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15ARC5.

3 -2019 MODULE 01

MODULE 1
Electrical Services- Electricity Generation; Transmission and Distribution
Electricity
 Every matter contains two basic particles of electricity- electron and protons.
 The arrangement of these two particles in a substance that determines its electrical characteristics.
 If electrons are detached from a neutral body, a deficit of electrons occurs in it. The body is no longer
remains neutral due to the shortage of electrons as compared to its normal due share.
 The result is that the body attains positive state.
Charge
• A body is said to be charged if it has either excess or deficit of electrons from the normal due share.
• In atoms, the electron carries a negative elementary or unit charge; the proton carries a positive charge. The
two types of charge are equal and opposite.
• In an object comprised of many atoms, the net charge is equal to the arithmetic sum, taking polarity into
account, of the charges of all the atoms taken together. In a massive sample, this can amount to a
considerable quantity of elementary charges.
• An electric field, also called an electrical field or an electrostatic field, surrounds any object that has charge.
• The electric field strength at any given distance from an object is directly proportional to the amount of
charge on the object.
• Near any object having a fixed electric charge, the electric field strength diminishes in proportion to the
square of the distance from the object.
• 1 coulomb= Charge on 628x10 to the power of 16 electrons.
Free Electrons
• The electrons which are not attached to the nucleus of a atom and free to move when external energy is
applied are called free electrons.
• Electric field is a region around the charged particle within which the other charged particle
will experience a repulsive or attractive force.
• Valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus of a atom.
• When small amount of external energy in form of heat or light is applied to the valence electrons then they
get pulled away from the parent atom and becomes free.
• The force of attraction of the nucleus does not act on the free electron.
• The flow of free electrons in a material is called an electric current. The moving free electrons will transmit
electric current from one point to other.
• Materials which contain free electrons will conduct electric current. Materials which does not contain free
electrons does not conduct electric current.
Conductors
• Conductors are the materials or substances which allow electricity to flow through them.
• They are able to conduct electricity because they allow electrons to flow inside them very easily.
• Conductors have this property of allowing the transition of heat from one source to another.
Examples of Conductors
• Silver is the best conductor of electricity. However, it is costly and so, we don’t use silver in industries and
transmission of electricity.
• Copper, Brass, Steel, Gold, and Aluminium are good conductors of electricity. We use them mostly in electric
circuits and systems in form of wires.
• Mercury is an excellent liquid conductor that finds use in many instruments.
• Gases are not good conductors of electricity as the particles of matter are quite far away.
Insulators
• Insulators are the materials or substances which resist or don’t allow the current to flow through them.
• The property which makes insulators different from conductors is its resistivity.
• Wood, cloth, glass, mica, and quartz are some good examples of insulators. Insulators are also protectors as
they give protection against heat, sound and of course passage of electricity. Insulators don’t have any free
electrons and it is the main reason why they don’t conduct electricity.
Examples of Insulators
• Glass is the best insulator as it has the highest resistivity.
• Plastic is a good insulator and it finds its use in making a number of things.
• Rubber is a common component in making tyres, fire-resistant clothes and slippers. This is because it is a
very good insulator.

