22 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics

To enter data into Excel by typing:

1. Click the cell at the top of the column where you want to enter data. When working with
values for a single variable, you usually will want to enter the values into a column.
2. Type each data value and press [Enter] or [Tab].

You can also enter data into Excel by opening an Excel workbook file. Follow the steps in the ex-
ample below to open the Databank file available for download at the book’s website.

Example XL1–1
1. Click File on the menu bar, then click Open . . . (i.e., select File>Open . . . ).
The Open dialog box will be displayed.
2. In the Look in box, click the folder where the workbook file is located.
3. In the folder list, double-click folders until you open the folder containing the file you want.
4. Double-click the file name in the list box. The data will be copied into Excel.

1–7 The two major areas of statistics are descriptive and inferential. Descriptive statistics in-
cludes the collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data. Inferential
Summary statistics includes making inferences from samples to populations, hypothesis testing,
determining relationships, and making predictions. Inferential statistics is based on
probability theory.
Since in most cases the populations under study are large, statisticians use sub-
groups called samples to get the necessary data for their studies. There are four basic
methods used to obtain samples: random, systematic, stratified, and cluster.
Data can be classified as qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative data can be either
discrete or continuous, depending on the values they can assume. Data can also be
measured by various scales. The four basic levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.

LAFF - A - DAY

“We've polled the entire populace, Your

Majesty, and we've come up with
exactly the results you ordered!”

Source: © 1993 King Features Syndicate, Inc. World

Rights reserved. Reprinted with special permission of
King Features Syndicate.
 Section 1–7 Summary 23

There are two basic types of statistical studies. They are observational studies and
experimental studies. When conducting observational studies, researchers observe what
is happening or what has happened and then draw conclusions based on these observa-
tions. They do not attempt to manipulate the variables in any way.
When conducting an experimental study, the researchers manipulate one or more of
the independent or explanatory variables and see how this manipulation influences the
dependent or outcome variable.
Finally, the applications of statistics are many and varied. People encounter them in
everyday life, such as in reading newspapers or magazines, listening to the radio, or
watching television. Since statistics is used in almost every field of endeavor, the edu-
cated individual should be knowledgeable about the vocabulary, concepts, and proce-
dures of statistics.
Today computers and calculators are used extensively in statistics to facilitate the
computations.

Important Terms
cluster sample 12
confounding variable 16
convenience sample 14
continuous variables 7
control group 16
data 4
data set 4
data value or datum 4
dependent variable 15
descriptive statistics 5
discrete variables 7
experimental study 15 observational study 15 random variable 4
explanatory variable 15 ordinal level of ratio level of
Hawthorne effect 16 measurement 9 measurement 10
hypothesis testing 6 outcome variable 15 sample 6
independent variable 15 population 6 statistics 3
inferential statistics 7 probability 5 stratified sample 12
interval level of qualitative variables 7 systematic sample 11
measurement 9 quantitative variables 7 treatment group 16
measurement scales 9 quasi-experimental variable 4
nominal level of study 15 Review Exer-
measurement 9 random sample 11 cises

