ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-II

UNIT-1

SANITARY ENGINEERING
• Sanitary engineering is the branch of public Health engineering which deals with the
preservation and maintenance of Health of the individual and the community, by
preventing communicable diseases.
• It consists of scientific and methodical collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal
of the waste matter, so that public health can be protected from the offensive and
injurious substances.
Necessity of sanitation
The necessity of sanitation consists of following points.
• To protect the public health in general and individual in particular.
• To create of such conditions of living which will no result into serious outbreak of
epidemic.
• It does not give rise to odour nuisance.
• Not to pollute or contaminate drinking water supply.
• It does not give unsightly appearance.
• It does not give rise to mosquito nuisance.
Depending upon the type of waste, two systems may be employed for its collection,
conveyance and disposal.
(a) Conservancy system
(b) Water carriage system

(a) CONSERVANCY SYSTEM

• This is an old system in which various types of wastes, such as night soil,
garbage etc, are collected separately in vessels or deposited in pools or pits and
then removed periodically at least once in 24 hours.
• On account of this method of handling independently the different types of
refuse from a place, the term conservancy system has been derived. The system
is also known as the dry system.
• The garbage or dry refuse is collected from roads and streets in pans or baskets.
It is then conveyed by carts, trucks, etc. to some suitable place.
• It is however adopted in small towns, villages, undeveloped areas of big cities,
etc, where there is scarcity of water for the adoption of water carriage system.
Advantages of conservancy system
The following are the merits of conservancy system.
1) It is cheaper in initial cost because storm water can pass in open drains and
conservancy latrines are much economical.
2) The quantity of sewage reaching at the treatment plant before disposal is low.
3) As the storm water goes in open drains, the sewer section will be small and will
run full for the major portion of the year, due to which there will be no silting
and deposits in sewer-line.
4) In floods if the water level of river rises at the out-fall, it will not be costly to
pump the sewage for disposal.
Disadvantages of conservancy system
The conservancy system has the following disadvantages:
 1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect: The conservancy system is highly unhygienic
and cause insanitary conditions since the excreta starts decomposing within few
hours of its production. Even if it is assumed that cleaning will take place twice
in a day, the excreta is assumed that cleaning will take place twice in a day, the
excreta remaining in the premises will emit bad smell and will give rise to fly
nuisance.
2. Transportation aspect: transportation of night soil takes place in open carts
through streets and other crowded localities. This is highly undesirable.
3. Labour aspect: the working of the system depends entirely on the mercy of
labour (sweepers). If they go on strike even for one day for any reason
whatsoever, the premises cannot be used because of foul smell. The whole
locality will smell very badly.
4. Building design aspect: The lavatories or premises are to be located outside the
house and slightly away from the main building the compact design is therefore
not possible.
5. Conditions of drains: Insanitation may be there due to carriage of sullage
through open drains laid in the streets.
6. Human aspect: In the present day world, when man has progressed much, it is
highly humiliating to ask human beings to transport night soil in pails on their
heads.
7. Risk of epidemic: Due to improper or careless disposal of night soli, there are
more chance of outbreak of epidemic.
8. Pollution problems: The liquid wastes from lavatories etc., during their
washing, may soak in the ground, thus contaminating the soil. If the ground
water is at a shallow depth, it may also be polluted due to percolation of waste
water.
9. Cost consideration: Through the system is quite cheap in beginning, its
maintenance and establishment costs (i.e. recurring expenditure) are very high.
10. Disposal land requirement: The system requires considerable land for the
disposal of sewage.

(b) WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

• In the system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of various type of wastes
are carried out with the help of water. Thus, water is used as medium to convey
the waste from its point of production to the point of its treatment or final
disposal.
• Sufficient quantity of water is required to be mixed with the wastes so that
dilution ratio is so great that the mixture may flow just like water.
• In this system, specially designed latrines, called water closets (W.C) are used
which are flushed with 5 to 10 litres of water after its use by every person. The
human excreta is thus flushed away and led to suitable designed and maintained
sewers.
• The wastes form kitchens, baths, wash basins etc. are also led to the sewers. The
sewers are the underground closed pipes which are laid on suitable longitudinal
gradient so that flow takes under gravity and proper flow velocity is maintained
to keep the sewer clean.
• The sewers lead the sewerage so collected, to a suitable site where it is treated
suitably and then is disposed off by irrigation or by dilution.
 • It should be noted than the garbage is collected separately and conveyed in the
same manner as is done in the case of conservancy system. If garbage is
permitted in the sewers, they may be clogged.
• The system requires large initial cost of installation and it requires large
quantity of water also to create efficient flow conditions. If the financial
conditions of people are poor, it may be difficult to adopt this system.
• However, this is the most efficient flow conditions. If the financial conditions of
people are poor, it may be difficult to adopt this system. However, this is the
most efficient and hygienic system of sewage disposal, and may be adopted in
stages if sufficient funds are not available in the beginning.
Advantages of water carriage system:
The water carriage system is the most modern system of drainage, and has the
following advantages:
1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect: The system is very hygienic since the night soil
and other waste water is conveyed through closed conduits which are not
directly exposed to the atmosphere. There is no bad smell because of continuous
flow.
2. Epidemic aspect: There are no chances of outbreak of epidemic because flies
and other insects do not have direct access to the sewage.
3. Pollution aspect: The liquid wastes etc. are directly conveyed through the
sewers, and therefore there are no changes of the waste water being soaked in
the ground thus contaminating the soil. The waste water does not percolate
down to join the ground water. There are no chances of pollution of water of
wells in individual houses if any.
4. Compactness in design: Since the latrines are flushed after every use, excreta
does not remain and there are no foul smells. The latrines can therefore be
attached to the living and bed rooms. This permits a compact design. The
lavatories can be accommodated in any part of the house.
5. Labour aspect: The labour required for the operation and maintenance is
extremely small. In fact, the functioning of the system is practically automatic,
except for the operation of certain pumps etc. therefore, there is no labour
problem. In the individual houses, the latrines/lavatories can be conveniently
cleaned by occupants themselves.
6. Treatment aspect: The system permits the use of modern methods of treatment
of the sewerage collected through the sewers. The treated waste water and
sewage can be safely disposed off without any risk.
7. Land disposal requirements: Because of treatment facilities, the land required
for the disposal of the treated wastewater is very much smaller than that
required for the conservancy system.
8. Cost consideration: Though the initial cost of installation of the system are very
high, the running costs are very small since manual labour is very much reduced.
Demerits of water carriage system
The following are the demerits of water carriage system.
1) This system is very costly in initial cost.
2) The maintenance of this system is also costly.
3) During monsoon large volume of sewage is to be treated whereas very small
volume is to be treated in the remaining of the year.

COMPARISON AND CHOICE OF THE TWO SYSTEMS

 The water carriage system is the most modern and hygienic system of sewage
disposal, and should be invariably adopted wherever sufficient funds are available.
Table 2.1 gives comparison between the two systems.

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

The water carriage system can be divided into the following types:
(1) Separate system
(2) Combined system
(3) Partially separate system
The above three types are commonly referred to as the three systems of sewerage.
1. Separate system

• The separate system provides two separate systems of sewers the one intended
for the conveyance of foul sewage only, such as fecal matter, domestic
wastewaters, the washings, and draining of places such as slaughter houses,
laundries, stables, and the waste waters derived from the manufacturing
processes: and the other for the rain water, including the surface washing from
certain streets, overflow from public baths and foundations etc.
• The sewage from the first system of sewers can be led to the treatment works,
while the flow form the second system of sewers can be discharged directly to
natural streams etc. without any treatment.
 Advantages
The separate system has the following advantages:
1. The cost of installation is low. The storm water can be disposed off through
the open channels along the road sides. Old sewers may also be suitably
converted to carry rain water. Thus, the actual sewers carrying foul sewage
will be of smaller size.
2. The load on the treatment units will be lowered, since only the foul sewage
carried by the separate sewers need be treated.
3. If there is necessity of lifting the sewage mechanically, the of capital costs, as
well as from the point of view of running costs.
4. The sewages in the separate system will be of more uniform character, and
so will lend itself more easily to purification.
5. There is no necessity of providing automatic flushing tanks, for use in dry
weather, because the flow in a sewer of smaller section is much more
efficient.
6. Sewers of smaller section can be easily ventilated than those of larger
section.
7. The night flow will be comparatively small this may facilitate operations at
the outfall works.
8. Rain water can be discharged into streams or rivers without any treatment.
Disadvantages
1. Since the sewers are of small size, it is difficult to clean them.
2. They are likely to get chocked.
3. Two sets of sewers may ultimately prove to be costly.
4. There is a likelihood of connections being wrongly made through a confusion
of the system.
5. Strom water sewers or drains come in use only during the rainy season.
During other part of the year, these may serve as dumping place for garbage,
and may get chocked.
6. Because of lesser air contact in small size sewers, foul smell may be there due
to the sewage gas formed
2. Combined system
• The combined system provides only one sewer to carry both the foul sewage
as well as the rain water. The sewage and rain water are carried to the
sewage treatment plant, before its final disposal.
• The combined system is advocated on the ground that the street surface
washings are as impure as the sewage itself, and should therefore be suitably
treated before being allowed to enter the natural stream.
Advantages
1. The system requires only one set of sewers. Hence the maintenance costs are
reduced.
2. The sewers are of lager size, and therefore the chances of their choking are
rate. Also, it is easy to clean them.
3. The strength of the sewage is reduced by dilution.
4. There is more air in the larger sewers than in smaller ones of the separate
system. Hence the sewer gas that may be formed gets diluted. Thus the
chances of foul smell are reduced.
Disadvantages
 1. The cost of construction is very high because of large dimensions of the sewers
to be constructed at sufficient depth to receive the sewage from the basement.
2. Because of large size of sewers, their handling and transportation is difficult.
3. Due to the inclusion of the storm water, the load on the treatment plant
increases.
4. The system is uneconomical in the circumstances when pumping is required for
lifting of sewage.
5. During heavy rains, the sewers may overflow, and may thus create unhygienic
conditions and cause pollution problem.
6. Storm water is unnecessarily polluted.
7. The large sewers get easily silted if not properly designed. They may become
foul in dry weather, when rain water, is not available.
8. Large sewers are more difficult to be ventilated than the smaller ones.

3. Partially combined system

• In this system, only one set of underground sewers is laid. These sewers
admit the foul sewage as well as the early washings by rains.
• As soon as the quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit, the storm
water overflows, and is thus collected and conveyed in open drains to the
natural streams. The foul sewage, however, continues to flow in the sewers.
Advantages
1. The sewers are of reasonable size. Their cleaning is therefore not very
difficult.
2. It combines the advantage of both the separate as well as the combined
systems.
3. The storm water permitted in the sewers eliminates its chances of chocking.
The sewers are completely cleaned during rainy season.
4. The problem of disposing off storm water from homes is simplified.
Disadvantages
1. During the dry weather, when there is no rain water, the velocity of flow will
be low. Thus self-cleansing velocity may not be achieved.
2. The storm water increases the load on treatment units.
3. The storm water also increases the cost of pumping.