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Circuits
• A circuit is a closed loop that electrons can travel in.
• A source of electricity, such as a battery, provides electrical energy in the circuit.
• Unless the circuit is complete, that is, making a full circle back to the electrical source, no electrons will
move.
Resistance
• Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of electric current.
• It is represented by the uppercase letter R.
• The standard unit of resistance is the ohm
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's Law deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal conductor. This relationship
states that:
• The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the current through it.
• The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R.
• Ohm's Law is given by:
• V=IR
• where V is the potential difference between two points which include a resistance R. I is the current flowing
through the resistance. For biological work, it is often preferable to use the conductance, g = 1/R; In this
form Ohm's Law is:I = g V
Electric Potential
• The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electric potential.
• The greater the charge on a body, greater is its ability to do work and hence larges is the electric potential of
the body.
• The practical unit of electric potential is volt.
• The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to carrying a unit charge from one
point to another in an electric field.
• In other words, the potential difference is defined as the difference in the electric potential of the two
charged bodies. The unit of potential difference is volt.
Current
• Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or electron-deficient atoms.
• The common symbol for current is the uppercase letter I.
• The standard unit is the ampere, symbolized by A.
• One ampere of current represents one coulomb of electrical charge (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers) moving
past a specific point in one second.
• Electrons, the most common charge carriers, are negatively charged.
• They flow from relatively negative points to relatively positive points.
• Electric current can be either direct or alternating.
• Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction at all points in time, although the instantaneous magnitude of
the current might vary.
• In an alternating current (AC), the flow of charge carriers reverses direction periodically.
• An example of pure DC is the current produced by an electrochemical cell.
• The output of a power-supply rectifier, prior to filtering, is an example of pulsating DC.
• The output of common utility outlets is AC.
Voltage
• Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the potential difference in charge
between two points in an electrical field.
• The greater the voltage, the greater the flow of electrical current (that is, the quantity of charge carriers that
pass a fixed point per unit of time) through a conducting or semiconducting medium for a given resistance to
the flow.
• The standard unit is the volt, symbolized by a non-italic uppercase letter V.
• One volt will drive one coulomb (6.24 x 1018) charge carriers, such as electrons, through a resistance of
one ohm in one second.
• Voltage can be direct or alternating.
• A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times.
• In an alternating voltage, the polarity reverses direction periodically.

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Power
• Power-up (or the synonym "power-on") is a verb meaning to apply electrical power to a device - that is, to
"turn it on" as most of us would say about...
• Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form, such as motion, heat, or
an electromagnetic field.
• The rate at which the electric energy enters the portion of the circuit is called the electrical power input. The
rate at which work is done in bringing the charged particles from one point to another is known as electric
power. It is denoted by P.
• The SI unit of power is watt (W). One watt is the power consumed by the device catting 1A of current when
operated at a potential difference of 1 V.
• P = VI
Connected Load
• The electric load (in watts) on an electric system if all apparatus and equipment connected to the system are
energized simultaneously.
Maximum demand calculation
• The maximum demand value is the average from the instantaneous power (in kW or kVA) during a defined
time interval, usually every 15 minutes (this time interval will depend on each country).
• There are different methods to calculate this parameter:
Fixed window (Block window)
• This is the maximum demand calculation during a defined interval (usually every 15 minutes).
• Once the data is obtained, the value is stored and it makes a reset to start a new calculation for the next 15
minutes.
Sliding Window
• This is the maximum demand calculation during a defined interval (usually every 15 minutes).
• Once the data is obtained, it will wait one minute to start a new 15 minutes calculation (this time may vary
depending on the country).
• This means that every minute (this time can depends on the meter) it will record one maximum demand
value from the last 15-minute period.
Load factor
• Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a given period to the maximum demand (peak
load) occurring in that period.
• In other words, the load factor is the ratio of energy consumed in a given period of the times of hours to the
peak load which has occurred during that particular period.
• Load factor means how efficiently we use energy.
• It is the measure of the utilisation of electrical energy during a given period to the maximum energy which
would have been utilised in that period.
• The load factor plays an important role in the cost of generation per unit (kWh).
• The higher the load factor the smaller will be the generation cost for the same maximum demands.
• Load factor regarding energy:

• Depending on the number of hours in days, weeks, months, or years we define different load factors.
• For daily load factor, period T is taken as 24 hours; similarly, for weeks, months and years the different value
of T is taken.
Demand Factor
• The word “demand” itself says the meaning of Demand Factor. The ratio of the maximum coincident
demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total connected load of the system.
• Demand Factor = Maximum demand / Total connected load
• For example, an over sized motor 20 Kw drives a constant 15 Kw load whenever it is ON. The motor demand
factor is then 15/20 =0.75= 75 %.
• Demand Factor is express as a percentage (%) or in a ratio (less than 1).
• Demand factor is always < =1.
• Demand Factor is always change with the time to time or hours to hours of use and it will not constant.
• The connected load is always known so it will be easy to calculate the maximum demand if the demand
factor for a certain supply is known at different time intervals and seasons.
• The lower the demand factor, the less system capacity required to serve the connected load.
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Pre-Independence Era:-
• 1879:- First demonstration of an electric light in Calcutta.
• 1897:- Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting license as agents of the Indian Electric Co. A month
later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation.
• 1882:- Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time at Crawford Market.
• 1887:- Indian Electricity Act 1887 was enacted for the protection of person and property from injury and
risks, attendant to the supply and user of electricity for lighting and other purposes.
• 1897:- The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate in Darjeeling.
• 1903:- Indian Electricity Act 1903 was the first attempt to regulate the electricity sector broadly in the
country. But, this act was ambiguous, as it did not recognize bulk sale of electricity and also jurisdictions of
local government and Government of India were not clearly demarcated.
• 1905:- Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company (BEST) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide
electricity for the tramway. The first electric street light in Asia was lit in 1905 in Bangalore.
• 1910:- Indian Electricity Act 1910 gave the power of licensing to local governments and moreover, issuing of
license for bulk supply was introduced.
Post Independence Era:-
• 1948:- Electricity Supply Act 1948 was enacted to envisage State Electricity Boards (SEBs) in different states
with full powers to control generation, distribution and utilization of electricity within their respective states
and also to constitute Central Electricity Authority (CEA).
 Mandated creation of SEBs.
 Need for the State to step in (through SEBs) to extend electrification (so far limited to cities) across the
country.
 Main amendments to the Indian Electricity Supply Act
 Amendment in 1975 to enable generation in Central sector.
 Amendment to bring in commercial viability in the functioning SEBs – Section 59 amended to make the
earning of a minimum return of 3% on fixed assets a statutory requirement (w.e.f 1.4.1985) .
 Amendment in 1991 to open generation to private sector a establishment of RLDCs.
 Amendment in 1998 to provide for private sector participation transmission, and also provision relating
to Transmission Utilities.
• 1964: - Five Regional Electricity Boards (REBs) were formed by the Government of India with the
concurrence of State Governments with a view to ensure integrated grid operation and regional cooperation
on power.
• 1969:- Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) was established to ensure the availability of electricity for
accelerated growth as a remedy to famines of 1960s and also to improve the quality of life for rural and
semi-urban population.
• 1975: - Creation of Central Generating Companies for development of super thermal power stations at coal
pit heads and large hydroelectric stations leading to creation of NTPC, NHPC, & NEEPCO.
• 1986:- Power Finance Corporation (PFC) was incorporated as a dedicated financial institution for the power
sector.
• 1989:- Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL) was set up by carving out the transmission assets
from various central utilities.
Power Sector Reforms
• 1991:- Electricity Supply Act 1948 was amended to pave the way for the formation of private Generating
companies. CEA empowered to fix the norms for determining the tariff of all generating companies. RBI
allows 100% foreign investment in power sector. Also to establish Regional Load Dispatch Centers (RLDCs).
To encourage private investments into generation, several policies were promulgated like:-
 A guaranteed 16 percent return on equity with full five years tax holiday.
 Debt to equity ratio of 4:1.
 Sovereign guarantees and escrow benefits in case SEBs defaulted
• 1992 - First Gazette Notifications on the criteria for fixing the tariff for sale of electricity by the Generating
companies to SEBs or any other agency.
• 1998:- Transmission sector was also opened for private investments subject to approval of PGCIL as Central
Transmission Utility (CTU).
• 1998:- Electricity Regulatory Commission Act enacted paving the way for the formation of Central Electricity
Regulatory Commission (CERC) and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERC). Regulatory power of the
State governments transferred to SERC. Consequently, Tariff regulatory function of CEA transferred to CERC.
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• 1999 - Privatization of distribution in Orissa.


