Shell Exploration & Production

P180 Development & Operation of

Production Systems
Process Engineering –
Gas Dehydration
Copyright: Shell Exploration & Production Ltd.

Martin Wilkes

Facilitator: Bill Finch

Page 1
 Content of this presentation
• Gas Processing Modules
• Gas Dehydration Processes
• Water Content of Natural Gas
• Condensation Processes
• Condensation Process using Twister
• Absorption using Tri-Ethylene Glycol
• Glycol contactor internals & performance
• Glycol regeneration
• Glycol Operating Problems
• Adsorption

Please click on notes

This presentation covers the following topics: Gas processing modules, Gas dehydration processes,
Water content of natural gas, Condensation processes, Condensation process using twister,
Absorption using Tri-Ethylene Glycol, Glycol contactor internals & performance, Glycol regeneration,
Glycol Operating Problems, and Adsorption.

Page 2
 Gas Processing Modules
Hydrocarbon
Dewpointing
Dehydration

NGL Extraction Stabilisation

Condensation Condensation Distillation

Absorption
Adsorption Adsorption

Sulphur
Sweetening
Recovery

Absorption Chemical
Adsorption Reaction
Chemical Capture

Gas Processing techniques can be categorised by both:

1) What they are trying to achieve (Dehydration, HC dewpointing, Sweetening etc.).

2) What type of process is employed (Condensation, Absorption, Adsorption etc.).

Whilst the figure does not attempt to identify all processes used in E&P Gas processing, it does cover
the large majority of processes in use today. (It should be noted that there are some specialist
techniques successfully employed in particular locations, that don’t use these methods – dehydration
of gas using membrane technology is one such example).
Dehydration techniques can be divided into three distinct categories:
• Condensation
• Absorption
• Adsorption

Page 3
 Gas Dehydration Processes
Pipeline/Sales Absorption
Specification Adsorption

Water Removal LPG Recovery Absorption

only Spec Adsorption

LNG
Adsorption
Specification

Water & Pipeline/Sales Condensation

NGL Removal Specification Adsorption

LPG Recovery Condensation

Spec Absorption

NGL Removal
LNG
Condensation
Specification

Natural gas leaves the reservoir saturated with H2O. It must be dehydrated prior to
transportation, sale, processing for NGL recovery, or liquefaction (LNG). The choice of
process to carry out the dehydration will depend on a combination of how much dehydration
is required, whether any other processing is also required, and economics. If both water and
hydrocarbon dewpointing is required then condensation.
• CONDENSATION can be used to obtain both specifications at the same time. Water and
NGLs condense from the gas due to the cooling. Inhibitor is injected to prevent hydrates
(freezing). MEG is a viable inhibitor to -40°C [-40F], methanol is viable to -100°C [-148°F].
• ADSORPTION, using Silica Gel can also be used to simultaneously meet water and
Hydrocarbon dewpoint specifications under certain circumstances (e.g. used in UGS facilities
in the Netherlands), but is a more expensive option. In many instances dehydration is
required, without impacting the hydrocarbon dewpoint (e.g. HC’s are to be left in the system
to be processed at a different location).
In these cases condensation techniques are not applicable.
• ABSORPTION (Glycol Dehydration) is often the most appropriate choice in this case. This
is the most popular dehydration process and can be used in a wide variety of dehydration
applications. A standard glycol unit is used for transportation, gas-lift, and sales
applications. Enhanced regeneration units are used for low water dewpoint applications,
typically where the gas is to be refrigerated later (e.g.for LPG extraction). Absorption is not
capable of really deep dehydration.
•ADSORPTION (Molecular Sieve, Silica Gel or Alumina) is used for ultra low dewpoint
applications such a dehydration upstream of turbo expander NGL extraction plant
and LNG plants. Outlet water dewpoint of far below -100°C [148°F] can be achieved. It can
also be used for less stringent requirements, but is often an expensive solution in these
cases.

For removal of NGLs from (previously) dehydrated gas condensation is again the technique
most often employed. (Absorption using lean-oil is also used, however this is an old process
and is unlikely to be found in plants built in the last 20-30 years.). NGL removal and recovery
is discussed more in another module.

Page 4
 Water Content
of Natural Gas

A more detailed version of this graph can be found as a pdf-file on the TeleTOP site.
In order to design dehydration processes properly it is important to know:

1) The amount of water that is contained within the gas.

