in the same sense as what Gronldund E. Norman (1982) says

about achievement testing as a systematic procedure for

determining the amount a student has learned. By knowing

whether or not the instructional objectives achieved, teaching action and the
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improvement of concerned students who have not achieved the goals can be

taken. In other words, the results of the assessment are not only beneficial to

determine whether instructional objectives achieved but also as a feedback for

improving the teaching and learning process.

The assessment is also as an aid to provide information about individual

students, about curricula or programs, about institutions, or about entire systems

of institutions.

In term of language learning, assessment refers to a variety of ways of

collecting information on a learner’s language ability or achievement (Brindley

Geoff in Carter Ronald and Nunan David, 2001). The language assessment in

Curriculum 2013 is established to determine. The purpose of the assessment to

collect information on learner’s langauge proficieny and/or achievement that can be

used by the stakeholders in language learning programmes for various purposes.

2.3.2. Scopes of Learning Assessment

The assessment applied by Curriculum 2013 is in line with the

classification that Benyamin Bloom proposes. The classification of students’

learning outcomes assessment are devided into three domain i.e. cognitive, attitude,

and psychomotor.

a) Knowledge

Knowledge or cognitive competence assessment is a testing conducted by

the teacher to measure the level achievement or mastery learners in

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knowledge aspects that includes memory or rote, comprehension,

application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Knowledge competence

reflects the science concepts that must be mastered by the learners

through the learning process.

b) Attitude

The affective domain deals with attitude, feeling, moral, interest,

appresication, the controlling of desires and emotion, and the

adjustment. The assessment of attitudes is mostly done during the

learning process intregatedly with cognitive and psychomotor

assessment. The assessment can be done using journal.

The attitude assessment is very important to do as the learners’

attitudes brings a very big influence toward their learning behaviour.

More positive attitudes they build, the higher achievement of learning

goals they acquire.

c) Skill

The goal of learning English in Curriculum 2013 is for communicative

purpose written and orally. In Psychomotor domain the learners are

examined to what extent the learners can perform something with the

language in listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. There are three

techniques in this assessment, they are performance assessment, project

assessment, and portofolio assessment.

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2.3. Previous Study

The study is conducted by the researcher with searching and reading

literature or research as the sources of information, both in terms of theory

and reality based on the results of previous studies. T h e s i m i l a r s t u d i e s

on the implementation of learning models in Curriculum

2 0 1 3 i s a research on the implementation of Project Based Learning and its

effectiveness to teaching speaking that has been carried out by Ardhika Sari

(Student Number S891108016), “The Effectiveness of Project based Learning

to Teaching Speaking Skill Viewed from Students Risk-Taking: An

Experimental Research at the Eleventh Grade of SMA 1 Gebog, Surakarta in

the Academic Year 2013/2014,” Postgraduate Thesis, Surakarta, English

Education Department Graduate School, Teacher Training and Education

Faculty Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta. The result of this research is that

Project Based Learning is more effective in teaching speaking than the

conventional one that is role play.

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