• 2000 - Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC).
• 2002 - Privatization of distribution in Delhi.
• 2002 - Availability Based Tariff was introduced.
• 2003 - Electricity Act 2003 enacted by the Parliament. This Act repeals the Indian Electricity Act 1910,
Electricity supply Act 1948, Electricity Regulatory Commission Act 1998. The Salient features of the Electricity
Act 2003 are:-
 Generation has been delicensed and captive generation freely permitted.i.e. Any generating company may
establish, operate and maintain a generating station without obtaining a licence under this Act with only
exception that it should comply with the technical standards relating to connectivity with the grid referred to
in clause (b) of section 73.
o Note: Hydro-projects would however need concurrence from Central Electricity Authority
 No person shall
(a)transmit electricity; or
(b)distribute electricity; or
(c)undertake trading in electricity,
unless he is authorised to do so by a licence issued, exceptions informed by authorised commissions through
notifications
 No license required for generation and distribution in rural India
 Central Government may, make region- wise demarcation of the country, and, from time to time, make such
modifications therein as it may consider necessary for the efficient, economical and integrated transmission
and supply of electricity, and in particular to facilitate voluntary inter-connections and co-ordination of
facilities for the inter-State, regional and inter-regional generation and transmission of electricity.
 Transmission utility at the central and state level to be a government company-with responsibility of planned
and coordinated development of transmission network
 Open access in transmission with provision for surcharge for taking care of current level of cross subsidy,
with the surcharge being gradually phased out.
 The state government required to unbuldle State Electricity boards. However they may continue with them
as distribution licensees and state transmisison utilities
 Setting up state electricity regulatory commission (SERC) made mandatory
 An appellate tribunal to hear appeals against the decision of (CERC’s) and SERC’s
 Metering of electricity supplied made mandatory
 Provisions related to thefts of electricity made more stringent
 Trading as, a distinct activity recognised with the safeguard of Regulatory commissions being authorised to
fix ceiling on trading margins
 For rural and remote areas stand alone system for generation and distribution permitted
 Thrust to complete rural electrification and provide for management of rural distribution by panchayat,
cooporative societies, NGOs, franchises etc.
 Central government to prepare National Electricity Policy and tariff Policy
 Central electricity authority to prepare National electricity plan.
• 2004:- First Open Access Regulation was published by CERC.
• 2006 - Tariff Policy, Competitive bidding for procurement of power, Ultra Mega Power Projects.
• 2006:- Staff paper “Developing a common platform for electricity trading” where first time the prospective
of Power Exchanges was discussed.
• 2007:- Guidelines were issued by CERC for grant of permission for setting up and operation of Power
Exchange.
• 2008:- IEX commenced its operations in June 2008 and PXIL in Oct 2008.
• 2008:- “Open Access in Inter-State Transmission Regulations” which covered Short-term Open Access
transactions including collective transaction through Power Exchanges.
• 2010:- CERC (Power Market) Regulations introduced with focus on operations of Power Exchanges.
• 2010:- CERC (Terms and Conditions for recognition and issuance of Renewable Energy Certificate for
Renewable Energy Generation) Regulations.
• 2016:- CERC (Terms and Conditions for Dealing in Energy Savings Certificates) Regulations.
Sources of Electricity

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Transmission and Distribution of Electricity:


• Electricity is often generated a long way from where it is used, and is transmitted long distances through
power lines.
• A very high voltage transmission can minimize the power loss of wires through the heating effect.
• Yet electricity generated from power stations is not at such a high voltage as that running through the
transmission cables. The electricity is supplied to end users at a low voltage, making changes in the voltage
necessary.
• In the power stations, the voltage has to be raised for transmission. Raising the voltage is called step up.
• Before reaching end users, the voltage has to be lowered. Lowering the voltage is called step down.

 Primary electric power transmission:


High voltages of the order of 66 kV 132 kV 220 kV and 400 kV are
used for transmitting power by 3 phase 3 wire overhead system.
This is supplied to substations usually at the out skirts of major
distribution centre or city.
 Secondary electric power transmission:
The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3
kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for secondary transmission.
 Primary electric power distribution:
The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large
main substations from which the power is distributed to small
secondary substations scattered throughout the load area. The
voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.
 Secondary electric power distribution:
This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets,
localities and over the rural areas. From these sources
connections to individual customers are provided. The circuit
used for this purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which
either 3 phase 440 V or single phase 220 V supply to the
consumers may be provided.
 System layout of electric power transmission and
distribution:
From the power stations PS, emanate 3 phase feeder supplying
secondary distributions substations located at points throughout
the supply area. The normal voltages are 132 kV, 33 kV and 11 kV.
Concerns with Transmission of Electricity:
1. Efficiency - transport electric power over distance with minimal losses
2. Safety - transport power through urban and rural areas minimizing harm to people and animals.
3. Cost - use the minimal raw materials and building/operating costs possible
4. Robustness - create a system which is not vulnerable to surges from lightning, solar flares, earthquakes, ice
storms, wind storms and have the system be able to 'heal' itself when outages occur, isolating problem
areas.
There are 3 types of lines:
• Overhead lines are very high voltage, between 100 kV and 800 kV, and do the majority of long distance
transmission. They must be high voltage in order to minimize power losses to resistance.
• Underground lines are used to transport power through populated areas, underwater, or pretty much
anywhere that overhead lines can't be used. They are less common than overhead lines due to heat-related
losses and higher cost.
• Sub transmission lines carry lower voltages (26 kV - 69 kV) to distribution stations, and can be overhead or
underground.
Comparison of AC and DC Power Transmission:
Advantages of DC electric power transmission:
 It requires only two conductors.
 There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement which is common in ac
transmission.
 For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc transmission lines is less than that in ac
transmission.
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 As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of conductor is usefully utilized
thereby affecting saving in material.
 For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less stress as compared to those on
ac transmission lines.
 A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
 There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.
Disadvantages of DC transmission:
 Generation of power at high dc voltages is difficult due to commutation problems and cannot be usefully
utilized at Consumer ends.
 Step up or step-down transformation of dc voltages is not possible in equipment like transformer.
Advantages of AC electric power Transmission:
 Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation problem.
 Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.
 High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.
Disadvantages of AC electric power transmission:
 Problems of inductances and capacitances exist in transmission lines
 Due to skin effect, more copper is required.
 Construction of AC transmission lines is more complicated as well as costly
 Effective resistance of ac transmission lines is increased due to skin effect.
Power Distribution System
A distribution substation is located near or inside city/town/village/industrial area.
It receives power from a transmission network.
The high voltage from the transmission line is then stepped down by a step-down transformer to the primary
distribution level voltage.
Primary distribution voltage is usually 11 kV, but can range between 2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or
consumer.
A typical power distribution system
consists of -
• Distribution substation
• Feeders
• Distribution Transformers
• Distributor conductors
• Service mains conductors
Along with these, a distribution
system also consists of switches,
protection equipment, measurement
equipment etc.
• Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried to distribution transformers
via feeder conductors. Generally, no tappings are taken from the feeders so that the current remains same
throughout. The main consideration in designing of a feeder conductor is its current carrying capacity.
• Distribution transformer: A distribution transformer, also called as service transformer, provides final
transformation in the electric power distribution system. It is basically a step-down 3-phase transformer.
Distribution transformer steps down the voltage to 400Y/230 volts. Here it means, voltage between any one
phase and the neutral is 230 volts and phase to phase voltage is 400 volts. However, in USA and some other
countries, 120/240 volts split-phase system is used; where voltage between a phase and neutral is 120 volts.
• Distributors: Output from a distribution transformer is carried by distributor conductor. Tappings are taken
from a distributor conductor for power supply to the end consumers. The current through a distributor is not
constant as tappings are taken at various places throughout its length. So, voltage drop along the length is
the main consideration while designing a distributor conductor.
• Service mains: It is a small cable which connects the distributor conductor at the nearest pole to the
consumer's end.
Classification Of Power Distribution Systems
• According to nature of current:
• DC distribution system
• AC distribution system
• According to type of construction:

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• Overhead distribution system


• Underground distribution system
• On the basis of scheme of connection:
• Radial distribution system
• Ring main distribution system
• Inter-connected distribution system
Radial Distribution System
• This system is used only when substation or generating
station is located at the centre of the consumers.
• In this system, different feeders radiate from a substation or
a generating station and feed the distributors at one end.
• Thus, the main characteristic of a radial distribution
system is that the power flow is in only one direction.
• Single line diagram of a typical radial distribution system is
as shown in the figure below. It is the simplest system and
has the lowest initial cost.
• Although this system is simplest and least expensive, it is not highly reliable.
• A major drawback of a radial distribution system is, a fault in the feeder will result in supply failure
to associated consumers as there won't be any alternative feeder to feed distributors.
Parallel Feeders Distribution System