In order to determine the section of the sewer, it is essential to know the total
quantity of wastewater or sewage that would flow through the sewer. The total
wastewater flow can be divided tow components:
(a) Dry weather flow (D. W.F)
(b) Storm water flow
The dry weather flow is the flow through the sewers that would normally be available
during non-rainfall periods. It consists mainly of (i) Domestic sewage and (ii) Industrial
wastewater.
The storm water flow is the additional flow that would occur during the rainy season. It
consists of runoff available from roofs, streets, yards, open spaces etc. during rainfall.
(a) DRY WEATHER FLOW
It is that quantity of wastewater that flows through as sewer in dry weather when no
storm water is in the sewer. The dry weather flow is also sometimes called as ‘sanitary
sewage’, and is obtained from the following sources:
 (i) Domestic wastewater: A certain quantity of water is being supplied
daily by the Water Works Department, for domestic use. This water gets
consumed in various ways, and therefore all of it does not reach the
sewer. The wastewater reaching the sewers will be that part of water
which is used for flushing water closets (W.C). Urinals, washing clothes,
bathing, washing utensils etc.
(ii) Industrial wastewater: This is the wastewater generated by the
industry after consuming water for its manufacturing processes.
(iii) Waste water from public facilities: This is the wastewater from
schools, cinemas, hotels, railway stations street washings.
(iv) Ground water infiltration: This is quantity of ground water that
infiltrates into the sewers. It depends upon the nature of soil, material of
sewers, nature and condition of sewer joints, depth of sewer and position
of water table.

FACTORS AFFECTING DRY WEATHER FLOW

The quantity of dry whether flow or the quantity of sanitary sewage depends upon the
following factors:
(a) Rate of water supply.
(b) Population growth.
(c) Type of area served
(d) Infiltration of ground water
(a) Rate of water supply:
• The quantity of waste water produced from a community would naturally
depend upon the rare of water supply per capita per day. The quantity of
wastewater entering the sewers would be less than the total quantity of
water supplied.
• This is because of the fact that water is lost in domestic consumption (i.e.
cooking etc), evaporation, lawn sprinkling, firefighting, industrial
consumption etc. however, private source of water supply (i.e. water from
domestic wells etc.) and infiltration of sub-soil water in the sewers increase
the wastewater flow rate.
• The following factors should be carefully considered while comparing the
rate of sewage with the rate of water supply.
(1) Intensity of pressure- If water is supplied at high pressure, there is more
consumption of water and more wastage of water from leakage in pipes,
valves, etc.
(2) Use of water. Water which is supplied may not appear as sewage after its
consumption. For instance, the water that is supplied to fill up the tanks of
railway locomotives will not appear as sewage.

(b) Population growth:

• The sewerage system is designed for the quantity of waste water not only
from the preset population but also of the population a few year hence, The
population forecast may be done by the following methods:
1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decreased rate of growth method
 5. Graphical extension method
6. Graphical comparison method
7. Zoning method or master plan method
8. Growth composition analysis method
(c)Type of area served.
• The quantity of wastewater produced depends upon whether the area to be
served is residential, commercial, or industrial. The wastewater from the
residential area directly depends upon the rate of water supply.
• If there is no infiltration of water in the sewers, and if there are no private
sources of supply, the wastewater produced from the residential area may be
assumed to be equal to 70 to 80% of the water supplied through the public
supply system.
(d) Infiltration of sub-soil water and exfiltration.
• Ground water or subsoil water may infiltrate into the sewers through the leaky
joints. Exfiltration is the reverse process which indicates the flow of wastewater
from the sewer into the ground.
• While due to the infiltration the quantity of flow through sewer increases,
exfiltration results in decrease in the flow and consequent increase in the
pollution of ground water.
• Both infiltration as well as exfiltration are undesirable and take place due to
imperfect joints. However, infiltration is much more important from the point of
sewer design. Also, infiltration unnecessarily increases the load on the treatment
works.
The quantity of water through infiltration depends on the following four factors.
1) Head of subsoil level
2) Length of sewer
3) Nature and type of soil through which sewer is laid and
4) Size of sewer.
1.6 Variation in the quantity of the sewage ( flow variations and their effects on
design of sewer systems)
Practically the average sewer never flows in the sewers; it continuously varies from
hour to hour of the day and season to season. The design of the sewers should be done
for the maximum possible flow which would ever pass through in worst possible case.
(i)The seasonal maximum rate of flow may be taken as the 1.3 times of average daily
rate of flow
(ii)The monthly maximum rate of flow may be taken as the 1.4 times the average rate of
flow.
(iii)The daily maximum rate of flow may be taken as the 1.8 times or so the average
daily rate of flow.
• The variations are due to many factors such as habits of people climatic
conditions, types of industries, level of ground water, fluctuations in the
activities of factories, etc. the above figures for deviation from the average for
seasonal, monthly and daily flow are taken for illustration only.
• The composition of water in summer is more than in winter or rainy season, and
this change in consumption of water directly affects the quantity of sewage.
• There is also change in the sewage quantity if the city has seasonal industries
such as sugarcane crushing, fruit canning, brewing etc.
 • The quantity of sewage can also change from day to day. On the closing days of
market, offices, industries, the quantity of sewage shall be more due to cloths
washing, house washing etc.
• Therefore, the variation in the sewage quantity also depends on the local
conditions
• Every city possesses peculiarities of its own and hence, before arriving at a
particular decision the detailed studies become essential. Every case is therefore
studied separately and the variation from the average daily rate for flow is
worked out accordingly.
• The variation in rate of sewage affects the design of sewers. The tow controlling
factors in the design of a sewer are the maximum and minimum rates of sewage.
• The sewer is to be designed to carry the maximum discharge and at the same
time, it should be laid at such a gradient that silting will not occur during the
period of minimum flow of sewage.
The variations between maximum, average and minimum rates of flow of sewage
are sometimes great and a compromise is to be found out by selecting a suitable
multiplying factor. Every case is to be studied separately before recommending a
particular multiplying factor. Under normal conditions, this factor for laterals is 4; that
for main, trunk and outfall sewers is 2.50; and that for combined sewers is 2.
The peak sewage flow has also been connected with the population by the
following equation:

Where P = Population in thousands.

• In a similar way, the minimum flow passing through a sewer is also an important
factor. For instance, there will be minimum flow at night and it will affect more
to the laterals than to the main sewers. For branch sewers, the minimum daily
and hourly flows are usually taken as follows:
1.7 STORM WATER:
Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at
proper places for the following reasons:
(1) The damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide
flourishing ground for micro-organisms.
(2) The existence of water pools affects the foundations of structures.
(3) The initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence,
such water requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant.
(4) The low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralyzed. It leads to the
loss of revenue.
(5) The stagnant water pools serve as the breeding places for the mosquitoes.
The quantity of storm water, which is known as the wet weather flow and
mentioned as W.W.F., that will enter in the sewer is to be carefully determined. It
involves various factors such as intensity of rainfall, characteristics of catchment
area, duration of storm, etc.
Following two methods are generally employed for calculating the quantity of
storm water for the purpose of designing sewers:
(1) Rational method
(2) Empirical formulas.

Each of the above method of calculating the quantity of storm water will now be
discussed.
(1) Rational method: In this method, the following three factors are combined in
the form of an equation:
(i) Catchment area A,
(ii) Impermeability factor or runoff coefficient of the surface of catchment
area I, and
(iii) Intensity of rainfall R.
Time of concentration.
• The time of concentration is defined as the longest time, without unreasonable
delay, that will be required for a drop of water to flow from the father point of
the drainage area to the point of concentration (i.e. the point at which maximum
runoff is being estimated). In other words, it is the time required for the flood
discharge to reach to the maximum limit.
• When a rainfall just starts all over the catchment area simultaneously, the
raindrops falling just near the sewer inlet will enter the sewer first. The rate of
flow at the stage will be very small, but it will gradually increase as more and
more area contributes to the flow.
• Finally, when the whole area is contributing, maximum rate of runoff will be
obtained, which will be equal to rate of precipitation over the whole of the
impervious area.
• The time required from the beginning of rainfall to the one corresponding to the
achievement of maximum rate of runoff will continue till the rainfall stops. After
that, the runoff will gradually decrease.
The time of concentration consists of two components :(a) time of entry, te and
(b)time of flow, tf.
(a) time of entry:
• The time of entry or the inlet time is the time taken by the rainfall to run
from the most distant point of the watershed to the inlet of the sewer. The
areas tributary to most of the sewers are usually small.
• Hence it is customary to assume suitable value of time of entry (te) based
on experience under similar conditions. The time of entry decreases with
increase in slope and imperviousness of the ground, while it increase with
distance and storage conditions of the ground.
• A normal practice is to assume it between 3 to 20 minutes, the lower value
being adopted form the steepest slope while higher value is adopted for
grassy plots.

(b)time of flow:
• The time of flow is the time required for the flow of water in the sewer to the
point under consideration it is computed by assuming the velocity of flow in the
 drain and measuring the length of drain or sewer form inlet point to the point
under consideration, i.e. tf = distance/ velocity.
• The time so computed is usually less than the actual time for the flood crest to
reach the point of concentration from the sewer inlet because of the time
required to fill the sewer. The time required to fill the sewer is known as the
time of storage.
• This time may be appreciable, but is usually neglected.
Thus the total time of concentration (tc= te + tf) can be computed. It is to be noted
that larger the catchment, the longer will be the time of concentration. It is generally
considered that the maximum runoff occurs when the duration of storm is equal to
the time of concentration.

UNIT - II
DESIGN OF SEWERS
2.1 EFFECT OF VARIATIONS OF DISCHARGE ON VELOCITY IN SEWERS.
• As stated earlier, the discharge in a sewer does not remain constant at all
times. It varies from time to time. Due to the variation in discharge, the
hydraulic mean depth (R) also varies. Since the velocity of flow is a function
of R2/3, the velocity of flow is also varies as the sewage discharge varies. This
is more prominent in the case of a combined sewer or in a partially combined
sewer.
• As the flow decreases in the sewer, the velocity of flow also decreases. When
the sewer becomes less than half full, (assumed at one third the average
flow), it is essential to check that the velocity of flow is at least equal to 40
cm/sec, at the same time, the designer should ensure that a velocity of about
90 cm/sec is developed atleast at the time of maximum flow. While deigning
the sewers, the following points should be observed in connection with the
self-cleansing velocity and no-scouring velocity.
1. Before the sewer design is done, the discharge is known. Hence the velocity of
flow and gradient of the sewers are to be appropriately determined and
correlated, to achieve the desired results.
2. For sewers in flat country, the design of sewers should be done in such a way
that self-cleansing velocity is obtained at maximum discharge. However, the
section of sewer should be such that even at minimum discharge, the velocity is
at least equal to 40 cm/sec.
 3. For sewers in roughs country, the design of sewers should be done in such a way
that self-cleansing velocity is obtained at maximum discharge. If due to steep
slopes, the velocity is exceeded during maximum discharge, drop man holes
should be provided to bring down the velocity within the non-scouring value.
4. In the case of combined sewer, it may be difficult to achieve self-clearing velocity
during minimum flow (D.W.F). In that case, special form of sewers should be
adopted.
2.2 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VELOCITIES TO BE GENERATED IN SEWER.
It was pointed out in the earlier paragraphs that the flow velocity in the
sewer should be such that neither the suspended materials in sewage get silted up nor
gets the sewage pipe material scoured out. The first limitations, limits the minimum
velocity; and the second limitation, limits the maximum velocity.

