IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 1, NO.
2, SEPTEMBER 2010
A Hybrid Smart AC/DC Power System
Kyohei Kurohane, Student Member, IEEE, Tomonobu Senjyu, Senior Member, IEEE,
Atsushi Yona, Member, IEEE, Naomitsu Urasaki, Member, IEEE, Tomonori Goya, Student Member, IEEE, and
Toshihisa Funabashi, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Recently, smart grids are attracting attention. Al-
ready, a smart grid based on an ac grid is proposed. However, no
study on research is presented or published on a smart grid based
on a dc grid. This paper presents an ac/dc hybrid smart power
system. The proposed system has advantages of both dc and ac
grids. The proposed power system consists of a wind generator and
several controllable loads. The controllable loads have different
capacities. Therefore, by applying power consumption control
with the droop characteristic, the dc bus voltage is maintained
within the acceptable range. As controllable loads, electric water
heater and electric vehicle are assumed. Effectiveness of the
proposed method is verified by numerical simulation results.
Index Terms—Controllable loads, droop characteristic, smart
grid.
I. INTRODUCTION
P OWER demand in isolated islands has been increasing
rapidly. Diesel generators fueled by fossil fuels mostly
supply the power for this power demand. For greenhouse gas
reduction and oil substitution, introduction of renewable ener-
gies such as photovoltaics and wind energy is important [1], [2].
Renewable power resources are safe, clean, and abundant in na-
ture. However, due to the power fluctuation of renewable energy
sources, voltage and frequency deviations are occurred in island
power systems whose ability to maintain stable supply–demand
balance is low. Therefore, it is necessary to control the system
frequency and voltage at the supply side [3]–[6].
At the supply side, installation of storage equipment and pitch
angle control of a wind generator has been proposed for con-
trol of the distribution power system [7]–[15]. However, the in-
stallation of storage equipment that needs large storage capacity
and the cost of maintenance for battery degradation are not ex-
pected. Hence, in case of using the renewable energy plants
connected to power system, supply-side control has limitations.
Therefore, mutual cooperation control with the demand side is
required because it is difficult to maintain the power quality by
only the supply-side control. From this viewpoint, a smart grid,
which maintains stable supply–demand balance by monitoring
the power information of the demand side, is necessary.
Manuscript received October 30, 2009; revised May 17, 2010; accepted June
07, 2010. Date of publication July 26, 2010; date of current version nulldate.
Paper no. TSG-00014-2009.
K. Kurohane, T. Senjyu, A. Yona, N. Urasaki and T. Goya are with the Depart-
ment of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Univer-
sity of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan (e-mail: b985542@tec.u-ryukyu.ac.jp).
T. Funabashi is with the Medensha Corporation, Tokyo, Japan (e-mail: fun-
abashi-t@mb.meidensha.co.jp).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2010.2053392
1949-3053/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
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199
Smart grids provide an excellent opportunity to manage
power quality better and reduce harmonic distortions of the
power networks. The impact on power quality is taken into
consideration from the viewpoint of a generator side, a grid
side, and a demand side management [16], [17]. Reference [18]
addresses the important issue of power quality management for
smart grids and proposes a load management strategy based on
transformer derating for minimizing the harmonic distortion
in distribution feeders and transformers. It is expected that
smart technologies will lead to reduced investment in primary
equipment and it will increase higher availability of power
supply.
Currently, smart ac grids are implemented by practical appli-
cations [16]–[18]. However, the dc smart grid is not proposed
yet. The dc grid has the following advantages compared to an
ac grid.
1) Each power generator connected to the dc grid can easily
be cooperated because it controls only the dc bus voltage.
2) When the ac grid experiences abnormal or fault conditions,
the dc grid is disconnected from the ac grid, and then it is
switched to stand-alone operation in which the generated
power is supplied to the loads connected to the dc grid.
3) The cost and loss of dc system can be reduced because only
a single ac-grid-connected inverter unit is needed.
4) Distributed generators usually supply dc power. Therefore,
the phase detection like ac grid is not needed. Therefore,
the cost and loss of the system can be reduced.
5) Although the dc distribution line is required, the cost per-
formance of dc houses, hospitals and information centers
are satisfactory [19].
However, both dc and ac grids have advantages and disadvan-
tages. For example, an ac grid has advantages such as the cost
of short and middle transmission lines. Therefore, the next-gen-
eration hybrid power system comprising both grids is required.
In this paper, a dc smart grid, which is actually a dc grid con-
nected to an ac grid, is proposed as a ac/dc hybrid power system.
The proposed dc smart grid consists of a wind turbine gener-
ator (WTG), a generator-side converter, a grid-side inverter, and
controllable loads. The power fluctuation of the dc grid is sup-
pressed by controlling the controllable loads following droop
control at the demand side. The proposed method achieves sta-
bilization control of the ac grid by controlling the system fre-
quency and voltage by using the grid-side inverter connected
between the dc grid and the ac grid. By using the controllable
loads applied with droop control, the wind and photovoltaic sys-
tems are able to operate at maximum power point with the ben-
efits of the reduction in cost by reducing the storage equipment
for renewable power plants and by increasing of control ability
of system frequency and dc bus voltage. Besides, power com-
 200 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 1, NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2010