 The above-mentioned disadvantage of a radial system can be minimized by introducing parallel feeders.
 The initial cost of this system is much more as the number of feeders is doubled.
 Such system may be used where reliability of the supply is important or for load sharing where the load is
higher.
Ring Main Distribution System

• A similar level of system reliability to that of the parallel


feeders can be achieved by using ring distribution system.
• Here, each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders
but in different paths.
• The feeders in this system form a loop which starts from the
substation bus-bars, runs through the load area feeding
distribution transformers and returns to the substation bus-
bars.
Ring main distribution system. Advantages Of Ring Main
Distribution System
1. There are fewer voltage fluctuations at consumer's terminal.
• The system is very reliable as each distribution transformer is fed with two feeders. That means, in the event
of a fault in any section of the feeder, the continuity of the supply is ensured from the alternative path.
Interconnected Distribution System
• When a ring main feeder is energized by two or more substations or generating stations, it is called as an
interconnected distribution system.
• This system ensures reliability in an event of transmission failure.
• Also, any area fed from one generating stations during peak load hours can be fed from the other generating
station or substation for meeting power requirements from increased load.

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Overhead Transmission
• Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines.
• High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always
an aluminium alloy.
• Overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines requires minimum
clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions, such as high wind and low
temperatures, can lead to power outages.
• The main advantages of overhead transmission cables is that they are easier to repair if damaged.
• They are not restricted by landscape.
Underground transmission
• Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower visibility and are less affected
by bad weather.
• However, costs of insulated cable and excavation are much higher than overhead construction.
• Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair.
• Underground lines are strictly limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than
over lines.
• Long underground AC cables have significant capacitance which may reduce their ability to provide useful
power to loads beyond 50 miles. Long underground DC cables have no such issue and can run for thousands
of miles.

Bulk Power transmission system (BPS)


A bulk power system (BPS) is a large interconnected
electrical system made up of generation and transmission
facilities and their control systems. A BPS does not include
facilities used in the local distribution of electric energy. If a
bulk power system is disrupted, the effects are felt in more
than one location.

Substations
• Substations are the places where the level of voltage undergoes change with the help of transformers. Apart
from transformers a substation will house switches (called circuit breakers), meters, relays for protection
and other control equipment.
• Broadly speaking, a big substation will receive power through incoming lines at some voltage (say 400 kV)
changes level of voltage (say to 132 kV) using a transformer and then directs it out wards through outgoing
lines.
• The function of a substation is to receive power at some voltage through incoming lines and transmit it at
some other voltage through outgoing lines. So the most important equipment in a substation is
transformer(s). However, for flexibility of operation and protection transformer and lines additional
equipments are necessary.
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Distribution system
 An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the delivery of electric power:
 It carried electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers.
 Distribution system connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium
voltage ranging between 2kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers.
 Power at somewhat high voltage (say 33 kV) is received in a substation situated near load center (a big city).
The loads of a big city are primarily residential complexes, offices, schools, hotels, street lighting etc. These
types of consumers are called LT (low tension) consumers. Apart from this there may be medium and small
scale industries located in the outskirts of the city. LT consumers are to be supplied with single phase, 220 V,
40 Hz.
 Power receive at a 33 kV substation is first stepped down to 6 kV and with the help of under ground cables
(called feeder lines), power flow is directed to different directions of the city. At the last level, step down
transformers are used to step down the voltage form 6 kV to 400 V. These transformers are called
distribution transformers with 400 V, star connected secondary. You must have noticed such transformers
mounted on poles in cities beside the roads. These are called pole mounted substations.
Pole Mounted Substation
 From the secondary of these transformers 4 terminals (R, Y, B and N) come out. N is called the neutral and
taken out from the common point of star connected secondary. Voltage between any two phases (i.e., R-Y,
Y-B and B-R) is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V(= 400 3).
 Residential buildings are supplied with single phase 230V, 50Hz. So individual are to be supplied with any
one of the phases and neutral.
 Supply authority tries to see that the loads remain evenly balanced among the phases as far as possible.
Which means roughly one third of the consumers will be supplied from R-N, next one third from Y-N and the
remaining one third from B-N.
 The distribution of power from the pole mounted substation can be done either by (1) overhead lines (bare
conductors) or by (2) underground cables. Use of overhead lines although cheap, is often accident prone and
also theft of power by hooking from the lines take place.
 Although costly, in big cities and thickly populated areas underground cables for distribution of power, are
used.