MINIMUM VELOCITY OF FLOW

• The sewage flowing through a sewer contains organic as well as inorganic solid
matter which remains suspended as the sewage flow. In order to keep the solid
matter in suspended form, a certain minimum velocity of flow is required;
otherwise the solid particles will settle in the sewer, resulting in its clogging.
Such a minimum velocity is known as self-cleansing velocity.
• A self-cleansing velocity may be defined as that velocity at which the soled
particles will remain in suspension, without settling at the bottom of the sewer.
Also it is that velocity at which even the scour of the deposited particles of a
given size will take place. It is not possible to maintain thin self-cleansing
velocity throughout the day because of fluctuations in sewage flow. During
minimum flow of sewage, the velocity of flow is less than the self-cleansing
velocity. Hence self-cleansing velocity should be maintained at least once in a
day.
Substituting this value of C, in Eq.

Where Vs = self-cleansing velocity.

β= characteristics of solids flowing in the sewage, in suspension. This value of β may
be taken as 0.04 for initiating scour of clean grit to 0.8 for full removal of sticky grit.
Actual magnitude of k has to be found from experiments.
f = Darcy-Weisbatch friction factor, the common value of which may be taken as
0.03.
Gs = Specific gravity of sediments/solids flowing in the sewage. Its value may range
from 2.65 for inorganic sediments to 1.2 to for organic sediments.
g= gravitational acceleration constant.
ds=diameter of solid particles, to be carried by the liquid.
MAXIMUM VELOCITY OF FLOW
• Though the minimum velocity of flow of sewage should be equal to the self-
cleansing velocity so that particles do not settle and stick to the invert, there
is also some upper limit of velocity of flow so that the interior surface of the
sewer is not damaged due to wear.
• At higher velocity, the flow becomes turbulent, resulting in continuous abrasion
of the interior surface of the sewer, by the suspended particles. Hence maximum
 velocity of flow is also limited. The maximum velocity at which no such scouring
action or abrasion taken place is known as no-scouring velocity.
• Evidently such a velocity depends upon the material used for the construction of
sewers. Of the ceramic materials used in sewers, vitrified tiles and glazed bricks
are more resistant to wear while building bricks and concrete are less resistant
to wear.
Also, abrasion is maximum at the bottom of the sewer because the grit, sand etc.
are heavy and travel along the invert. Due to this reason, the bottom of large sewers
of brick or concrete is protected by lining them with vitrified tile, glazed bricks or
granite blocks.
2.3 MATERIALS FOR SEWERS
Sewers may be made of one of the following materials: (1) Asbestos cement (2)
plain or reinforced cement concrete (3) Vitrified clay or stoneware (4) Brick (5) Cast
iron (6) Steel (7) Plastic
WHILE SELECTING A PARTICULAR MATERIAL OF A SEWER, THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS MUST BE CAREFULLY CONSIDERED:
1. Hydraulic efficiency: The material selected should be such that value of
Manning’s coefficient N is as low as possible so that a hydraulically efficient
surface is available.
2. Resistance to abrasion: The flowing sewage may contain a lot of solids such as
grit and sand particles. At a high velocity at the sewage invert, erosion of sewer
material may take place due to abrasion. For a longer life, the sewer material
must possess high degree of resistance to abrasion.
3. Resistance to corrosion: the composition of sewage may be such that the sewer
material may get corroded. For longer life, the sewer material may get corroded.
For longer life, the sewer material should possess enough resistance to
corrosion.
4. Strength: The sewers are generally laid underground and hence they are
subjected to a number of external forces, including the weight of overburden and
the vehicular/live loads. The material should of strong enough to resist all such
external forces.
5. Durability: The sewer material should be durable so that expenditure due to its
frequent replacement is minimum.
6. Cast: the cost of the mater4ial should be less so that overall economy is
minimum.
7. Weight: The material should be light in weight so that it can be easily handled
and transportation costs are also less.
8. Imperviousness: The sewer material should be impervious and should not
allow seepage of the sewage from the sewer.
2.4 SHAPES OF THE SEWER PIPES
• The sewer pipes are normally circular in section, although some other sections
such as basket handle shape, egg shape, horse shoe shape, parabolic shape,
semicircular shape, semi elliptical shape, rectangular shape, etc. may also be
used under special necessities of a particular project.
• Out of these remaining shapes also, egg shape sections may be preferred for
combined sewer, and rectangular shaped sewer are preferably constructed at
site and normally used as independent covered storm water surface drains, and
not as sewers.
 • All other forms of sewers are almost outdated and rarely used these days. The
various forms of sewers, which can possibly be constructed and the
circumstances in which each one is preferred, are shown in fig.
2.5 LAYOUT AND CONSTRUCTION OF SEWER LINES
The various steps involved in the layout and construction of sewer lines are:
[1] Setting out
[2] Alignment and gradient
[3] Excavation of trenches, timbering and dewatering
[4] Laying and jointing
[5] Testing and
[6] Backfilling.
1.Setting out.
• From the longitudinal section of the sewer line, the positions of manholes are
located on the ground. It is general practice to lay sewer line between tow
manholes a time. The setting out in the sewerage work is carried out, staring
from the tail end or out-fall end, and proceeding upwards.
• The advantage of staring the layout and construction work from the tail end is
the utilization of tail sewers even during the initial period of construction. If on
the contrary, this is done from the head-end, the function of the sewerage
scheme has to wait till the completion of the entire scheme.

2. Alignment and gradient.

• The sewers are laid to correct alignment and gradient with the help of boning
rods and sight rails. Modified levels of invert are first obtained by adding a
suitable vertical length to the invert levels marked on the L-section.
• These modified levels are marked on the sight rails either by fixing nails on sight
rails or by adjusting the top of sight rails to the modified invert levels of the
sewer lines. Thus an imaginary line parallels to the proposed sewer line is
obtained on the ground.
• A boning rod or a traveler is a vertical wooden post suitably shod with shoe iron
and fitted with a cross-head or tee. Its length is made equal to the height of sight
rail above the invert line of the sewer.
• The boning rod can move to and fro in the trench so as to give invert-line on the
prepared bed of the sewer. Both the sight rail as well as boning rod has their
center lines accurately marked with thin saw-cut and painted black and white
for proper visibility.
3. Excavation of trench, timbering and dewatering.
• The work of excavation is usually carried out in open cutting. The width of
trench at or below the top of the sewer should be minimum necessary for its
proper installation, with due consideration to its bedding.
• The width of trench form the top of the sewer to ground surface is primarily
related to its effect upon the adjoining services and nearby surfaces. Wherever
space is available, especially in undeveloped areas or open country, excavation is
made with side slopes so that the slopes are stable. In many circumstances,
however, it may be essential to restrict the top width of the trench, and hence
the excavation has to be made with sides vertical.
• When the depth of trench exceeds 1.5 to 2 m, and when excavation is made with
side vertical, it becomes necessary to support the side by sheeting and bracing.
This operation is known as timbering of trench, which may be done with the
help of following methods: (i) Stay bracing (ii) Box sheeting (iii) Vertical
sheeting (iv) Runner sheeting (v) Sheet piling.

4. Laying and jointing.

• Before placing the sewer pipe, the grade of the bottom of the trench should be
checked. The trench should be excavated up to a level equal to the bottom of
embedding concrete (wherever concrete bedding is required) or up to the invert
level of the sewer pipe if no embedding concrete is provided.
• Excavation or filling is carried out so as to bring the top of the boning rod in level
with the string. Where large sewer lines are laid or where sloped trench walls
result in top-of-trench width too great for practical use of sight rails or where
soils are unstable, stakes set in the trench bottom itself on the sewer line, as
rough grade for the sewer is completed, would sewer the purpose.
• A newer technique for maintaining both line and grade employs a laser beam
generated at a manhole and directed down the pipe as it is placed. Accuracy of
line and grade can be held to within 0.01 percent over a range of 300 m by the
laser beam technique.
5.Hydraulic testing of pipes.
• Before backfilling, the pipes are hydraulically tested. The method of testing is
explained in the next article.
6.Backfilling the trench.
• Trenches should be backfilled immediately after the pipe is laid and tested,
unless Class A bedding is used in which case the backfilling is delayed until the
 concrete has set up. No water should be permitted to raise in the unbackfilled
trenches.
• The work of backfilling should be carried out with due care, particularly the
selection of the soil used for backfilling around the sewer, so as to ensure the
future safety of the sewer.
• The filling in the haunches and up to about 0.6 to 0.9 m above the crown or soffit
of the sewer should be made in the finest selected material free of brush, debris,
frozen material, large rocks and junk, placed carefully in layers of 15 cm
thickness, watered and evenly rammed.
• After this, the excavated top soil, turf, pavement or road metal are replaced as
the top filling material rammed and satisfactorily maintained till the surface has
been got reinstated. At each stage the filling should be well rammed,
consolidated and completely saturated with water and then only further line
should be continued.
• Before and during the backfilling of a trench, precautions should be taken
against the flotation of the pipe line due to large quantities of water into the
trench causing an uplift of the empty or the partly filled pipe line. Where
trenches are in fields, the backfilling above the 600mm level is not tamped. All
the earth is replace, and the resulting mound is allowed to settle naturally

2.6 JOINTS IN SEWERS

Sewer joints can be of the following types:
(1) Bell and spigot joint. (2) Collar joints (3) Simplex joints. (4) Flexible or
bituminous joints. (5) Mechanical joints. (6) Open joints.
1. Bell and spigot joint. Such joints are quite common in plain or reinforced
concrete pipes. Each pip has a spigot end and a bell or socket end. Cement
mortar of proportion 1:1 or 1: 2 is inserted between the space of the bell end
and spigot end, as shown in Fig 5.4. Gasket or jute packing may be placed in
the inner side, to maintain the alignment of the sewer. The mortar caulked
joint is finished at about 45o on the outer face.

Fig5.4:BELL AND SPIGOT JOINT

2. Collar joints. For such a joint, the plain ends of the consecutive lengths of
pipes are kept near each other and a collar of slightly bigger diameter is
placed around. The annular space between the collar and the ends of the
pipes is then filled with cement mortar of 1:1 proportion. Such joints are used
for concrete pipes of larger diameters.
 Fig5.5:COLLAR JOINT
3. Simplex joint. Simplex joint, also known as ring tie coupling, is similar to
collar joints, and are used for asbestos cement pipes. The joint, shown in Fig,
5.6, consists of a pip sleeve or coupling of asbestos cement and tow rubber
rings which are compressed between the exterior of the pipes and the
interior of the sleeve. Such a joint is quite flexible.

