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Properties of Metals
How metals respond to external loads?
Elastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Standard Test Method
ASTM Standards E 8 and E 8M
Solution :
Given : F = 7850 N, lo = 305 mm, l = 305.77mm, dia. = 6 mm
Compute the area, Ao = pr2 = p(3/1000)2 = 2.827 x 10-5 m2
Stress, s = F/Ao = 7850 N /(2.827 x 10-5 m2)
= 277.637 x 106 N/m2 = 277.87 MPa
Strain, e, = (∆l/lo) = ( l – lo )/lo = (302.77 – 302)/305 = 0.0025
Concept of Stress and Strain . . . . .
Shear and Torsion
Shear stress : t = F/Ao
Elastic Deformation
Reversible : when the stress is removed,
the material returns to the dimension it
has before the loading.
Usually the strain are small (except for
Yield point P, a the case of plastics).
point on the
Plastic Deformation
curve that the
strain start being
not proportional
to the stress. It
is the limit of Irreversible : when the stress is removed,
proportinality,
and its location is
the material does not return to its original
uncertain. dimension .
Stress-Strain Behavior …. Elastic Deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain
are proportional is called Elastic
Deformation
This proportionality within the elastic
limits, is known as Hooke’s Law :
s = Ee
E = the modulus of elasticity, or the
Young’s modulus ( a proportionality
constant)
The higher the value of E and s have the same units = GPa or
E the higher is the psi
“stiffness”
Sample Problem #2 :
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is
pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa. If
the deformation is entirely elastic and the
Elastic Modulus E is 110 GPa, what will be the
resultant elongation, ∆l ?
ex = (ai - ao )/ao
li lo ey = (bi - bo )/bo
ez = (li – lo )/lo
u= [-(ai-ao)/ao]/[(li-lo)/lo] = [-(bi-bo)/bo]/[(li-lo)/lo]
Elastic Deformation : Shear Modulus
Plastic deformation
The stress is not proportional with the strain
Deformation is not reversible
Deformation occurs by breaking of atomic bonds & by dislocations
Stress-Strain
Behavior - Plastic
Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior
- Plastic Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior -
Plastic Deformation
This
area
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
Toughness is a mechanical term that is loosely used as a
measure of the ability of the material to absorb energy up
to fracture. The word toughness is a qualitative term
meaning "difficult to break", and also implies resistance to
shock. For materials to be “tough”, it must display both
strength and ductility.
sT = s (1 + e) s = F/Ao , e = (li-lo)/ lo
eT = ln (1 + e)
Sample Problem #5 - A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505") is tensile tested to fracture & found to
have an engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If the
cross-sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422") determine : a.)
the ductility in terms of % area reduction. b.) the true stress at
fracture.
sT = 59,200 N/[(89.9mm2)(1m2/106mm2)] =
* = 6.6 x 108 N/m2 = 660 MPa
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
For some metals and alloys, the true stress and true
strain from the onset of plastic deformation to the
point at which necking begins maybe approximated by :
Table 6.3
Tabulation of n & K Values of Some Alloys (useful for the above equation)
K
Materials n MPa psi
Low carbon steel (annealed) 0.26 530 77,000
Alloy steel (4340, annealed) 0.15 640 93,000
Stainless steel (304, annealed) 0.45 1275 185,000
Aluminum, annealed 0.20 180 26,000
Aluminum alloy (2024, heat treated) 0.16 690 100,000
Copper (annealed) 0.54 315 46,000
Brass (70Cu-30Zn, annealed) 0.49 895 130.000
Sample Problem #6
Compute the strain-hardening component n for an alloy in which a true
stress of 415 MPa produces a true strain of 0.10, assuming a vaue of
1035 MPa for K.
Solution :
To facilitate easier solution, convert : sT = K (et)n
to logarithmic form log sT = log K + n log eT
n = (log sT - log K)/log eT
= [log(415 MPa) - log(1035 MPa)]/log(0.1) = 0.40
Compression
When a cylindrical piece of material is compressed,
relation between stress and strain are found to be
similar to those determined in tensile test.
There is also an elastic range in whcih the stress is
directly proportional to the strain, a proportional
limit, and a yield strength. However, the cross-
sectional area of the specimen increases instead of
decreasing as in tension.
Failure in compression may occur by buckling if the
material length is too long with respect to its
diameter; or failure by shearing on a plane at about
45 degrees to the normal stress in short or brittle
specimen
Malleability
If the material can be severely deformed
plastically in compression without fracture, it is
said to be malleable.
The greater the malleability, the greater the
amount of compression before fracture occurs.
Malleable materials can be flattened by rolling and
hammering without rupture.
Both ductility and malleability are measures of the
materials plasticilty.
Stress-Strain
Behavior - Plastic
Deformation
Stress-Strain Behavior - Plastic Deformation
Two ways for design allowances for static loads & when ductile
materials are used:
design stress, σd = σc x N‘
where: σc = calculated stress, N' = design factor
safe working stress, σw = σy x N‘
where σy = yield stress, N = safety factor