2) The water content specification required.

Knowing these enables an estimate to be made of how much water needs to be removed from the
gas, and that enables the start of system design.

Page 5
 Condensation Processes
• Refrigeration
– No (or little pressure loss)
– Used for simultaneous water and HC dewpoint control
• Low Temperature Separation (using Joule Thompson effect)
– LTS or LTX
– Pressure loss through a valve
– Used for simultaneous water and HC dewpoint control
• Turbo-Expansion
– Pressure loss through a Turbo-Expander
– Generally used for HC dewpoint control and NGL extraction.
• Twister
– Pressure loss and (partial) recovery through a venturi.
– Used for simultaneous water and HC dewpoint control.

There are a number of condensation processes available – all work on the principle of cooling the
gas and condensing out water (and NGLs).

1) Refrigeration – cooling is achieved through an external refrigeration system.

Hydrate formation is prevented through the injection of inhibitor.

2) Low Temperature Separation (LTS / LTX) – cooling is achieved through the expansion of the
gas across a valve.
With LTS hydrate formation is prevented by injection of inhibitors.
With LTX hydrates are controlled and melted by a heating coil in the cold separator.

3) Turbo-expansion – cooling is achieved through expansion of the gas through a turbine, and
power is obtained from the gas.
Hydrate formation is normally prevented through the injection of inhibitor.

4) Twister – cooling is achieved through supersonic expansion of the gas across a venturi.
Hydrate formation is prevented by the speed of the process, no inhibitor is required.

Page 6
 Condensation Process (refrigeration with MEG
injection)
Dry Residue Gas
Steam to
Atmosphere

Wet Inlet Gas

Propane Liquid Cooling

Vapor to Propane
Injection Nozzle Medium
Refrigerant Refrigerant
Compressor Supply

Packed
Stripper
Gas/Gas Exchanger Column

Injection
Nozzle
Flashed
Hydrocarbon Heat
Vapor Medium
Supply
Gas Chiller and
Reboiler Return

Lean Glycol
Surge Tank

NGL's to
Stabilizer Rich Glycol
Flash Tank
Flow
Cold Control
Separator Bypass
Filter
Valve
Rich Glycol Lean Glycol
Glycol
Injection
Lean/Rich EG Pump
Exchanger

In condensation processes the hydrate inhibitor (mono-ethylene glycol) is typically injected

both upstream of the gas-gas exchanger and the chiller (or expansion valve in an LTS plant).
Good mixing is necessary to insure adequate inhibition. Spray nozzles are required to ensure
the MEG is adequately distributed.
(If inhibitor is not injected (as with LTX) then the conditions in the gas-gas exchanger must
be kept outside of the hydrate region, and this can limit the amount of cooling that can be
achieved in the system. Typically an LTX unit will not be able to achieve as low a dewpoint as
an LTS unit because of this.)
If a turbo-expander is used in simultaneous water and HC depwoint control, then an extra
separator, between the gas-gas exchanger and the turbo-expander will be required in order
to remove any liquids from the feed to the turbo-expander (this also has thermodynamic
advantages and is also used in the Twister process).

Glycol Process Flow:

“Lean” glycol is sprayed into the system and mixes with the water that condenses from the
cooled gas (preventing hydrates). This “rich” glycol solution is collected in the cold separator
where it is separated from the condensed hydrocarbons. Due to the cold properties of the
fluids this is not an easy separation. Retention times of 20-30 minutes in the glycol phase are
required. The rich glycol leaves the cold separator, is heated in the rich-lean glycol exchanger
(typcially to about 30-50°C) and enters a glycol/hydrocarbon flash tank (through a pressure
reduction valve) where remaining hydrocarbons are removed through flashing (or condensate
skimming). The rich glycol then enters the glycol regenerator where it is reconcentrated to
required levels (usually 75-80 wt%). Reboiler temperatures for MEG are about 120-125°C
[250-260°F]. The lean glycol is then cooled through the rich-lean glycol exchanger and
pumped back into the system.