Fig5.6:SIMPLE JOINT FOR A.C. PIPES

4. Flexible or bituminous joint. The collar joint shown in Fig. 5.5 using
cement mortars is relatively rigid. Such joints crack. These joints are made
flexible by using bitumen or bituminous compounds instead of cement
mortar.
5. Mechanical joints. Such joints use mechanical devices like flanged rings,
bolts, screwed ends etc to keep the two ends together. They are used for
metallic sewers made of cast iron, steel etc.
6. Open joints. If there is no objection to infiltration, open joints are adopted.
The bell and spigot ends are simply placed together, without inserting filling
material in the annular space. Gasket may however be inserted, to maintain
alignment. The joint is merely covered with tar paper, to prevent entry of
subsoil into the sewer.
2.7 TESTING OF SEWER PIPES:
The sewer after being laid and jointed, are tested for watertight joints, and also
for correct straight alignment. As described below.
(A) Test for leakage, called water test:
• The sewers are tested, so as to ensure ‘no leakages’ through their joints
after giving a sufficient time to these joints to set in. For this purpose, the
sewer pipe sections are tested between manholes under a test pressure of
about 1.5m of water head.
• In order to carry-out this test on a sewer line between two manholes, the
lower end of the sewer is, first of all, plugged, as shown in the fig. The
water is now filled in the manhole at the upper end, and is allowed to flow
through the sewer line. The depth of water in the manhole is maintained
 to the testing head of about 1.5m. The sewer line is watched by moving
along the trench, and the joints which leak or sweat, are repaired. The
leaking pipes, if any, will also be replaced.

(B)Testing for straightness of alignment and obstruction:

• The straightness of the sewer pipe can be tested by placed a mirror at one end of
the sewer line and lamp at the other end. If the pipeline is straight, the full circle
of the light will be observed.
• However, if the pipeline is not straight it would be apparent; the mirror will also
indicate any obstruction in the pipe barrel. Any observation present in the pipe
can also be tested by inserting at the upper end of the sewer.
• A smooth of ball of diameter 13mm less than internal diameter of the sewer
pipe. In the absence of any obstruction, such as yarn or motor projecting through
the joint, etc the ball shall roll down the invert of the sewer pipe and emerge at
the lower.

What happens in a water purification plant:

1. First there must be a source of water nearby. This could be a river or lake, or it
could be a reservoir created by the building of a dam to hold the water back.
2. As this water is needed, it is carried by pipes into a purification plant where it is
made safe for drinking by going through the following treatments:
o First of all, water is sprayed into the air where it mixes with oxygen. This
step is called aeration. The oxygen helps bacteria grow which in turn
destroy some of the impurities.
o The next step is coagulation where alum is added to the water. Alum
forms sticky particles to which dirt and other particles cling.
o In the next stage, sedimentation, these impurities settle to the bottom of
a settling tank.
o The water then goes to a filter tank where filtration occurs. Any
impurities left in the water are filtered out through layers of sand,
charcoal, and gravel.
o In many communities, chlorine is added to the water to destroy any
disease-causing germs that may remain; and in more and more
communities, fluoride is added.
 When water has gone through these steps, it is ready for your use. The clean
water is pumped to large storage tanks and from there it is pumped into pipes
that carry it to your homes, schools, businesses and industries.

What happens next?

So, that's the first half of the community water cycle. What happens to the water after it
has been used and leaves your house or school? This is where it gets the name "sewage"
or "wastewater," and goes into another set of pipes to be taken to the sewage treatment
plant. As the name tells you, this is where water gets another series of treatments
before it is released back into the environment.

Let's hope that your community or city has a method to treat waste and that waste does
not get dumped directly into the nearest body of water.

A closer look at a sewage treatment plant

Wastes can be easily removed from the majority of our homes, just the
turn of a handle or tap and whoosh! It's gone. Where does it go from
there? To a sewage treatment plant where it goes through one or more of
the following steps:

• Primary treatment – sand, grit, and other solids are separated

from the liquids by screens and settling tanks.
• Secondary treatment – air is added (aeration) to stimulate the growth of bacteria
to consume most of the remaining waste materials.
• Tertiary or advanced treatment – chemicals are added which remove nutrients
that stimulate algae (tiny plants that use up oxygen needed by fish).

Sludge is what is left behind after wastewater is treated. When harmful microorganisms
are removed, sludge is either burned, taken to landfills, or used to condition soil.

UNIT-III
SEWER APPURTENANCES
3.1 CATCH BASINS OR CATCH PITS.
• Catch basins are nothing but street inlets provided with additional small settling
basins, as shown in Fig.3.1. Grit, sand, debris, etc., do settle in these basins, and
their entry into the sewer is thus prevented. In addition to this, a hood, as shown,
is also provide, which prevents the escape of foul gases, which may find its way
through the sewer line.
• Catch basins need periodical cleaning, as otherwise, the settled organic matter
may decompose, producing foul odors, and may also become a breeding place for
mosquitoes.
• Catch basins were considered necessary in old combined sewerage systems, but,
however, in modern days, they are not considered as very essential, because the
modern well paved streets offer very less grit and debris with storm runoff, and
the same can be conveyed easily in storm water sewers (drains) laid at suitable
gradients to provide self-cleansing velocities.
 • Moreover, the problem of eruption of foul gases from S.W. sewers (drains) is
very less; and as such, there is not much necessity of providing such basins in the
modern separate sewerage systems.

Fig:3.1: Catch basins or Catch pits.

3.2 MANHOLES
Definition of Manholes: Manholes are masonry or R.C.C. chambers, constructed at
suitable intervals along the sewer lines, for providing access into them.
The manholes, thus, help in joining sewer lengths, and also help in their
inspection, cleaning and maintenance. If the manhole covers are perforated, they may
also assist in ventilating the sewers, but will cause evolution of pungent gases.
Location and Spacing of Manholes.
• The manholes are generally provided at regular intervals in a straight sewer line,
and also at points of every bend, junction, change of gradient, or change of sewer
dia.
• Unless there are practical difficulties, the sewer line between two manholes is
laid straight with even gradient. Even when the sewer line runs straight, the
manholes are provide at regular intervals.
• The spacing between the manholes, in such a case however, depends mainly
upon the size of the sewer line. The larger is the diameter of sewer, the greater
will be the spacing between the manholes.
• The manhole spacing’s generally adopted, on straight sewer reaches, are given
below:
Classification of Man holes:
3.3 FLUSHING TANKS
• Wherever, there are any chances of blockage of sewer pipes, such as in the case
of sewers laid on flat gradients not producing self-cleansing velocities, or near
the dead end points of sewers, flushing devices are installed.
• These devices store water temporarily, and throw it into the sewer for the
purpose of flushing and cleaning the sewer. Such devices are called flushing
tanks.
• Flushing tanks should have a capacity to store enough water, which may prove
to be sufficient for cleaning the sewer line. This capacity is generally depth equal
to about one-tenth of the cubical contents of the sewer line served by it.
Two types of flushing operations are normally used; viz.
(1) Flushing operation using automatic flushing tank
(2) Hand operated flushing operation.
The automatic types of flushing tanks are being used more commonly in modern
days.
(1) Automatic Flushing Tanks.
• In this type of a flushing tank, the flushing operation is carried out
automatically at regular intervals. The entry of water is so regulated as to fill
the tank up to the discharge point in a period equal to the flushing interval.
• An overflow pipe is also provided to drain away water in case the tank fails
to discharge, and thereby overflows. The typical details of such an automatic
tank are shown in Fig: 3.2. with reference to this figure, the working
operation of an automatic flushing tank is explained below:
 Fig:3.2: Automatic Flushing Tank.

• Initially, when the tank is empty, the water level stands at A – B in the U-tube.
As the water enters the tank through the inlet pipe, the water level in the
tank slowly goes on rising.
• The water level in the U-tube remains to this level, i.e. A-B till the water level
in the tank remains below the level of sniff hole. But, however, as the water in
the tank goes above the level of the sniff hole, the air is caught and
compressed in the bell portion. This compressed air exerts pressure on the
surface A, and hence the water level gets depressed in this along arm of U-
tube.
• The water level goes on depressing more and more as the tank goes on filling
more and more. Ultimately, a stage is reached when this happens, some
compressed air gets released through the shorter arm of u-tube and a
corresponding quantity of water enters the bell. It is so adjusted that the
discharge line is just reached at this stage, and the head of water above the
bell becomes greater than that in the shorter arm of U-tube.
• The compressed air is suddenly removed from the longer arm of U-tube, and
a siphoning action starts, which releases the water from the tank into the
sewer through the enlarger pipe. The siphonic action continues till the water
in the tank falls up to the sniff hole. The air then enters the bell portion
through the sniff hole and it breaks the siphonic action.
• The water level in the tow arms of the U-tube again assumes the position A-B.
the cycle goes on repeating, thus releasing water in the sewer at regular
intervals.

(ii) Hand Operated Flushing Operations.

The flushing and cleansing of sewers can be carried out at suitable
intervals by means of manual labor. It may be carried out in the following ways:
 (a)In one method, the outlet end of the manhole is closed by a sluice valve, etc.
the sewage entering the manhole from the inlet end will then start collecting in
the manhole. When sufficient quantity of sewage gets accumulated, the outlet
end of the manhole is suddenly opened, and the sewage is thus allowed to enter
the sewer, causing flushing operation.
(b) In another method, the inlet end as well as the outlet end of the manhole is
closed by sluice valves, etc. the water from outside is now made to enter into the
manhole. The flushing of sewer can then be carried out by opening the outlets
and the inlet ends.
(c) In another method, one end of a hose pipe is connected to a nearby fire
hydrant, and the other end may be placed in the manhole to obtain the flushing
operation.