Review Exercises
Note: All odd-numbered problems and even-numbered
problems marked with (ans) are included in the answer
section at the end of this book.
Note: Problems with an asterisk (*) require more in-depth
skills than other problems.
1–1. Name and define the two areas of statistics.
1–2. What is probability? Name two areas where
probability is used.
1–3. Suggest some ways statistics can be used in
everyday life.
1–4. Explain the differences between a sample and a
population.
1–5. Why are samples used in statistics?
1–6. (ans) In each statement that follows, tell whether
descriptive or inferential statistics have been used.
a. In the year 2010, 148 million Americans will be enrolled
in an HMO (Source: USA Today, December 30, 1997).
b. Nine out of 10 on-the-job fatalities are men (Source:
USA Weekend, January 2–4, 1998).
c. Expenditures for the cable industry were 5.66 billion
dollars in 1996 (Source: USA Today, December 30, 1997).
d. The median household income for people ages 25–34 is
$35,888 (Source: USA Today, December 8, 1997).
e. “Allergy therapy makes bees go away.” (Prevention,
April 1995).
f. Drinking decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol
levels by 7%. (Source: American Heart Association).
g. The national average annual medicine expenditure per
person is $1,052 (Source: The Tribune Review, Greensburg,
Pa., December 22, 1996).
h. Experts say that mortgage rates may soon hit bottom
(Source: USA Today, October 6, 1997).
24 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
1–7. Classify each as nominal-level, ordinal-level, interval-
level, or ratio-level data.
a. Horsepower of motorcycle engines.
b. Ratings of newscasts in Houston (poor, fair, good,
excellent).
c. Temperature of automatic popcorn poppers.
d. Time required by drivers to complete a course.
e. Salaries of cashiers of Day-Night grocery stores.
f. Marital status of respondents to a survey on savings
accounts.
g. Ages of students enrolled in a martial arts course.
h. Weights of beef cattle fed a special diet.
i. Rankings of weight lifters.
j. Pages in the telephone book for the city of Los Angeles.
1–8. (ans) Classify each variable as qualitative or
quantitative.
a. Colors of automobiles in the faculty parking lot.
b. Number of desks in classrooms.
c. Classification of children in a day care center (infant,
toddler, preschool).
d. Weights of fish caught in Lake Emilie.
e. Number of pages in statistics textbooks.
f. Capacity (in gallons) of water in selected dams.
g. Number of off-road vehicles sold in the United States.
1–9. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.
a. Number of loaves of bread baked each day at a local
bakery.
b. Water temperature of the saunas at a given health spa.
c. Incomes of single parents who attend a community
college.
d. Lifetimes of batteries in a tape recorder.
e. Weights of newborn infants at a certain hospital.
f. Capacity (in gallons) of water in swimming pools.
g. Number of pizzas sold last year in the United States.
1–10. Give the boundaries for each value.
a. 84.5 miles
b. 6 tons
c. 0.15 milliliters
d. 17 inches
e. 8.72 ounces
f. 97 feet
1–11. Name and define the four basic sampling methods.
1–12. (ans) Classify each sample as random, systematic,
stratified, or cluster.
a. In a large school district, all teachers from two buildings
are interviewed to determine whether they believe the
students have less homework to do now than in previous
years.
b. Every seventh customer entering a shopping mall is
asked to select his or her favorite store.
c. Nursing supervisors are selected using random numbers
in order to determine annual salaries.
d. Every hundredth hamburger manufactured is checked to
determine its fat content.
e. Mail carriers of a large city are divided into four groups
according to gender (male or female) and according to
whether they walk or ride on their routes. Then 10 are
selected from each group and interviewed to determine
whether they have been bitten by a dog in the last year.
1–13. Give three examples each of nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio data.
1–14. For each of the following statements, define a
population and state how a sample might be obtained.
a. The average cost of an airline meal in 1993 was $4.55
(Source: Everything Has Its Price, Richard E. Donley,
Simon and Schuster, 1995).
b. “More than 1 in 4 United States children have
cholesterol levels of 180 milligrams or higher” (Source:
The American Health Foundation).
c. “Every 10 minutes, 2 people die in car crashes and 170
are injured” (Source: National Safety Council estimates).
d. “When older people with mild to moderate hypertension
were given the mineral salt for six months, the average
blood pressure reading dropped by eight points systolic
and three points diastolic” (Source: Prevention, March
1995, p. 19).
e. “The average amount spent per gift for Mom on
Mother’s Day is $25.95” (Source: The Gallup
Organization).
1–15. Select a newspaper or magazine article that involves
a statistical study and write a paper answering the
following questions.
a. Is this study descriptive or inferential in nature? Explain
your answer.
b. What are the variables used in the study? In your
opinion, what level of measurement was used to obtain the
data from the variables?
c. Does the article define the population? If so, how is it
defined? If not, how could it be defined?
d. Does the article state the sample size and how the
sample was obtained? If so, explain the size of the sample
and how it was selected. If not, suggest a way it could have
been obtained.
e. Explain in your own words what procedure (survey,
comparison of groups, etc.) might have been used to
determine the study’s conclusions.
f. Do you agree or disagree with the conclusions? State
your reasons.
1–16. Information from research studies is sometimes
taken out of context. Explain why the claims of these
studies might be suspect.
a. The average salary of the graduates of the class of 1980
is $32,500.
b. It is estimated that in Podunk there are 27,256 cats.
 Section 1–7 Summary 25