If di-ethylene glycol is used then the regeneration temperatures are approximately 175-
180°C.
If methanol is used then because of it’s low viscosity, spray nozzles are not required
(however methanol is more difficult to regenerate, and can cause downstream problems in
the gas phase).
Page 7
 Example of methanol based inhibition
(IFPexol®) Make-up
Dry Gas

Methanol

Cold
Process

IFPEX-1
Contactor
Wet Raw
Cold
Gas Feed
Separator

Stripping
Gas

Decanted
Methanol-Water
Solution Pump

Water NGL

IEPexol® is a methanol inhibition system employing a unique (and patented) regeneration system,
licensed by IFP (Institut Francais du Petrole).
IFPexol simplifies the regeneration of the methanol and avoids the use of a methanol-water
fractionator (which would otherwise be needed). It takes advantage of the relative volatility of
methanol to water to separate the two components.
In the IFPexol contactor (it is actually a stripper) a portion of the warm, water-saturated feed gas is
used to strip the methanol from the “water-rich” methanol solution leaving the cold separator. The
gas leaving the IFPexol contactor now contains methanol which is carried back into the cold process
where it inhibits hydrates. Water is drained from the IFPexol contactor. This water typically contains
small amounts of methanol < 200-300 ppm.
Since methanol will be lost with the gas, and the water some make-up is required.

Page 8
Twister – the next generation?

Page 9
 Twister – the next generation?

Expander Separator Compressor

Saturated
Feed Gas Dry Gas

100 bar, 30 bar, -40C 70 bar,

20C 5C

Laval Nozzle Supersonic Cyclone

Wing
Mach 1.3 (500 Separator
m/s) (300,000g Liquids
Diffuser ) 70 bar,
+ Slip-Gas 5C

The Twister™ Supersonic Separator has thermodynamics similar to a turbo-expander, combining the
following process steps in a compact, tubular device:
• expansion (and cooling)
• cyclonic gas/liquid separation
• re-compression
Whereas a turbo-expander transforms pressure to shaft power, Twister achieves a similar
temperature drop by transforming pressure to kinetic energy (i.e. supersonic velocity). The
thermodynamics of the process will be discussed more in a separate module.

The figure shows the basic concepts:

• A LAVAL NOZZLE is used to expand the saturated feed gas to supersonic velocity, which results in
a low temperature and pressure, causing condensation of water and hydrocarbon droplets.
• A WING placed in the supersonic flow regime generates a high swirl (up to 300,000g), the and the
droplets are “flung” to the wall through centrifugal force, the liquids are then split from the gas using
a cyclonic separator.
• The SEPARATED STREAMS are slowed down in separate diffusers, recovering some 65-80% of the
initial pressure.
• The LIQUID STREAM still contains slip-gas (15-20% of inlet stream), which will be removed in a
compact liquid de-gassing vessel and recombined with the dry gas stream.

This last point is the current limitation of the Twister process, since the slip-gas is still saturated with
water and hydrocarbons.

Page 10
 Twister tube
Saturated Gas Feed
Cyclone Separator
(>300,000 g)

Dewpointed
Gas

Expand to
Supersonic Velocity

Condense
Water & NGL
Liquids + Slip-gas

Twister tube.

Page 11
 Twister: Internal view of wing

Twister: Internal view of wing.

Page 12
 Physical set-up of Twister

The physical set-up of Twister, showing how multiple tubes are used to achieve turndown
requirements.

Page 13
 Condensation Process using Twister
Twister Tube(s)

Gas/Gas
HEX
Inlet
Separato
r
Air/Sea (<10µm)
Water
Cooler

Liquid
De-Gassing
Vessel

Water &
Condensate

This figure shows a Process Flow Diagram of a typical Twister System.

Twister is a low temperature separation process, which performance can be optimised by inlet
cooling. This can be achieved by heat integration using the cold gas exit Twister, supplemented with
air or seawater cooling if required.
Because hydrate inhibition chemicals are not desired, inlet cooling is limited to just outside the
hydrate regime, typically some 20C at 100 bar for a water saturated natural gas feed.
The inlet separator upstream of the Twister tubes is designed to remove produced liquids and
prevent carry-over of slugs and solids (10 microns). The gas from the inlet separator is then directed
through the Twister tubes.
The liquids separated by Twister will still contain slip-gas, some 20-30% of the total gas stream,
which will be removed in a liquid de-gassing vessel and recombined with the dry gas stream.
Typically, the operating conditions of the liquid de-gassing vessel are well within the hydrate
formation regime. Twister BV have developed a compact and highly efficient vessel design based on
the LTX technology, melting hydrates using heating coils. The dry gas from the Twister tubes is
mixed with the gas from the liquid de-gassing vessel and directed through the gas/gas heat
exchanger to cool the feed gas. The water and hydrocarbon condensate from the inlet separator and
Liquid de-gassing vessel will typically be routed to a coalescer to separate free water from the
condensate.
In designing a gas conditioning system based on Twister technology, the following issues need to be
considered:
• Twister is a fixed actual volumetric flow device. The gas velocity at the throat of the inlet nozzle
will always be exactly Mach 1, fixing the flow through the tube. Some turndown flexibility can be
achieved by adjusting the operating pressure. However, a typical Twister system will include multiple
Twister tubes manifolded together to provide the required turndown flexibility.
• Twister is a pressure ratio device. For any design pressure, the gas will expand to some 30% of
feed pressure mid Twister and recompress to some 65 to 80% of feed pressure exit Twister.