3.4 GREASE AND OIL TRAPS.

• Grease and oil traps are those trap chambers which are constructed in a
sewerage system to remove oil and grease from the sewage before it enters into
the sewer line. Such traps are located near the sources contributing grease and
oil to the sewage.
• They are, therefore, generally located at places, such as, automobile repair work-
shops, garages, kitchens of hotels, oil and grease industries, etc.
(i) The grease and oil, of allowed to enter the sewer, will stick to the sewer
sides, and thus reducing the sewer capacity.
(ii) The suspended matter which would have, otherwise, flown along with the
sewage, also sticks to the sides of the sewer, due to sticky nature of oil
and grease ; thus further reducing sewer capacity.
(iii) The presence of oil and grease in the sewage adds to the possibilities of
explosion in the sewers.
(iv) The presence of oil and grease traps work is simple: the grease and oil
being lighter in weight float on the top surface of the sewage. Hence, if an
outlet draws the sewage from lower level, grease and oil will get
excluded. Based on this principle, the grease and oil trap chambers are
designed in such a way that the outlet level is located near the bottom of
the chamber, and the inlet level is kept near the top of the chamber, as
shown if Fig. 3.3
 Fig:3.3: Grease and Oil Traps.
3.6 PRINCIPLES OF HOUSE DRAINAGE:
For the proper design and construction of house drainage system, the following
general principles are adopted.
(1) It is advisable to lay sewers by the side of building rather than below the
building.
(2) The drains should be laid straight between inspection chambers or manholes. All
sharp bends and junctions should be avoided except through chambers or
manholes.
(3) The house drain should be connected to the public sewer only if the level
permits i.e., only when public sewer is deeper than the house drain. Otherwise
there will be reverse flow from the public sewer to the house drain.
(4) The entire system should be properly ventilated from the starting point to the
final point of disposal.
(5) The house drainage should contain enough number of traps at suitable points for
efficient functioning of it.
(6) The house drain should be disconnected from the public sewer by the provision
of an intercepting trap so as not to allow foul gases from the public sewer to
enter the house drain.
(7) The joins of sewers should be watertight and should be properly tested before
putting the drainage line in use.
(8) The lateral sewers should be laid at proper gradient so that they will develop
self-cleansing velocity.
(9) The layout of house drainage system should permit easy cleaning and removal of
obstructions.
(10)The materials of sewer should comply with the standard requirements. They
should be non-absorbent and an earth cushioning should be provided to protect
them from external loads.
(11)The possibilities of formation of air locks, siphonage, undue deposits, etc. should
be properly studied and adequate remedies should be accommodated in the
design to avoid them.
(12) The rain water from houses is collected form roofs and it is allowed to flow
freely on the road surface for catch basins or inlets to convey it to the storm
water drain.
(13)The sewage formed should be conveyed as early as possible after its formation.
(14)The size of lateral sewers should be such that they will not overflow at the time
of maximum discharge
3.7 DRAINAGE PLANS OF BUILDINGS:
It is necessary to prepare the detailed plans showing the proposed house drainage
system and to get it approved or sanctioned from the competent authority. Following
points should be noted:
(1) The site plan of the building should be drawn to a convenient scale and positions
of gully traps should be marked on it.
(2) The longitudinal section of proposed sewer line should be drawn to a convenient
scale. Generally the longitudinal sections of drains greater than 150mm in
diameter are drawn.
(3) The longitudinal sections should show distances, ground levels, invert levels,
depths of cutting, sizes of chambers and manholes, size and gradient of pipes,
etc. as shown in fig.3.4.
(4) The position of public sewer should be clearly shown on the site plan and
longitudinal section of drain. It is advisable to join the house drain to a manhole
on public sewer line.
(5) The detailed plans of different floors of building show the positions of floor
traps, sanitary fittings, etc. they are to be connected by keeping in mind the
general principles of house drainage.
(6) The house drains are laid as per details on the approved drainage plan of the
building.
(7) The house drains are tested for water tightness and the trenches are then filled
up.

Fig:3.2: Drainage plan of a building.

3.8 MAINTENANCE OF HOUSE DRAINAGE SYSTEM:

The house drainage system should be properly maintained and cleaned at
regular intervals for its efficient working.
Following points should be carefully noted:
(1) Entry of undesired elements: The users of house drainage system should take
extreme precautions to avoid the entry of undesired elements in the system.
Such substances include grit, sand, decayed fruits, pieces of cloth, leaves etc.
(2) Flushing: In order to maintain the house drainage system in proper working
order, it is advisable to flush it once or twice in a day.
(3) Inspection: The various units of house drainage system should be inspected at
regular intervals and the obstructions, if any should be removed. Similarly the
damaged pipes should be replaced.
(4) Quality of materials: The materials used in the house drainage system should
be of better quality.
(5) Use of disinfectants: To maintain good sanitary condition in the building, the
disinfectants should be freely used in lavatory blocks, bath rooms, etc.
(6) Workmanship: The laying of drains and fixing of pipes should be carried out by
licensed or authorized plumbers only in systematic way.

TRAPS:
(1) Definition:
• A trap is a depressed or bent sanitary fitting which always remains full of
water. It is technically termed to contain the water seal which is measured as
the vertical distance between crown and dip of a trap.
(2) Function:
• The function of trap in a drainage system is to repent the passage of foul air
or gases through it. But at the same time, it allows the sewage to flow
through it. Thus, the installation of a trap avoids the nuisance which will be
developed due to entry of bad smelling gases into the house.
• The effectiveness of trap naturally depends upon the depth of water seal.
The greater the depth of water seal, the more effective is the trap. The depth
of water seal in practice varies from 25 mm to 75 mm. the trap should
contain water seal at all times.
• The causes which may remove the water seal are air compression, siphonage,
momentum and evaporation.
(3) Requirements of a good trap: Following are the requirements of a good trap:
(i) It should be capable of being easily cleaned.
(ii) It should be easily fixed with the drain.
(iii) It should be free from any inside projections which are likely to obstruct
the passage of flow of sewage.
(iv) It should be of simple construction.
(v) It should possess adequate water seal to fulfill the purposes of its
installation.
(vi) It should possess self-cleansing property.
(vii) The internal and external surfaces should be of smooth finish.
(4) Types: The traps are classified in the following two ways:
(i) According to shape
(ii) According to use.
(i)Classification according to shape: According to shape, the traps are of the
following three types:
(a) P-trap
(b)Q-trap
(c)S-trap.
(a) P-trap: This trap has the shape of letter P as shown in fig. 3.3. The legs of trap are at
right angles to each other.

Fig.3.3:P-Trap Fig.3.4:Q-Trap

(b) Q-trap: This trap has the shape of letter Q as shown in fig. 3.4. The legs of trap meet
at an angle other than a right angle.
(c) S-trap: This trap has the shape of letter S as shown in fig. 3.5. The legs of trap are
parallel.
Thus, the two legs of traps are at right angle, at an angles other than a right angle and
parallel to each other in traps P, Q and S respectively.

Fig.3.5:S-Trap Fig.3.6:Floor-Trap

(ii)Classification according to use: According to use, the traps are of the following
three types:
(a) Floor trap
(b) Gully trap
(c) Interception trap.
(a) Floor trap:
• A floor trap is made of cast-iron and it is provided at the points of entry of waste
water in the house. It will thus be placed in bath rooms, kitchens, sinks, etc. a
floor trap forms the starting point of waste water flow.
• A cover with grating is provided at its top as shown in fig. 3.6 so as to prevent
the entry of solid matter. The cover can be removed for the cleaning of the trap.
This trap is also referred to as the nahni trap.

(b) Gully trap:

• A gully trap is usually made of stoneware and a cast-iron grating is provided at
its top. The gully trap is fitted inside a masonry chamber as shown in fig. 3.7. A
water seal of about 60 mm to 70 mm is provided in the gully trap.
• The gully trap forms the starting point of horizontal flow of sewage. It is usually
situated near the external face of wall and it is kept slightly higher or even in line
with pavement or ground level. The gully trap leads the sewage either to the
sewer or to the inspection chamber or to the manhole.
• A well-designed gully trap may serve two or three connections from the nahni
traps. But it is advisable to provide separate gully traps for sullage and soil
wastes. The top of gully trap chamber is provided with a cover, usually of cast-
iron, which may be taken out easily to clean the trap.

Fig.3.7:Gully Trap Chamber

(c) Intercepting trap:

• This trap has water seal of about 100mm and it is provided in the last
manhole of house drainage system. It thus conveys sewage from house to the
public sewer. Fig. 3.8 shows the manhole with intercepting sewer trap.
• The main idea of providing the intercepting sewer trap is to prevent the
entry of sewer gases from public sewer line into the house drains.
• An intercepting trap is also known as an interceptor or a disconnecting trap
and it contains an inspection arm for the purpose of cleaning or inspection.
The inspection arm is kept closed by a lid or plug. A fresh air inlet is also
provided in the manhole containing the intercepting trap.
 • The provision of intercepting sewer trap is sometimes made compulsory by
the local authority and it is thus a matter of policy of the local authority. It is
interesting to note the merits and demerits of an interceptor.

Fig.3.8:Manhole with intercepting sewer trap

Merits: Following are the merits of an interceptor:
(i) The foul gases formed in public sewers are prevented from passing through
the interceptor. If passing through the interceptor. If the interceptor is not
provided, these gases will enter the vent pipes and they will be spreading in
the surrounding atmosphere causing serious problem of air pollution.
(ii) The harmful bacteria contained in public sewers are prevented from entering
the house drains through the interceptor.
(iii) The properly designed and constructed intercepting trap can remove quickly
the foul matter obtained from house drains to the public sewer.
Demerits: Following are the demerits of an interceptor:
(i) If discharge form house drains is small, the solid heavy matter may be
retained in the trap and they may start decomposing. The purpose of
interceptor will then not be served.
(ii) If the lid or plug is not fitted properly or if it is broken due to any reason, the
foul gases from public sewer will enter the house drains.
(iii) The cleaning of sewer through the inspection arm of the trap is difficult.
(iv) The interceptor itself forms an obstruction to the normal flow of sewage.
(v) The omission o interceptor form house drainage is found not to present any
serious difficulty.
(vi) The presence of intercepting trap is found to affect seriously the ventilation
of sewers.
(vii) The provision of intercepting traps necessitates the proper ventilation of
public sewers.
It will result in the increase of the cost of public sewers. it will also add to the
cost of house drainage.
THE BASIS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT WORKS DESIGN

The Nature of Sewage and Industrial Effluents

General

Sewages and industrial effluents are complex liquors mainly comprised of water with
varying amounts of a wide range of other substances dispersed throughout their bulk.
These impurities vary greatly in both chemical and physical properties. No two
sewages and industrial effluents are exactly alike, and a single sewage or effluent varies
in composition continually. The impurities also vary greatly in their polluting effect
should they be allowed to enter a water course.

So it is important that we understand the nature of sewages and industrial effluents to

enable assessments to be made of such things as polluting substances present and
degree of treatment necessary.

Treatment processes for sewages and industrial effluents have been developed
specifically to deal with the various types of polluting substances present. It is
therefore very necessary for reasons of plant design, efficient plant operation and
treated effluent quality control, to understand the nature of raw sewages and industrial
effluents.

The Nature of Sewages

General Description:

1. Colour – fresh domestic sewage is grey or greyish-brown in colour. In industrial

sewages the colour may be modified by the presence of trade wastes, e.g. paint
pigments and dyestuffs. Stale sewages darken, eventually becoming almost
black.

2. Particulate Matter – there is a great variation in particle size and much is

settleable, (about 70% of filterable solids will settle in 2 hours).

3. Turbidity – crude sewages are invariably highly turbid due to the presence of
suspended and colloidal solids.

4. Odour – a fresh domestic sewage has a musty, earthy, soapy smell. As the
sewage becomes stale a sour, “bad eggs” smell is apparent. The smell of an
industrial sewage may be modified by components of trade effluents.

5. pH – Domestic sewage pH is normally between 7.0 and 8.0.