c. Only 3% of the men surveyed read Cosmopolitan
magazine.
d. Based on a recent mail survey, 85% of the respondents
favored gun control.
e. A recent study showed that high school dropouts drink
more coffee than students who graduated; therefore, coffee
dulls the brain.
f. Since most automobile accidents occur within 15 miles
of a person’s residence, it is safer to make long trips.
1–17. Identify each study as being either observational or
experimental:
a. Subjects were randomly assigned to two groups and one
group was given an herb and the other group a placebo.
After six months, the number of respiratory tract infections
each group had were compared.
b. A researcher stood at a busy intersection to see if the
color of an automobile a person drives is related to running
red lights.
c. A researcher finds that people who are more hostile
have higher total cholesterol levels than those who are less
hostile.
d. Subjects are randomly assigned to four groups. Each
group is placed on one of four special diets—low-fat diet, a
high-fish diet, a combination of low-fat diet and high-fish
diet, and a regular diet. After six months, the blood
pressures of the groups are compared to see if diet has any
affect on blood pressure.
1–18. Identify the independent variable(s) and the dependent
variable for each of the studies in the preceding exercise.
1–19. For each of the studies in Exercise 1–17, suggest
possible confounding variables.
1–20. In the 1980s, a study linked coffee to a higher risk of
heart disease and pancreatic cancer. In the early 1990s,
studies showed that drinking coffee posed minimal health
threats. However, in 1994, a study showed that pregnant
women who drank three or more cups of tea daily may be
at risk for spontaneous abortion. In 1998, a study claimed
that women who drank more than a half-cup of caffeinated
tea every day may actually increase their fertility. In 1998,
a study showed that over a lifetime, a few extra cups of
coffee a day can raise blood pressure, heart rate, and stress
(Source: “Bottom Line: Is It Good for You? Or Bad?” by
Monika Guttman, USA Today Weekend, February 26–28,
1999, pp. 8–9). Suggest some reasons why these studies
appear to be conflicting.
*1–21. Find an article that describes a statistical study and
identify the study as observational or experimental.
*1–22. For the article that you used in the previous
exercise, identify the independent variable(s) and
dependent variable for the study.
*1–23. For the article that you selected in Exercise 1–21,
suggest some confounding variables that may have an
effect on the results of the study.

Are We Improving Our Diet? Revisited

Statistics Today
Researchers selected a sample of 23,699 adults in the United States, using phone num-
bers selected at random, and conducted a telephone survey. All respondents were asked
six questions:
1. How often do you drink juices such as orange, grapefruit, or tomato?
2. Not counting juice, how often do you eat fruit?
3. How often do you eat green salad?
4. How often do you eat potatoes (not including french fries, fried potatoes, or
potato chips)?
5. How often do you eat carrots?
6. Not counting carrots, potatoes, or salad, how many servings of vegetables do you
usually eat?
Researchers found that men consumed fewer servings of fruits and vegetables per
day (3.3) than women (3.7). Only 20% of the population consumed the recommended
5 or more daily servings. In addition, they found that youths and less-educated people
consume an even lower amount than the average.
Based on this study, they recommend that greater educational efforts are needed to
improve fruit and vegetable consumption by Americans and to provide environmental
and institutional support to encourage increased consumption.

Source: Mary K. Sendula, M.D., et al., “Fruit and Vegetable Intake among Adults in 16 States: Results of a
Brief Telephone Survey,” American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 2 (February 1995).
26 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics

Chapter Quiz
Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the 12. A study that involves no researcher intervention is called
statement is false, explain why. a. an experimental study.
b. a noninvolvement study.
1. Probability is used as a basis for inferential c. an observational study.
statistics. d. a quasi-experimental study.
2. The height of President Lincoln is an example of a 13. A variable that interferes with other variables in the
variable. study is called
3. The highest level of measurement is the interval level. a. a confounding variable.
b. an explanatory variable.
4. When the population of college professors is divided
c. an outcome variable.
into groups according to their rank (instructor, assistant
d. an interfering variable.
professor, etc.), and then several are selected from each
group to make up a sample, the sample is called a Use the best answer to complete the following
cluster sample. statements.
5. The variable of age is an example of a qualitative 14. Two major branches of statistics are and .
variable.
15. Two uses of probability are and .
6. The weight of pumpkins is considered to be a
continuous variable. 16. The group of all subjects under a study is called
a .
7. The boundary of a value such as 6 inches would be 5.9
inches to 6.1 inches. 17. A group of subjects selected from the group of all
subjects under study is called a .
Select the best answer.
18. Three reasons why samples are used in statistics are
8. The number of absences per year a worker has is an a. b. c. .
example of what type of data? 19. The four basic sampling methods are
a. Nominal a. b. c. d. .
b. Qualitative
20. A study that uses intact groups when it is not possible
c. Discrete
to randomly assign participants to the groups is called
d. Continuous
a(n) study.
9. What are the boundaries of 25.6 ounces?
21. In a research study, participants should be assigned to
a. 25–26
groups using methods if possible.
b. 25.55–25.65
c. 25.5–25.7 22. For each statement, decide whether descriptive or
d. 20–39 inferential statistics is used.
a. A recent study showed that eating garlic can lower
10. A researcher divided subjects into two groups
blood pressure.
according to gender and then selected members from
b. The average number of students in a class at White
each group for his sample. What sampling method was
Oak University is 22.6.
the researcher using?
c. It is predicted that the average number of
a. Cluster
automobiles each household owns will increase
b. Random
next year.
c. Systematic
d. Last year’s total attendance at Long Run High
d. Stratified
School’s football games was 8235.
11. Data that can be classified according to color are e. The chance that a person will be robbed in a certain
measured on what scale? city is 15%.
a. Nominal
23. Classify each as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio
b. Ratio
level.
c. Ordinal
a. Number of exams given in a statistics course.
d. Interval