Fig. 1. DC smart grid.

panies can expect high-quality power supply and can reduce the
cost by cooperative control between the supply side and the de-
mand side.
Electric water heaters (EWHs) and the batteries of electric
vehicles are assumed as controllable loads in this paper. The
effectiveness of the proposed system is validated by simulation
results in MATLAB/POWERSYSTEM
Fig. 2. Generator-side converter control system.
II. DC SMART GRID CONFIGURATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

A. System Configuration
The configuration of the dc smart grid is shown in Fig. 1.
The WTG is a gearless 2-MW permanent magnet synchronous
generator (PMSG). PMSG has a simple structure and high effi-
ciency and is expected to be installed in next-generation WTG
systems. The dc smart grid also consists of a generator-side con- Fig. 3. Pitch angle control system.
verter, a grid-side inverter, and controllable loads (batteries and
EWHs). The system is connected to a 10-MVA diesel generator
and variable ac load through the grid side inverter and the trans- where is the permanent magnetic flux, and are the
former. Wind power energy obtained from the windmill is sent -axis inductance, and is the -axis current.
to the PMSG. In order to generate maximum power, the rota- The error between the -axis current commands, and ,
tional speed of the PMSG is controlled by the PWM converter. and the actual -axis currents is used as the input of the current
The PMSG’s output power is supplied to the dc load through controller. The current controller produces the axis voltage
the dc distribution line, and the remaining power of the PMSG commands and after decoupling. The rotor position
is supplied to the ac load through the grid-side inverter. used for the transformation between and variables is cal-
culated from the rotational speed of PMSG. MPPT control is ap-
B. PMSG Model plied when the wind speed is less than the rated wind speed
m/s. When the wind speed is greater than the
The PMSG is modeled as described in [20]–[22]. The gener- rated wind speed , then the output power of the PMSG is
ator-side converter controls the rotational speed of the PMSG in controlled by the pitch angle control system. For the wind speed
order to achieve variable speed operation with maximum power range between 5 m/s and the rated wind speed, the pitch angle
point tracking (MPPT) control and implements the maximum is selected to be because the energy of the windmill is
torque control [23]–[26]. The vector control scheme is used and largest at . When the wind speed is between the rated
is shown in Fig. 2. The speed control of the PMSG is realized wind speed and 24 m/s, is 1 pu so that pitch angle is se-
on a rotating frame, where the rotational speed error is used lected to keep the windmill output pu. For the other
as the input of the speed controller which produces the axis wind speed range, is 0 pu and the pitch angle is fixed at
stator current command . Generally, the salient pole type syn- . Fig. 3 shows the pitch angle control system that deter-
chronous machine is desirable to control the -axis stator current mines the pitch angle , where the output power error is used
and the reference is expressed by the following equation as the input of the PI controller. The pitch angle control system
[22]: includes a hydraulic servo system. The system has nonlinear
characteristics and can be modeled as first-order lag system
[14]. Therefore, in this paper, it is simulated by a first-order lag
(1)
system where the time constant is 1 s. Moreover, the pitch angle