The Physical Nature of Sewage:

Sewage is a heterogeneous mixture of solids dispersed through a liquid medium. A
useful classification of the forms which these solids take can be based on an
examination of particle sizes and densities as follows:

1. Gross Solids

Larger identifiable solid material, either more or less dense than water, and which is
transported by the force of the sewage flowing through the sewers. Often considered to
be greater than 17mm in at least one dimension. The quantity of gross solids in a given
sewage will vary according to local conditions e.g.

Nature of sewerage system.

Velocities of flow.
Use of pumping.
Weather conditions.
Nature of the community.

2. Mineral (i.e. inorganic) Suspended Solids

Small, relatively dense, often abrasive, and chemically inert particles. Grit density is
approximately 2,500 kg/m3. Consists of such material as silt, sand, gravel, ash, metal
and glass. Grits settle at a rate of about 0.03m/sec.

Sewages vary greatly in grit content, (eg. Rotherham 0.001 to 0.021m3 grit per 103 m3
sewage at 4 to 28% moisture content and Oxford 0.010 to 0.097 m3 per 103 m3 sewage
at 70 to 85% moisture content). Variations are due to local conditions as for gross
solids.

3. Organic Suspended Solids

Principally of animal and vegetable origin, these particles are often of similar size to the
mineral suspended solids, but are much less dense, (little denser than water), and have
a settlement rate of around 0.002m/sec. (6m/hr). As the substances are organic they
are normally capable of biodegradation, and will turn septic on storage.

4. Colloidal Solids

Extremely fine solids, (1-500 n.m. particle size), neither truly suspended nor truly
dissolved in the body of the liquid. The particles are evenly dispersed throughout and
will neither float nor settle. Colloidal solids have the property of scattering light. They
are stabilised in dispersion by electrical effects which encourage mutual repulsion
between particles. To remove these from sewage by physical means would requires a
method of breaking down or neutralising the repulsive forces to encourage coagulation
which would then be followed by settlement.

5. Dissolved Solids

Solids, both organic and inorganic, which are smaller than 1 n.m. in dimension, which
are evenly dispersed throughout the sewage and which will not scatter light. The
organic component is generally of greatest significance due to its capacity to absorb
oxygen during biodegradation.

The Chemical Nature of Sewage:

Sewage = Water + Impurities

99.9% 0.1%

i.e. 1m3 sewage contains about 1 kg impurity.

Impurity = Inorganic matter + Organic matter

35% 65%

(Organic – containing carbon atoms in linked molecular chains)

(Inorganic – carbon, if present, is not in the form of linked molecular chains, but as
carbonate, bicarbonate etc).

Inorganic Components:

The following may be present in the approximate quantities stated in an “average”

domestic sewage.

Cations Anions

Sodium 100 mg/l Chloride 70 mg/l

Potassium 20 mg/l Sulphate 50 mg/l
Ammonium 35 mg/l Phosphate 20 mg/l
Calcium 100 mg/l Bicarbonate
Magnesium 10 mg/l Carbonate
Iron 1 mg/l
Zinc 0.7 mg/l
Trace Metals <1 mg/l

Dissolved gases may also be present e.g. oxygen up to 2 mg/l in fresh sewage, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide if sewage is stale.

Significance:

Ammonium – At high pH ammonia may be toxic to aquatic life, it can cause an oxygen
demand, and has a water treatment significance.

Calcium, magnesium and iron – may be sludge forming but has little pollution
significance.

Sodium, potassium – little significance.

Chloride – little pollution significance, an indicator of sewage strength and

comparability between sewage samples.
Sulphate – attack on concrete at concentrations over 1,000 mg/l.

Phosphate – traces accelerate growth of aquatic flora.

Bicarbonate/Carbonate – no pollution significance, gives buffer capacity to the sewage.

Organic components:

The ability of carbon to form molecular chains allows for there being a vast number of
organic chemicals. Many can be classified into groups with similar chemical properties.

The most important groups in sewage, which account for about 75% of the organic
carbon, are the following.

1. Carbohydrates – 30% of total carbon. Linear carbon chains with hydrogen

atoms and hydroxyl groups attached. They include the sugars.

e.g. cellulose and starch (C6 H10 O5)n

cane sugar and lactose C12 H22 O11

glucose, hexose sugars C6 H12 O6

pentose sugars C5 H10 O5

2. Fats – 26% of total carbon. Much fatty material is present as insoluble matter
(about 140 mg/l). Fats are compounds of glycerol (CH2 (OH) CH (OH) CH2 (OH))
and various organic acids. Chemically they are glyceryl esters or glycerides. The
common organic acids involved are lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic which
are saturated, and oleic, linoleic and linolenic which are unsaturated. The common
formula is given below:

CH2 – O R where R, R’ and R” are acidic groupings.

|
CH – O R’
|
CH2 – O R”

eg. CH2 – O – CO – C17 H35

|
CH – O – CO – C17 H35 Tristearin
|
CH2 – O – CO – C17 H35

3. Protein based material – 11% of total carbon. Proteins are complex nitrogenous
organic substances formed from long repetitive chains of the following grouping:

- NH – CHX – CO –
 X will be an organic grouping possible containing sulphur or phosphorus. The
chain may repeat 1,000 or more times with differing x groupings.

Proteins degrade into amino-acids, e.g. glycine CH2/(NH2)COOH and cysteine

CH2 (SH)/CH (NH2)/COOH. They are present in sewage along with other breakdown
products.

e.g. urea NH2 CO NH2

indole
skatole (methyl indole)

4. Detergents – 11% of total carbon. Synthetic substances. The most common are
the alkyl benzene sulphonates which are used for almost all domestic
detergents.

e.g. sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate.

R – C6H4 SO3 Na. R = alkyl group.

In addition to these four groupings there are other trace quantities of organic chemicals
which have been isolated.

e.g. Uric acid 1 mg/l

Phenols 0.2 mg/l
Cholesterol trace
Creatine and creatinine 6 mg/l
Vitamins

The total organic carbon content in solution in sewage amounts to around 100 mg/l
with a further 100 mg/l in suspension.

Sewage impurity as a cell nutrient

Living cells require certain types of organic matter as nutrients. They are principally:

Carbohydrate )
Fats ) energy sources
Protein and amino acids – for synthesis of protoplasm.
Vitamins – trace quantities needed for cell processes.

All these are present in sewage, which is therefore a favourable substrate to support
large bacterial populations i.e. the major organic impurities are biodegradable.

Industrial Effluents

Trade wastes are many and varied. The trade waste content of a particular sewage will
reflect the nature of the local industry.
A simple classification of industrial effluents according to their effect on the sewage to
which they are discharged is given below:-

1. Strongly organic effluents – high B.O.D.

e.g. food industries, brewing, slaughtering, dairying.

2. Mineral effluents – low B.O.D.

e.g. metal finishing, mine drainage, pickling liquors, chemical industries.

3. Effluents containing high suspended solids content

e.g. quarrying, ceramics, vegetable washing, papermaking. (nb. Solids may be
organic and inorganic).

4. Acidic effluents
e.g. gas scrubbing, rayon production.

5. Alkaline effluents
e.g. textile processing, papermaking.

6. Toxic effluents i.e. those toxic to biological treatment processes.

e.g. metal finishing - toxic metals, cyanide
case hardening - cyanide
agrochemical production - organochlorine and
organophosphorus compounds
dry-cleaning - chlorocarbons.

7. Coloured effluents – containing quantities of intractable colour matter.

e.g. dyeing, printing, papermaking, paint manufacture.

8. Hot effluents
e.g. cooling waters, hot process liquors.

Effect on sewage

Any particular trade effluent may fall into a number of the eight categories listed, and
will thus give properties of each to the sewage. In addition, discharges of trade effluents
to sewers may have a marked effect on the flow regime within the sewerage system.
Site Considerations

Once a requirement for a new sewage treatment works has been established, the
identification of suitable sites for the works becomes a primary consideration in the
planning of a new effluent disposal scheme. Where few suitable sites are available, a
scheme may be formed around the most suitable site, or various alternative schemes
may be proposed and financially appraised based on the sites which, after a desk study
and some field investigation, prove best able to satisfy the requirements of the new
plant.

An investigation into possible sites involves the following considerations:-

1. Size, shape , cost and ownership of land available at a suitable elevation.

2. Foundation conditions and soil stability.

3. Flood levels.

4. Slope of site.

5. Compatibility with existing sewerage.

6. Provision of access and services.

7. Environmental impact.

Dealing with each of these in turn, we can note the following points:-

1. Size, shape, cost and ownership of land available

The processes involved in sewage treatment consist of:-

a) Pre-treatment (screening, grit removal etc).

b) Primary settlement.

c) Biological treatment.

d) Final settlement.

One or more of these processes may be omitted depending on the quality of effluent
required.

The size and shape of land available will affect the type of process opted for, for
instance, where land is readily available biological filters may prove to be the most
economical long term biological treatment stage, whereas an activated sludge process is
more economical on land and may prove the best option where land is a t a premium.
The availability of land will generally be reflected in its cost, so again the process opted
for will be affected by the cost of land. Land-efficient processes are generally more
costly in the long-term, but may be justifiable where land is expensive. The shape of
land affects design economy, and should preferably allow a compact arrangement of
process units to avoid long interconnecting pipework, services and access and allow
ease of maintenance. However, where other features of a site are favourable, the extra
cost of fitting a plant to a peculiarly shaped site may be justified.

Ownership of land must be taken into account in choosing a site. If land has to be
purchased from a multitude of owners the cost of purchase will inevitably be high, and
land acquisition may be protracted. It may be more economical to find a site more
readily obtainable but requiring a more expensive process, extra sewerage or access
costs.

The land elevation must be such that the sewage can be brought to the plant
economically and can be readily disposed of. Sites will therefore be low-lying so as to
drain as much of the ultimate development as possible by gravity sewerage and hence
avoid expensive pumping.

2. Foundation conditions and soil stability

Costs are increased when dealing with difficult or unpredictable ground conditions,
excavating rock and supporting instable earthworks. As previously noted, sites are
generally low-lying and the problems associated with such sites are high water tables,
peat deposits and low bearing capacity. Occasionally overburden is thin, and the depth
of tanks may need to be restricted to avoid extensive rock excavation, possibly affecting
the process.

Preliminary site investigations reveal enough useful information to be able to compare

sites, but the importance of thorough investigation into a chosen site must not be
under-estimated. Inadequate site investigation leads to uneconomical design, and
unforeseen problems causing further expense.

The engineer must assess whether a site which may be ideally situated with regard to
sewerage, access and cost is worth the expensive foundation engineering that may be
necessary to construct a plant that will be free from long term faults due to differential
settlement, or may need expensive temporary works during construction.

3. Flood levels

As a sewage treatment works is likely to be situated on low-lying ground in close

proximity to a river or coastline the occurrence of flooding must be investigated.
Generally a site will be chosen which will not flood. However if the only site available
foes occasionally flood (as sometimes occurs in estuaries or flood plains) then it could
have the following consequences.

a) Preventing the plant from operating by reducing the head available across the
plant, or submersion of biological filters preventing the aerobic metabolism of the
bacteria.
b) Serious damage to equipment due to the ingress of water into electric motors
and control gear and the bearings and gearboxes of mechanical equipment.