Page 14
 Absorption using Tri-Ethylene Glycol

Tri-ethylene glycol (TEG) is contacted with the gas stream in a trayed or packed contactor tower at
elevated pressure and ambient temperature. The TEG is hygroscopic; i.e. it has a strong affinity for
water. The water molecules in the natural gas are absorbed into the liquid TEG.
Once the water has been absorbed by the TEG it must be removed so that the re-concentrated TEG
may be re-circulated to the contactor. This regeneration process takes place at high temperature,
about 204°C [400°F], and atmospheric pressure.

Wet feed gas enters the inlet separator for liquids removal and then flows to the bottom of the
contactor where it flows up the contactor and counter contacts the lean glycol, flowing down the
contactor. The water is absorbed by the TEG. Dry gas exits the top of the contactor and after passing
through an outlet scrubber, flows on for further processing, as necessary.
The diluted (rich) glycol solution flows through the level control valve and then onward to a reflux
condenser mounted in the top of the glycol regenerator. The purpose of this is two-fold:
1. The glycol acts as a condensing medium for some of the vapor leaving the regenerator,
thereby providing reflux for the top portion of the column.
2. The rich glycol is pre-heated before entering the glycol flash vessel.
The rich glycol enters the rich glycol flash tank, where entrained hydrocarbons are flashed to vapor and
removed. A liquid hydrocarbon phase may also form and must be skimmed off.
The glycol then passes through the sock filter for particulate removal and a slip-stream is passed
through an activated carbon “filter” for removal of dissolved heavy hydrocarbons and degradation
products. Next, the rich glycol is heated in the lean/rich glycol heat exchanger before entering the
regenerator.
Inside the regenerator, the rich glycol feed flows downward over the packing and contacts the hot
vapor from the reboiler below. The water in the rich glycol vaporizes Some of the rising vapor
condenses on the coils of the reflux condenser and falls as reflux onto the top section of the stripper,
this also cools the rising vapor to prevent excess TEG vaporization losses.
In the reboiler, the glycol is heated to approximately 204°C [400°F]. The hot lean glycol level is
maintained by a weir or stand pipe in the reboiler shell. The lean solution overflows the weir and enters
a gas stripping column. The stripper provides more complete water removal (if necessary) as the hot
solution contacts the rising dry stripping gas supplied from an external source. The lean TEG then
collects in the lean TEG surge tank.
From the surge tank, the lean TEG is pumped through the opposite side of the lean/rich glycol
exchanger and then back to the contactor by the circulation pump (and booster pump if required).
Prior to entering the contactor, the lean glycol is cooled to within 5-10°C [9-18°F] of the inlet gas
temperature.
Page 15
 Glycol Contactor internals
Clean Gas

Lean
Solvent

Distributor

Packing
Structured Packing

Packing
support
grid

Untreated
gas

Bubble Cap
Rich Solvent

The glycol contactor is where the water is removed from the gas. Contactor internals may be bubble
cap trays, structured packing, or swirl tubes.
Bubble caps are old technology, and are no longer common.
Structured packing is the most common, but swirl tube trays (patented by Shell) allow gas handling
capacity increases over packing.

Page 16
 Glycol
40
Contactor Performance

20

wt%

0 95.0
Equilibrium Dewpoint, ºC

98.0
98.5
-20 99.0

99.5

-40
99.9

99.95
-60 99.97

99.99

-80
20 30 40 50 60
Contactor Temperature, ºC

The performance of a glycol contactor depends on:

1) The lean glycol concentration.
2) The Glycol circulation rate.
3) The amount of contact between the gas and glycol in the contactor.