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 KUROHANE et al.: A HYBRID SMART AC/DC POWER SYSTEM
TABLE I
PARAMETER OF PMSG AND WINDMILL
Fig. 4. Grid-side inverter control system.
is limited by a limiter within the range of 2 –90 and the max-
imum rate of change is 10 /s.
The parameters of the PMSG and windmill are shown in
Table I [20], [21].
C. Grid-Side Inverter
The grid-side inverter is aimed at the frequency and the
voltage controls. The control system blocks for the grid-side
inverter are shown in Fig. 4. The axis current can control the
frequency , and the axis current can control the voltage .
The frequency command is set to 60 Hz and the voltage
command is set to 6.6 kV. The phase angle , for the
transformation between and frame, is detected from the
three phase voltages of the low voltage side of the grid-side
transformer by a phase-locked loop (PLL).
D. Controllable Load
1) EWH: In this paper, the dc bus voltage is controlled by the
voltage control of the controllable loads. EWH and battery are
used as controllable loads. The decentralized EWH model for
each house connected to the dc grid is illustrated in Fig. 5(a).
The EWH is modeled as a current source and each EWH is con-
trolled to consume power within the rated range. The temper-
ature of accumulated water of EWH is controlled by feedback
control with an integral of the power consumption.
In this control system, the dc bus voltage fluctuation is sup-
pressed by the droop control. As shown in Fig. 5(a), the power
consumption command is decided by the droop coefficient
and the controlled variable produced by controller
of water temperature . The design of the droop coefficient
is explained in the next section.
2) Battery: Although the battery is installed in dc houses,
electric vehicle (EV) will be used as battery in the future. The
EV is important due to the depletion of energy sources and it is
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201
Fig. 5. Model and control system of controllable loads. (a) Model and control
system of EWH. (b) Model and control system of battery.
available as a backup power in the residential house. The de-
centralized battery model is illustrated in Fig. 5(b). The dis-
charge and charge operations are modeled as a current source
and charging rate is calculated by feedback control with an in-
tegral of the discharge and charge power consumptions.
In this control system, like EWH, the dc bus voltage fluctua-
tion is suppressed by the droop control. As shown in Fig. 5(b),
the power consumption command is decided by droop coeffi-
cient and control variable is produced by controller
of charging rate . The design of the droop coefficient is
also explained in the next section.
III. DC DISTRIBUTION VOLTAGE CONTROL BY
DROOP CHARACTERISTICS
This section describes the control of decentralized control-
lable loads according to droop characteristic.
In the dc grid, dc bus voltage fluctuations occur due to the
output fluctuation produced by WTG and loads. The suppres-
sion of this fluctuation is achieved by controllable loads con-
nected to the dc grid (see Fig. 1). Determination of the power
consumption command is needed for each controllable load as
each controllable load has different capacity. Therefore, the con-
trollable loads are controlled according to the droop characteris-
tics and load is shared according to the capacities of controllable
loads. The droop characteristics for the decentralized control-
lable loads are illustrated in Fig. 6. The droop characteristics of
EWHs for dc bus voltage is shown in Fig. 6(a). When the dc bus
voltage rises, the droop characteristics are configured such that
the bigger the capacity of EWH is, the more the power consump-
tions of EWH are. The droop characteristics of the batteries are
shown in Fig. 6(b). When the dc bus voltage rises, the droop
characteristics of batteries are configured such that the bigger
the capacity of battery is, the more the charging power of bat-
tery are. Additionally, when the dc bus voltage falls, the droop
characteristics are also configured such that the bigger the ca-
pacity of battery is, the more the discharging power of battery
are. The droop characteristics of EWH and battery are presented
by the following equations:
(2)
(3)
 202 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 1, NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 2010

Fig. 6. Droop characteristic of controllable loads. (a) Droop characteristic of EWH for dc bus voltage. (b) Droop characteristic of battery for dc bus voltage.