Consequence a), although serious, does not result in permanent damage, and the
consequences are mainly operational problems. A statistical probability of this
condition based on records of flood levels can be estimated for cases where increased
elevation of the plant involves a direct cost. It may be that the condition is acceptable
once every 25 years, and that the cost of reducing the probability of flooding by
elevating the plant is not justified.

Consequence b), is obviously more serious, and hence the acceptable probability of
flooding to a level at which this sort of damage results will be lower. Generally, the
plant will be designed such that expensive electrical and mechanical equipment is
either submersible, or placed above the levels of previously occurring floods.

4. Slope of site

Ideally the site should slope gently and uniformly so that the process can be arranged
for the sewage to flow through the works without pumping, whilst maintaining the civil
engineering works at a reasonable height above ground level. The slope of the site also
has a bearing on the type of process proposed as head losses through biological filters
are much higher than those through aeration tanks.

5. Compatibility with existing sewerage

New sewage treatment works are often required to treat sewage from mixed existing
and new development, and often to replace one or more existing works. With greater
emphasis on a cleaner environment, works have now been proposed for towns and
cities which previously discharged to the sea. In each case, there is an existing
sewerage system designed to gravitate to particular locations. In a new scheme, the
amount of modification to the existing system should be minimised. To achieve
operational economics, a new plant may replace several small works, to which existing
sewerage systems drain. These sewers are connected by an interceptor sewer, which
will preferably drain by gravity to the new works, thus avoiding pumping.

Because of the nature of many present day sewage treatment schemes, choosing a site
compatible with the existing sewers is a major consideration. In addition to the
incoming sewers a further consideration is the siting of the outfall from the works. A
river is able to assimilate a certain amount of polluting matter before flora and fauna
are seriously affected, and it is on this basis that the Royal Commission standards were
fixed. After an effluent is discharged into a river the biochemical processes which
remove the remaining nutrients continue for some distance downstream. It is desirable
where several works discharge into one river, that the discharges are reasonably evenly
spaced to spread the load over the river’s natural assimilative capacity.

In practise the managers responsible for river quality management in the EA & the
Water Company will stipulate the standard of effluent to be achieved at the works, and
this will depend upon the classification of the river, whether the river water is used for
abstraction, the river’s amenity value, and its assimilative capacity.

6. Provision of access and services

A sewage treatment works requires supplies of electricity, water and possibly gas.
Electricity is required for pumping and, with activated sludge systems, for aeration.
Lighting and buildings also consume electricity.

Access is required for operating staff, maintenance vehicles, and initially for
construction plant. A further consideration in the siting of a works is therefore that it
should not be too remote.

7. Environmental impact

A new sewage treatment works will have effects of various kinds on the environment,
and these must be considered when assessing the suitability of a site, the effect on the
receiving waters has already been mentioned, the other major effect is the nuisance to
the surrounding population. We have seen that works need to be sited reasonably close
to the population which they serve for ease of access and servicing, and economy of
sewerage. This can cause odour and noise problems for those in close proximity to the
plant. Activated sludge systems in particular have noisy machinery and produce
aerosols which are likely to be considered as objectionable.
Visually, a sewage works is unlikely to be hailed as a major aesthetic achievement and
screening may be necessary. Caution should be exercised in planting trees as the leaves
can cause problems if they are able to fall into the plant, particularly with percolating
filters. Objections may also be raised to the movement of plant and vehicles both
during construction and operation of the works and particularly so with a substantial
sludge disposal operation. In any civil engineering project, environmental impact
assessment must now be seen as a necessary part of project evaluation.

FLOW ASSESSMENT FORM AVAILABLE DATA

1. Introduction

In the hydraulic and process design of sewage treatment works the Dry Weather Flow
(DWF) of sewage is the most fundamental parameter used and it is important that it
should be assessed as accurately as possible.

DWF is defined in “Glossary of Terms used in Water Pollution Control” (published by

the Institution of Water and Environmental Management [IWEM]) as follows:

“When the sewage flow is mainly domestic in character, (the dry weather flow is) the
average daily flow to the treatment works during seven consecutive days without rain
(excluding a period which includes public or local holidays) following seven days
during which the rainfall did not exceed 0.25mm on any one day. With and industrial
sewage the dry weather flow should be based on flows during five working days if
production is limited to that period. Preferably, the flows during two periods in the
year, one in summer and one in winter, should be averaged to obtain the average dry
weather flow”.

Winter determinations of DWF are likely to be higher than summer assessments due to
higher levels of infiltration water resulting from winter precipitation. For this reason it
is more usual to assess DWF for summer conditions.

Alternative definitions of basic daily flow (e.g. ‘median flow in dry weather’) have been
proposed but the IWEM definition quoted above remains the norm adopted by the
water industry in the UK.

It should be appreciated that virtually all sewerage systems in wet weather will
experience a marked increase in flow, even those which are nominally separate.

Flow can be assessed in two ways: from measured data, where is exists, and from
synthesised data where flow data does not exist or where projections into the future
are required.

2. Flow Assessment from Measured Flows

2.1 On most works serving a population in excess of 10,000 flow measuring facilities
will be provided. Commonly the flow to full treatment will be measured together with
flow to the storm tanks. Sometimes only the total flow into the works is measured.
Good quality continuous flow records over a period of at least one year are required to
enable a reasonably accurate assessment of DWF to be made. Significantly shorter
period records can give misleading results. There are usually two types of measured
data available:

(a) chart records (graphs) of the continuous variation of the rate of flow of sewage.
In the past the charts for the smaller works were of a ‘condensed’ style and were
changed weekly whilst on the larger works the charts were often longer and
were cut off and filed on a daily basis. With modern electronic systems the data is
stored initially and is available for subsequent retrieval and graphical display

(b) records of daily flows which have been integrated by the flow recording
mechanism (‘integrator’ data). On older systems the integrator is read, in theory, at
exactly the same time each day. In practice this does not always happen and caution
should be exercised in interpretation of individual data. On modern electronic
systems the data is recorded automatically so that truly accurate information on 24
hour flows is produced.

2.2 Interpretation of Chart Data

2.2.1 Determination of the ratios of daily peak/daily average flow.

The daily variation will be less for larger works because of the attenuating effect on
flow of the sewerage systems due to its longer time of concentration. The information
is of value in assessing daily maximum and minimum flows for hydraulic design.
2.2.2 The effect of pumped surges. The need for flow balancing may be indicated if
sewage delivered in pulses from a sewage pumping station causes the storm separation
weir (3DWF) to overflow in dry weather.

2.2.3 A high base flow after long wet periods, or due to snowmelt may cause
continuous overflow to the storm tanks and this phenomenon will be apparent from the
charts.

2.2.4 Quantification of the wet weather regime – the duration, volume, and frequency
of wet weather flows received at the works. Such an assessment can be used to
evaluate the operation of the sewerage system, the effect of storm overflows, and
determination of the need or otherwise for storm tank capacity at the treatment plant.

2.2.5 Determination of peak flows to works resulting from very intense storms. The
charts will show the maximum instantaneous flow that can arrive at the works under
extreme conditions.

2.2.6 Determination of the minimum night flow and from it the rate of infiltration, I.
Ideally this determination is made when a very dry period, conforming to the DWF
definition, coincides with a holiday period. Under these conditions there will be no
seasonal infiltration and the effects of commerce and industry will be at a minimum
thus causing less uncertainty. The basic components of flow are shown
diagrammatically below.
TYPICAL FLOW CHART SHOWING COMPONENTS OF FLOW

In order to assess infiltration it is necessary to estimate the minimum night flow of domestic
sewage. One water company uses a figure of 0.25PG which is equivalent to about 30 l/hd/d. Some
indication is given from surveys carried out on household water usage where it has been found
that night usage is of the order of 5-10 l/hd/d. Thus minimum night domestic flow is likely to lie
in the range 10-30 l/hd/d and is likely to be highest for very large catchments with a long time of
concentration or where there is 24 hour shift working.

2.3 Interpretation of Integrator Data

2.3.1 An annual graphical plot of daily flows. Refer to the two examples appended to this
handout. These graphs give an immediate and valuable appreciation of the characteristics of
seasonal variation in flow received at the works. They show important characteristics of the
operation of the sewerage system, e.g. the effects of low set overflows, seasonal infiltration,
blockages, etc.

2.3.2 Determination of DWF

a) From the IWEM definition. The daily data is taken for the selected 5 day or 7 day period
and averaged to give DWF.

b) From a graphical plot. It is quite possible for the sewage flow to fall to its DWF level during
periods which, because of the occurrence of small amounts of rainfall in the preceding week, do
not conform to the IWEM definition. The graphical plot will identify such periods.

2.3.3 Determination of Average Flow

The average flow of sewage is defined as the total annual flow of sewage received at the sewage
treatment works divided by 365. It is an important parameter because, unlike DWF, it includes
the effects of rainfall. In the design process it is used, for example, in the assessment of biological
loadings derived from analysis of operational data. At works receiving a significant proportion of
trade effluent during the working week the average flow should be calculated from weekday
flows.

The ratio of average flow: DWF describes the degree to which the quantity of sewage is affected by
rainfall. This ratio depends upon annual rainfall, impermeable area, storm overflow settings and
the amount of seasonal infiltration. A typical ratio is 1.30 with an approximate range of 1.20 to
1.60.

2.4 Estimation of Flow Components from Measured Data

DWF - From the integrator data described in 2.3.2 above.

P- As outlined in 3.1 in the next section.

G- As outlined in detail in 3.3 in the next section.

Take the current water company domestic water consumption figure (approx 140-150 1/hd/d)
for purely domestic catchments. Add up to 25 1/hd/d (for the total catchment population) where
there is significant commercial/industrial activity.
 E- This is the average daily flow of trade effluent discharged by
consented traders to the sewerage systems.

The existing value of E should be established by reference to the records kept for charging
purposes by the water company. The annual flow data will need to be factored to allow for the
length of the working week (e.g. a 5½ day working week is equivalent to 275 working days per
annum).

I- Having established DWF, PG & E, calculate by deduction:

I = DWF – (PG + E)

Then check against minimum night flow as described in 2.2.6. If there is poor correlation
between the two methods, check the accuracy of the flow recorder, and recheck the assumptions
made regarding P, G and E.

3. Flow Assessment from Synthesised Data

3.1 Population P

Data on current population and future population trends should normally be obtained from the
planning sections of the water companies. Design population figures used for sewerage design
should not be used for sewage treatment design due to the longer design used for sewers.

Population nationally is at an almost static level. However in some areas there are significant
shifts of population from urban to rural areas.

3.1.1 Census Data. A national census is held by the Office of Population Censuses & Surveys
(OPCS) once every 10 years. The most recent census was conducted in 2001 and the data is now
generally available.

The census statistics give detailed information on population and households. Note that actual
‘dwellings’ or ‘houses’ are not enumerated and there will be a slight difference between
‘household’ units and ‘dwelling’ units.