All are important, but the single most important factor is the lean glycol concentration. If the lean
glycol concentration is insufficient to meet the outlet water specification, it makes no difference what
the glycol circulation rate and height of the contactor are.
The above graphs show the relationship between the equilibrium water dewpoint of a gas versus the
contactor temperature and the glycol concentration. This is used to determine the required lean
glycol concentration for a particular dehydration application.

NOTE: Equilibrium between the outlet gas and incoming lean glycols is not actually achieved at the
top of the contactor. The actual outlet dewpoint will only approach the equilibrium dewpoint. This
approach is typically 5-10°C [9-18°F] on a dewpoint basis. This means that the actual dewpoint will
be 5-10°C warmer than the equilibrium dewpoint. This needs to be accounted for in any design.

Page 17
 Vent Gases to Flare
or Recycle Flue Gas

Glycol Regeneration Still

Rich Column
TEG

Direct
Fired
Reboiler
Stripping
Gas

Surge Tank
Glycol
Pump

Flue Gas a) Stripping gas

Vent Gases to Flare
or Recycle Flue Gas

C.W.
Vent
Still
Rich Rich Still
Column TEG
TEG Column
®
Reboiler DRIZO
SEPARATOR
Direct Direct
Fired Stripping Fired
Solvent Water REBOILER

Cooling Medium

Solvent
Surge Tank Vaporizer Excess Surge Tank Water Rich
Solvent TEG Mixture
To Still
Column

Glycol Pump Glycol Pump

® ®
b) DRIZO c) COLDFINGER

(To see a larger version of this picture click on Attachments at the top of this presentation).
A simple TEG regenerator operating at 204°C [400°F] and 1 atmosphere can produce
approximately 98.7 wt% TEG with no stripping gas. If this concentration is not sufficient to
meet the water dewpoint specification then some method of increasing the glycol
concentration at the regenerator will be necessary.

The above figure shows the 3 commercial methods available:

1) Stripping Gas – This is the most common method. It is not proprietary and is suitable
for the majority of TEG applications. A stripping column is typically installed between the
reboiler and surge tank. Stripping gas rates very depending on the system design, but
seldom exceed 75 sm3/m3 TEG. Lean TEG concentrations of 99.99 wt% are feasible.

2) DRIZO® – DRIZO is a proprietary regeneration system which allows the regeneration of

the TEG to very high concentration levels (> 99.995 wt%). This, in turn, allows very low
water dewpoints to be achieved at the contactor. Some DRIZO units have achieved –80°C [-
112°F] water dewpoints. The stripping medium is a liquid hydrocarbon which can be
vaporized for stripping, then condensed, recovered and reused. It allows very high stripping
rates without loss or recompression of the stripping gas.

3) COLDFINGER® – The Coldfinger process used a cooling coil in the surge tank vapor
space above the surface of the hot, lean TEG. Due to the very high relative volatility of water
to TEG, this vapor is water rich. A water-rich glycol-water mixture condenses in the coil and
is collected in a trough below the coil. This mixture is drained from the surge tank and sent
back to the regenerator. The removal of water from the vapor space disturbs the equilibrium
in the surge tank and causes water to boil out of the lean TEG, thereby enhancing the
concentration. Although the theory behind Coldfinger is sound, field experience shows that
this technique does not work, and it is not recommended within Shell.