b. Ratings of word-processing programs as user-
friendly.
c. Temperatures of a sample of automobile tires tested
at 55 miles per hour for six minutes.
d. Weights of suitcases on a selected commercial
airline flight.
e. Classification of students according to major field.
24. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.
a. The time it takes to drive to work.
b. The number of credit cards a person has.
c. The number of employees working in a large
department store.
Critical Thinking Challenges
1. A study of the worlds’ busiest airports was conducted by
Airports Council International. Describe three variables
that one could use to determine which airports are the
busiest. What units would one use to measure these
variables? Are these variables categorical, discrete, or
continuous?
2. The results of a study published in Archives of General
Psychiatry stated that male children born to women who
smoke during pregnancy run a risk of violent and
criminal behavior that lasts into adulthood. The results
of this study were challenged by some people in the
media. Give several reasons why the results of this
study would be challenged.
3. The results of a study published in Neurological
Research stated that second-graders who took piano
lessons and played a computer math game more readily
grasped math problems in fractions and proportions than
a similar group who took an English class and played
the same math game. What type of inferential study was
this? Give several reasons why the piano lessons could
improve a student’s math ability.
4. A study of 2958 collegiate soccer players showed that in
46 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears, 36 were in
women. Calculate the percentages of tears for each
gender. Can it be concluded that female athletes tear
their knees more often than male athletes?
5. Read the article on the next page and answer the
questions that follow.
The recent study reprinted below reached the
following conclusion:
“A heart patient overly dependent on a spouse may
have a harder time making necessary lifestyle changes
in diet and exercise.”
a. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? State
your reasons.
Section 1–7 Summary 27
d. The amount of a drug injected into a rat.
e. The amount of sodium contained in a bag of potato
chips.
f. The number of cars stolen each week in a large city.
25. Give the boundaries of each.
a. 3.2 quarts
b. 18 pounds
c. 9 feet
d. 0.27 centimeter
e. 36 seconds
b. Comment on how this study’s conclusion might have
been reached.
c. What are the variables used in the study and how
might they have been defined?
d. How might the researcher measure the variables?
e. What would the population be for this study?
f. What factors other than dependence on a spouse
might have influenced the results of the study?
g. Do you think the gender of the patients would make
a difference in the results? Why or why not?
6. The effect of living near or working on power lines has
been a very controversial issue. The article on page 28
states several conclusions.
a. Do you think that even if the risk of both cancers
(leukemia and brain cancer) is greater, the workers
should be more concerned with electrocution or
other accidents? Explain your answer.
b. Do you think that “a big, relatively well-done study
that doesn’t yield persuasive evidence of harm” is a
justifiable reason to build power lines near
residential areas? Explain your answer.
c. Do you think that since the death rate of industrial
workers is lower than in the general population, it is
safer to work as an industrial worker than in some
other occupation?
d. Do you consider the sample size (138,905 men)
large enough to be used to state the conclusion?
Explain.
e. What does the statement “But brain cancer risk
was 50% higher for men who worked more than
five years as a lineman or electrician” mean
to you?
f. Do you think the fact that the study was funded by
the Electric Power Research Institute could have any
effect on its findings?
28 Chapter 1 The Nature of Probability and Statistics
Heart to Heart
There is a flurry of new research findings
about how heart heals the heart:
• A heart patient overly dependent on a
spouse may have a harder time making
necessary life-style changes in diet and
exercise.
• For women heart attack victims, spousal
support is critical—but hard to come by.
“The family sometimes feels abandoned,”
explains Martin Sullivan, “and they don’t
want the woman to take time out of her
duties as a wife and mother to make
important lifestyle changes. Women are
more willing to change for men.”
• For men, a heart attack may shatter the
sole definition of self (as family provider).
The introduction of larger concepts of the
self is therapeutic.
• Patients who feel a sense of self-
efficacy and control over their disease do
better than those who don’t.
Source: Reprinted with permission from PSYCHOLOGY TODAY MAGAZINE, Copyright © 1994
(Sussex Publishers, Inc.).
Power Lines’ Link to Brain Cancer
but No Tie Found with Leukemia
Long-term exposure to power lines appears
to slightly increase risk of brain cancer, but
not leukemia, among utility workers, says a
large study reported in the American
Journal of Epidemiology.
Some earlier studies linked electro-
magnetic fields to leukemia among utility
workers, but no study has been conclusive
on the risks.
But even if the risk is greater, both
cancers remain rare enough that other
dangers to those workers—such as
electrocution or other work accidents—
should be a greater concern, says the
University of North Carolina’s David
Savitz, one of the study leaders.
Savitz is encouraged by “a big,
relatively well-done study that doesn’t yield
persuasive evidence of harm.” But the
findings also may help explain why the rate
of brain cancer in the general population,
Source: Doug Levy, “Power Lines’ Link to Brain Cancer.” USA Today, January 11, 1995. Copyright
1995, USA TODAY. Reprinted with permission.
• Depression and anxiety affect pain
perception and the capacity to function in
the face of medical symptoms.
• In a study at Stanford University,
behavioral counseling after heart attack,
especially for hard-driving Type A
individuals, lowered the rate of recurrent
heart attacks by 45%—the same as the most
powerful prescription drugs.
Such findings have led Martin Sullivan
to introduce innovative techniques at the
Duke Center. These include a program
known as PAIRS (Practical Application of
Intimacy Relationship Skills), which
teaches couples healthy interactive skills,
and a meditation program that teaches
patients to freeze-frame a moment in time
and look at the emotional content of what
they are experiencing. Says Sullivan of the
Duke Center’s work, “We’re trying to take
the best of everything.”
though still low, has increased in recent
decades, he says.
The study differs from earlier ones
because of its size and because it used
actual measurements of exposure levels. It
looked at 138,905 men who worked for
power companies between 1950 and 1986,
including 20,733 who died.
Overall death risk among the men was
lower than the general population, probably
because industrial workers are most likely
to be healthy, the researchers report.
But brain cancer risk was 50% higher
for men who worked more than five years
as a lineman or electrician. Those exposed
to the highest levels of magnetic fields had
more than double the risk.
There was no association found between
amount of magnetic field exposure and
leukemia. The research was funded by the
Electric Power Research Institute.
 Section 1–7 Summary 29

Speaking of STATISTICS
In these studies, behaviorists found that hotheadedness nature. What is the independent variable and what is the
can lead to heart disease. After reading this article, decide dependent variable for each study?
if these studies are experimental or observational in

Science sees heart trouble

for hostile personalities
Two studies published today give scientific credence to what
behaviorists have long suspected: Hotheadedness can lead to heart
disease. Researchers who studied 1,081 older men found that those with
high hostility scores (paranoid alienation, cynicism, agression, social
avoidance) were more likely to be overweight and insulin-resistant–
factors that lead to increased risk for heart disease. A smaller study, also
in the January/February Psychosomatic Medicine, found that among 80
men and women, those with high hostility ratings had a bigger jump in
blood pressure in mild, non-provoking social situations. Findings
suggest that those people who have “high levels of mistrust and
suspicion anticipate trouble in interpersonal situations, even before they
have any overt indication that there is some cause for alarm,” says
researcher Mary Davis, author of the smaller study.

Source: Copyright 2000, USA TODAY. Reprinted with permission.