3.1.2 Coastal and Holiday Resorts. Resorts can experience wide seasonal variations in
population resulting from holiday-making. One definition that is used for establishing the total
design population is:

P = resident population plus number of bed spaces available for visitors plus four times the
number of caravans and camping site spaces for those properties/sites connected to the works.

3.2 Infiltration, I

Where no flow records exist, the quantity of infiltration water must be estimated. Abnormal levels
of infiltration may be indicated if the sewage is significantly weaker or stronger than normal.

For new sewers it is recommended that the infiltration rate should be taken as 40 litres/head/day.
i.e. even new sewers are assumed to leak! For an average situation, for example, 40 year old
sewers and no particular evidence of any abnormality in the composition of sewage, and
allowance of 60 litres/head/day is appropriate. With older sewerage systems, particularly in low
lying flat areas where the majority of the sewers are below the water table, it is possible for very
high rates of infiltration to occur, eg. 120 litres/head/day. Where mining subsidence has caused
cracking of sewers laid above the water table exfiltration of sewage may occur.

3.3 Water Consumption, G

In the late 1970s a number of detailed studies were undertaken in the UK and it was found that
the average national domestic (household) water consumption was about 120 litres/head/day.
Since then consumption has increased to about 150 litres/head/day in 2001. There is
considerable variation from region to region The following is a typical breakdown of domestic
consumption:

Toilet Flushing 32%

Bathing and Showering 17%
Clothes washing machine 12%
Luxury appliances 1%
Outside use 3%
Miscellaneous 35%
100% (150 l/hd/d)

Miscellaneous statistics:

A shower uses about 5 litres/minute and a sprinkler can use 1 m3/hour. 3% of household use is
for drinking, that is about 10 litres/day per household.

Data on existing water consumption and forecasts of future increases should always be obtained
from water undertakings’ planning sections.

In forecasting future water consumption the water industry has a history of over estimating
trends of growth in water use. Progressively, over the last twenty years or so estimates of future
growth rates have been reduced. Currently (2006) consumption is forecast to increase at about
8% per decade although this figure is likely to vary from region to region.

Wide scale adoption of domestic water metering would probably result in a small reduction in
consumption.

In sewerage and sewage treatment design it is assumed that the per capita discharge of domestic
sewage is the same as the per capita water consumption. In a purely residential catchment water
consumption, G, will be the appropriate value of domestic consumption adopted by the water
undertaking. In towns and cities where the sewerage systems serves a mixture of residential and
commercial areas (shops, offices, industry) an additional allowance must be made to cater for the
domestic sewage discharged from commercial premises. An appropriate allowance for large
catchments is an additional 20-25 litres/head/day based upon the total residential population of
the catchment. Alternatively, provided the number of employees is known, the discharge from
shops and offices may be estimated on the basis of 60 litres/employee/day.

In sewerage design very high values of ultimate water consumption are often used. e.g. 225 or
250 litres/head/day. These figures relate to the design life of sewers. e.g. 80 years. Such figures
must not be used for sewage treatment design where the design horizon is much shorter – usually
between 10 and 20 years.
3.4 Trade Effluent, E

Often there is a considerable disparity between actual and consented flows and its should not be
assumed, necessarily, that the design flow is the same as the consented flow. When estimating
future flows the water undertaking should be consulted, including the Trade Effluent Control and
Finance sections, in order to establish and agree the appropriate design flow.

One of the greatest difficulties lies in estimating quantities of trade effluent when the nature of
future industrial development is unknown. In the past, guideline figures for the average daily flow
of 0.29 – 0.52 litres per second/hectare have been used for proposed industrial areas where high
water usage was anticipated. However modern industry, for economic reasons, is concerned with
water conservation, and the average daily flow for typical ’light’ industrial development is more
likely to be in the range 0.07 – 0.12 litres per second/hectare.

Assessment of Flow and Loads:

1. Population Statistics

by House Count

House occupancy rate – 2.3 to 2.6 take 2.5 persons per house.
Local Authority old persons housing – 1.1 to 1.3 take 1.2 persons per house.

by Structure Plan

Take figures if given or obtain house occupancy rate for the district and apply to
drainage area house count in preference to above figures.

2. Estimation of Flow

a. Domestic sewage flow

Average = 150 litres per head day

Predictions suggested this may be increasing at an approximate rate of 8% per
decade.

b. Commercial

For large catchments with significant commercial activity take up to 25 litres per head
of total resident population per day.

c. Schools

15 to 20 litres per head per day for

pupils outside catchment
with swimming bath = 20 to 25 litres per head per day.

d. Industrial effluent flows E.

 Light water users = 0.1 l/s/ha.
Average future = 0.2 l/s/ha.
Heavy water users = 0.5 l/s/ha.
Metered supplies = allow 90% of metered water use.
e. Infiltration I.

Northumbrian Water Yorkshire Water

New sewers
= 20% PG or 0.05 l/sec/ha 40 l/h/d
Old sewers = 30 – 100% PG up to 120l/h/d
Average = 50% PG. 60 l/h/d

3. Measured Flows

Dry Weather Flow

Use I.W.P.C. definition i.e. average daily flow over seven days following seven days
when rainfall does not exceed 0.25mm in any one day. (N.B. Industrial sewages – over 5
working days).

Average D.W.F. = PG + E + I

Minimum night flow

= ¼ PG + I (No more than a useful rule of thumb when better

information is unavailable).
night water usage in range 5 to 10 l/h/d based on water consumption
studies.

Infiltration

Base on night flow measurements. For maximum values measure in winter months.

Annual average daily flow to works

Annual integrator reading = (1.20 to 1.60) x D.W.F.

Maximum flow entering treatment works from a combined sewerage system (“Formula A”)

= DWF + 1.36P + 2E
= 1.36 P + PG + 3E + I m3/d

Maximum flow to full treatment (FTF)

= 3 PG + 3E + I M3/d

N.B. An allowance for returned works liquors may be necessary.

4. Loading

Domestic
By calculation from measured flow and strength data for BOD, S.S. and ammoniacal nitrogen.
Remember to deduct known trade effluent contributions. Alternatively the following per capita
daily contributions are typical.

BOD – 55 to 60 g S.S. – 60g NH3 – 6 to 7 g as N

Trade

From trade effluent consents. Convert C.O.D. data to B.O.D. estimate by using a factor derived from
C.O.D./B.O.D. relationships for similar wastes. Wastes which have similar biological treatment
characteristics to those for domestic sewage will probably have a C.O.D/B.O.D. ratio of between
1.5 and 2.0. Higher ratios indicate increasing difficulties for biological treatment.

Future developments
If processes known, estimate by analogy with similar operations elsewhere. If unknown, treat as if
average strength sewage.

WORKS DESIGN PARAMETERS

1. Inlet Works

a. Conventional Bar Screens

Hand raked – submerged area = 0.14m2/1000pop/day between raking.

Dimensions of chamber for mechanically raked bar screens.

B+S F
Calculate from W = x
S VD

where:-

W = channel width (m)

B = width of each bar (mm)
S = width of each bar space (mm)
F = maximum rate of flow (m3/s)
V = maximum velocity through screen (m/s)
D = depth of flow in approach channel at maximum rate of
flow (m)

Velocity in approach channel minimum = 0.3m/s

Velocity through screen maximum = 0.9m/s

Bar spacing (works screens) = 17 to 25mm

Bar thickness (works screens) = 9 to 12mm

Bar spacing (coarse screens) = 75 to 150mm

Bar thickness (coarse screens) = 25 to 30mm

Screenings quantity – range = 0.005 to

0.03m3/day/1000
pop.
 Screenings quantity – average = 0.020m3/day/1000
pop.
Weight of screenings – range = 720 – 850 kg/m3

b. Proprietary Screen Designs

Consult manufacturers catalogues.
c. Grit Removal

Maximum surface loading = 1.05m/min (0.2mm grit)

(Crossflow) = 1.53m/min (0.3mm grit)
Maximum velocity through unit = 0.3m/s
Detention period (Pista) = 30 sec at maximum flow
Diameter (Pista) = 1.8 to 5.7m
Grit production = 0.01 to 0.15m3/1000m3
(combined sewerage) sewage
Grit production = 0.001 to 0.01m3/1000m3
(separate sewerage) sewage

d. Storm Tanks

Follow Technical Committee Recommendations – 70 1 per head or 2 hrs retention (whichever the
smaller).

2. Primary Sedimentation

Main design criterion – 2 hours retention at maximum flow + returned liquors.

a. Horizontal Flow Tanks

at maximum treatment flow

Surface loading = not to exceed 45m3/m2/day

(allow for tanks out of service)

Weir overflow rate = 150 to 300m3/m/day

(norm) = 220m3/m/day

b. Upward Flow Tanks

at maximum treatment flow

Surface loading rate = 30m3/m2/day

(i.e. Upward flow velocity = 1.25 m/h).

c. Radial Flow Tanks

at maximum treatment flow

Surface loading rate = not to exceed 45m3/m2/day

(allow for tanks out of service)
 Weir overflow rate = 150 to 300 m3/m/day

If V – notch weirs

maximum discharge per notch = 30 to 40 m3/d.

d. Sludge Hoppers
to hold not less than 1 day’s estimated sludge make.
3. Biological Filtration

For temperature variation of settled sewage: Winter 5ºC – Summer 20ºC.

a. Single Rate Filtration

Media – 50m.m. slag (40 – 63 mm range).

Media depth – 1.8 to 2.0m

Organic loadings: (Average conditions – settled sewage)

Range 0.07 – 0.12 kg B.O.D. /m3 media/day
Conventional norm 0.1 kg B.O.D./m3 media/day (non-nitrifying)
0.08 kg B.O.D./m3 media/day (nitrifying)

Hydraulic loading: (Average flow rates)

Minimum wetting rate 0.45 m3/m3 media/day (non-nitrifying)
0.35m3/m3 media/day (nitrifying)

Maximum Hydraulic load at average flow 0.75 to 1.5 m3/m3 media/day

b. Recirculation

Principle use to cure ponding due to excessive film growth at the expense of loss of
nitrification.

Also used to maintain irrigation rates on smaller schemes where infiltration is low and
on plastic filter media which require high irrigation rates.

Organic loading: (Average conditions – settled sewage)

Conventional norm 0.15 kg B.O.D./m3 media/day (non-nitrifying)
0.10 kg B.O.D./m3 media/day (nitrifying)

Hydraulic loading: (Average flow rates with minimum of 1:1 recirculation rate)

Minimum wetting rate 0.60 m3/m3 media/day (non-nitrifying)

0.40 m /m3 media/day (nitrifying)
3

c. Humus Tanks

Retention time = 1.5 to 3 hours at maximum treatment rate. Actual value chosen
increases as effluent consent standard becomes more rigorous.

Surface loading rates not to exceed 45 m3/m2/day (with tanks out of service).
(May be < 30 m3/m2/day for high quality effluents and to give increased security of
consent compliance).

Sludge production = 0.4 to 0.5 kg dry solids/kg B.O.D. removed during filtration.