 In electric power distribution, a service drop is an overhead electrical line running from a utility pole, to a
customer's building or other premises. It is the point where electric utilities provide power to their
customers.
 The customer connection to an underground distribution system is usually called a service lateral.
 At the customer's premises, the wires usually enter the building through a weather head that protects
against entry of rain and snow, and drop down through conduit to an electric meter which measures and
records the power used for billing purposes, then enters the main service panel.
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 The utility's portion of the system ends, and the customer's wiring begins, at the output socket of the
electric meter.
 The service panel will contain a "main" fuse or circuit breaker, which controls all of the electric current
entering the building at once, and a number of smaller fuses/breakers, which protect individual branch
circuits.
 There is always provision for all power to be cut off by operating either a single switch or small number of
switches.
HT CABLE
• A high-voltage cable (HV cable) is a cable used for electric power transmission at high voltage. A cable
includes a conductor and insulation, and is suitable for being run underground or underwater.
• High tension(HT) lines are using much higher voltages (11kV,33kV,66kV,110kV etc) .
• It is used to transmit power to large distances by increasing voltage and decreasing current
LT CABLE
• Low tension (LT) lines have low voltage (less than 1kV) and high current distribution .(eg.230V/440V).
• The power supplying to our household applications are at LT .
• It is used to transmit power at very small distances and uses thicker conductors. Low Tension lines are used
for power distribution from substations at 33kV or less.
• These are normally PVC cables.
LT AND HT PANELS
• LT Panel is an electrical distribution board that receives
power from generator or transformer and distributes the same
to various electronic devices and distribution boards.
• LT panels are used in industries both for internal and
external use and, therefore, they are quite rugged to withstand
different climatic conditions.
• LT panels are designed to work with low electricity
consumption that makes them cost effective
• HT Panel is like LT Panel except that it is used for high
tension cables.
• HT panels are compact outdoor type systems, which are
broadly used in substations.
• They are usually prepared for sudden voltage fluctuations.
• HT panel can house circuit breaker with relays. HT panel is
terms because it conatinsn more then one component. These component can be Current transformer,
Potentail transformer. These are wired to carry out specific function such as tripping of breaker in case of
fault. HT is only named to term for High voltage.

Metering panels are a kind of control panels which are very much required for the
domestic as well as industrial purposes for the measurement of amount of power used up
and the rate of power consumption.

TRANSFORMER
A Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other circuit
at the constant frequency, but the voltage level can be altered that means voltage can be increased or decreased
according to the requirement.
RING MAIN UNIT

• A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a totally sealed, gas-insulated compact switchgear unit. The primary switching
devices can be either switch disconnectors or fused switch disconnectors or circuit breakers.
• Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a 11 KV or 33 KV HT panel having 3 nos. of switches (Circuit Breakers or Isolators or
LBS) that are 2 for incoming one for outgoing. It enables consumer use 2 sources of HT power in at the
same metering point. It is a totally sealed, gas-insulated compact switchgear unit.