where and are expressed by the following equations: 3) s: The line fault is cleared.
4) When the ac grid voltage recovers to 0.9 pu, the gate
signals for the grid-side inverter are started again.
(4) Simulation results are shown in Fig. 7(a)–(r). Wind speed,
output of the PMSG, pitch angle, and power consumption of
(5) the variable loads are shown in Figs. 7(a)–(e), respectively. In
order to obtain the power output of the wind power generator,
where are the output voltages of EWH and battery. forecasted wind speed is considered. Fig. 7(a) shows the
are the output powers of EWH and battery. is the dc bus forecasted wind speed at Okinawa, Japan, for July 2006. For
voltage reference. is the minimum dc bus voltage (6950 V) this wind speed, the output of PMSG is shown in Fig. 7(b) and
in the acceptable range. are the rated powers of EWH is controlled by MPPT control when the wind speed is below
and battery. is the acceptable range of dc bus voltage fluc- the rated wind speed. When the wind speed is greater than the
tuation. This range is V according to [16]. The current rated wind speed, the output of PMSG is constant by using
command and are decided by using (4) and (5). Here, the the pitch angle control as shown in Fig. 7(d). The reactive
dc bus voltage reference is 7100 V. power of PMSG shown in Fig. 7(c) is almost zero because of
the maximum torque control by the generator-side converter.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS DC load fluctuation shown in Fig. 7(e) is set to consume
In this paper, effectiveness of the proposed method for dc power within the range of 100 kW to 400 kW randomly.
smart grid under line fault is examined by simulation with the The power consumption of EWH changes to suppress the
system model shown in Fig. 1. This simulation considers that a power fluctuation of dc smart grid as shown in Fig. 7(f). It
three-line to ground-fault occurs at the middle of the transmis- can be seen that the power consumption changes according
sion line of Fig. 1 and electrical power supply to the load is shut to the capacity of each EWH following the designed droop
down. The sequence of simulation is described below. characteristics.
1) s: The three-line to ground-fault occurs at the The water temperature of EWHs are raised up to 55 C
middle of the transmission line. as shown in Fig. 7(g). It can be seen from Fig. 7(h) that the
2) When the ac grid voltage drops to 0.8 pu, the gate signals power consumption of batteries are changing in accordance
for the grid-side inverter are stopped. with the capacity of each battery due to the designed control

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 KUROHANE et al.: A HYBRID SMART AC/DC POWER SYSTEM 203

Fig. 7. Simulation results. (a) Wind speed. (b) Active power of PMSG. (c) Reactive power of PMSG. (d) Pitch angle. (e) Active power consumption of dc loads.
(f) Load current of EWH. (g) Temperature of water in EWH. (h) Input/output current of battery. (i) Charging rate of battery. (j) dc bus voltage. (k) Active power
of ac load. (l) Reactive power of ac load. (m) Active power of grid-side inverter. (n) Reactive power of grid-side inverter. (o) Active power of diesel generator. (p)
Reactive power of diesel generator. (q) Frequency. (r) Terminal voltage of ac load.

system based on droop characteristics as well as for the case % as shown in Fig. 7(i). The dc bus voltage is
of EWH. The charging rate of batteries are raised up to shown in Fig. 7(j). The dashed line shows the acceptable range

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 204
for the dc bus voltage. From Fig. 7(j), it can be said that the dc
bus voltage is maintained within the acceptable range.
The ac load fluctuations shown in Figs. 7(k) and (l) are set
to consume power randomly. The active/reactive powers of the
grid-side inverter are shown in Figs. 7(m) and (n). As shown
in Fig. 7(m), the active power for the grid-side inverter is con-
trolled to suppress the system frequency fluctuation. The re-
active power of the grid-side inverter is controlled to suppress
the terminal voltage fluctuations. The active/reactive powers of
diesel generator are shown in Figs. 7(o) and (p). The diesel gen-
erator supplys the rest of the power required for the ac loads.
The frequency of the ac grid is shown in Fig. 7(q). The dashed
line shows the acceptable range for the frequency of the ac grid.
From Fig. 7(q), it is seen that the frequency is maintained within
the acceptable range. The terminal voltage of the ac loads is
shown in Fig. 7(r). The dashed line shows the case of
control, and the solid line shows the case of the voltage control.
As can be seen in this figure, the terminal voltage fluctuation is
suppressed by the voltage control more than the control.
Therefore, effectiveness of dc distribution voltage control by
power consumption control of decentralized controllable loads
connected to the demand side is verified.
V. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a dc smart grid to achieve the suppression
of dc bus voltage fluctuation by using controllable loads and
stabilizing control of the connected ac grid. The power fluctua-
tion due to renewable plant and loads is suppressed by the cur-
rent control of controllable loads based on droop characteristics.
Therefore, each decentralized controllable load is operated to
suppress the power fluctuation and the followings are achieved
without using any communication system: the power smoothing
of the output power of diesel generator and the suppressing of
dc bus voltage fluctuation. By using the proposed system, the
wind power and photovoltaic generators are able to operate at
maximum power point with the reduction in cost by reducing
storage equipment and by incorporating system frequency and
dc bus voltage controls.
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Authors’ photographs and biographies not available at the time of publication.