Page 18
 Glycol Operating Problems

1. Losses
2. Foaming
3. Corrosion
4. BTEX
5. Salt
6. Degradation

There are a few common and well known operating issues with glycol systems:
1) LOSSES –
TEG is a relatively expensive chemical and significant losses of TEG result in unacceptable
operating costs. Most TEG is lost at the contactor due to entrainment. This is caused by
foaming, excessive gas rates or improper contactor design. This entrained TEG can be
recovered in a properly sized TEG outlet scrubber.
TEG may also be lost at the regenerator due to vaporization (inadequate reflux) or
entrainment (plugged or undersized regenerator still column), but is likely to be of a lower
order of magnitude than from the contactor.
2) FOAMING –
Foaming generally caused by the excessive presence of hydrocarbons in the glycol.
3) CORROSION –
TEG is not naturally corrosive. Its pH is near 7.0 and this is the preferred pH in an operating
glycol system.
If the feed gas contains H2S and/or CO2 the pH of the glycol may decrease to levels which
cause unacceptable corrosion, the rich TEG can be a particular problem.
If the make-up glycol is not sufficient to control the pH, corrosion inhibitors or alkaline
compounds (amines such as MEA) are often used to control corrosion rates or pH.
4) AROMATIC EMISSIONS (BTEX) –
TEG has a fairly high affinity for aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, etc. These
hydrocarbons are absorbed into the glycol at the contactor and subsequently discharged at
the top of the regenerator. Emission of aromatic hydrocarbons is controlled in most locations
so this can present an environmental and safety problem. Mitigation of aromatic emissions
can be achieved by condensing the hydrocarbons from the regenerator overhead. Minimizing
the TEG circulation rate will also minimize the absorption of BTEX.
5) SALT –
Salt may enter the glycol system due to carryover of produced water in the gas from
upstream separation equipment. The salt dissolves in the rich glycol, but precipitates out
from the lean TEG in the regenerator & lean-rich exchanger. This usually results in
unacceptable fouling and plugging of equipment.
6) DEGRADATION PRODUCTS –
Degradation is unavoidable, and the charcoal filters in the system should be designed to
control the build up of degradation products – these filters work best in an aqueous Page 19
environment (the rich glycol stream).
 Adsorption

Adsorption is the process by which water is removed from the gas by contacting the gas with a solid
desiccant. The most common dry desiccants are Molecular sieves, silica gel, and alumina. Molecular
sieves are the most widely used in the natural gas industry. They are manufactured as pellets or
spheres with a diameter of 2-3 mm [1/16-1/8 in.]. Molecular sieves can achieve water dewpoints of -
100°C or lower. Water removal to this level is essential if the gas is to be processed in an LNG plant
or a "cryogenic" gas plant.

The above figure shows a Process Flow Diagram for a typical adsorption system based on a two-bed
system with one bed in operation and the other in regeneration.
The wet gas enters the system by first passing through an inlet scrubber where free liquids are
removed. Most systems also employ a coalescing filter separator, as shown.
The wet gas then enters the top of Adsorber (dehydrator) number 1. The gas flows downward
through the bed of adsorbent material where the water is removed. The dry gas then flows to the
outlet filter where desiccant dust is removed prior to transportation or further processing steps. This
bed will remain in operation until the desiccant saturated with water. Molecular sieves can typically
hold 9-12% of their weight in water.

Adsorber number 2 is in the regeneration cycle. A supply of dry regeneration gas is passed through a
heater where its temperature is increased to that required to regenerate the adsorbent (typically
250-350°C [482-662°F]). This hot gas is sent to the bottom of adsorber number 2. The high
temperature gas drives the adsorbed water off the desiccant. The now wet regeneration gas leaves
the top of the bed and enters a cooler where the bulk of the water vapor is condensed. The
regeneration gas is then scrubbed and returned to the plant as a recycle stream or is used as fuel.
The regeneration gas flow is typically 5-10% of the process gas flow. The bed is then cooled with dry
process gas to ready it for adsorption duty (before bed 1 is full!).
Once bed 1 is “full” bed 2 is switched onto adsorption and bed 1 starts its regeneration cycle.

The total cycle of adsorption/regeneration typically takes anywhere between 8-24 hours dependent
upon design.

Page 20
 Issues with
Adsorption

There are a number of issues with adsorption systems:

1. Allowable Gas volumetric flowrates in adsorber columns are lower than in equivalent Glycol
absorber columns.This means that for the same gas flows, you will require (at least) two bigger
diameter adsorber towers (compared to one glycol contactor).The requirement to recycle the
regeneration gas (15-20%) also increases the diameter required for adsorber columns. Typically for
an equivalent duty the diameter of adsorber columns will be 50% greater than a glycol contactor.

2. Gas adsorbers typically have a higher pressure drop compared to glycol contactors.

3. The switching valves are large and expensive to maintain on adsorption systems.

4. The capital cost is large (see above).

5. They require a large energy input, and therefore have a high operating cost (sometimes hidden
because the fuel is “free”).

6. They are extremely sensitive to liquid carry over.

7. Dust from the beds can be an issue for downstream equipment.

Page 21
End of this presentation

Page 22