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• RMU is to be used two incoming with mechanical or electrical interlock and one out going to the
load generally but some times one incoming and two outgoings medium voltage supplies. In engineering
distribution this is called flexible power supply.
• Ring Main Unit is used in a secondary distribution system. It is basically used for an uninterrupted power
supply.
• It is used for medium voltage distribution in compact substations, small buildings, residential housing
complex, large shopping malls, airports, wind power, etc.
• Need of RMU is to provide the uninteruptted power supply .
purpose of RMU is to make a ring of power supply network so that supply can be feed from 2nd source on
failure of 1st source of power supply .
Electrical Distribution System:
• When electrical power is distributed to its point of utilization, it is normally either in the form of single-phase
or three-phase alternating cur rent (AC) voltage.
• Single-phase AC voltage is distributed into residences and smaller commercial buildings. Normally, three-
phase AC voltage is distributed to industries and larger commercial buildings. Thus, the main types of power
distribution systems are residential (single-phase) and industrial or commercial (three-phase).
• An important aspect of both single-phase and three-phase distribution systems is grounding. Two
grounding methods, system grounding and equipment grounding along with ground fault protective
equipment.
SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS
• Most electrical power, when produced at the power plants, is produced as three-phase AC voltage. Electrical
power is also transmitted in the form of three-phase voltage over long-distance power-transmission lines.
• At its destination, three-phase voltage can be changed into three separate single-phase voltages for
distribution into the residential areas.
• Although single-phase systems are used mainly for residential power distribution systems, there are some
industrial and commercial applications of single-phase systems. Single-phase power distribution usually
originates from three-phase power lines, so electrical power systems are capable of supplying both three-
phase and single-phase loads from the same power lines.
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
• Since industries and commercial buildings use three-phase power predominantly, they rely upon three-
phase distribution systems to supply this power. Large three-phase distribution transformers are usually
located at substations adjoining the industrial plants or commercial buildings.
• Their purpose is to supply the proper AC voltages to meet the necessary load requirements. The AC voltages
that are transmitted to the distribution substations are high voltages, which must be stepped down by three
phase transformers.
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME
• The majority of homes are supplied with 230 volts (V) single-phase with an intensity of 40 amperes (A). The
maximum capacity is thus: 230 V x 40 A = 9 200 volt-amperes (9 200 VA) or 9.2 kVA
• Electricity flows from the pole via conductors to the service pont where the home wiring system begins.
From the service point the power flows to the meter box where normally the measuring meters, fuses and
relays are mounted.
THE METER BOX
• When electricity comes into a house, it first of all goes through a meter to measure how many ‘units’ of
electrical energy are used. After the meter, the electricty goes through the main switch, which can be used
to cut off the electricity supply altogetehr.
CIRCUITS
• For electricity to flow to a light or an appliance, a path must be provided for it to return to the generator in
order to complete the circuit. Therefore, one wire (the active) carries electricity from the generator, the
other wire (the nuetral) returns electricity to the generator. Thus, there at least two wires to each
appliances.
• If a house is correctly wired, a large number of electrical outlets (power points) are installed. This reduces
the risk of overloading and eliminates the excessive use of extension cords and double adaptors.
• When the electricity enters the house and flows through the meter, it is carried to a fuse board. From there
a number of smaller wires or branch circuits carry the electricity throughout the house.
THE FUSE BOARD
• There is a fuse installed for each circuit and these are normally labeled. For example, your home may have
one fuse for the electric hot water system, two for the power outlets and two for the lights, etc.
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• Fuses act as safety valves to protect the wiring and the people in the house. Wires can carry only a certain
amount of electricity efficiently and safely, depending on their size and length. The more appliances
connected to a circuit, the heavier the demand for electricity.
• If more load is placed on the circuit than it was designed to carry, it would become overheated and a fire risk
could occur. He fuse is a safety device which permits only a certain amount of electricity to flow. If too many
appliances are used at once, the wire in the fuse will melt, ‘blowing’ the fuse, disconnecting supply to that
circuit.
• Similarly , if an appliance becomes faulty in a dangerous manner, the circuit would be overloaded and the
fuse would operate to protect the person. Many houses are equipped with circuit breakers and the basic
principle is the same.
SHORT CIRCUITS
• The most spectacular type of overloading occurs in a “short circuit”
• A “short circuit” can occur, for example, when the insulation of two wires(active and neutral) in a cord wears
through and the two bare wires touch each other.
• Alternatively, a bare active wire may touch a metal component on an appliance, which is earthed, and hence
cause a short circuit.
• Many appliances have the two wires providing the circuit and a green-yellow earth wire.
• One end of the earth wire is connected to the body of an appliance and the other to an earth stake, and in
some cases the water pipe.
• A short circuit to earth causes an increase in current which in turn melts the fuse or trips the circuit breaker
disconnecting the supply from the circuit.

References:
https://whatis.techtarget.com
https://www.fluke.com
https://whatis.techtarget.com
https://www.toppr.com
https://www.electricaleasy.com

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