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C
17 H A P T E R

Radiographic Testing of
Metal Castings1

George R. Strabel, Howmet Research Corporation,

Whitehall, Michigan
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PART 1. Introduction to Radiographic Testing of
Metal Castings
Casting is a metals fabrication method
chosen primarily because it produces
complex shapes with a minimum of
finished weight. In addition, casting
permits the manufacture of a desired
product with fewer components, thus
minimizing the amount of joining (by
fasteners or welds). Possible casting
problems are often associated with the
mold, the molten metal or patterns in the
cast object; these must be properly
considered to avoid difficulties and to
ensure required quality levels. These
problems can be addressed by
radiographic testing.
Casting Discontinuities
Pouring of castings is simplified when the
melt fluidity is high. This is achieved by
superheating the material above its
melting range to a point where associated
gas absorption is kept to a reasonable
minimum; this is especially important for
molten practices with ordinary air. Failure
to superheat creates the possibility of gas
pocket formation in some portions of the
casting. Gas pockets tend to occur in the
heavier cast sections while gas porosity
occurs under an initial layer of solidified
metal near the mold or core walls. Large
pockets of gas are obviously detrimental
to the strength of the casting unless it is
designed to allow pocket formation only
in portions discarded during finishing.
Subsurface gas may be unacceptable
because finish machining may produce
surface openings that act as locations of
stress concentration. Subsurface porosity
occurs because the gas takes some time to
move toward the mold and core walls
and, in that time, heat loss causes metal
skins to form, preventing the gas from
escaping. The extent of subsurface
porosity varies with mold type. Sand
molds, depending on their degree of
dryness, have a greater tendency to
produce solid metal skins near mold walls,
when compared to shell and plastic
(precision casting) molds. Possible sources
of such discontinuities should be
eliminated during the casting process.
454 Radiographic Testing
Reasons for Radiographic
Testing
The major goal of radiographic testing of
castings is to help control the production
process and product quality. The latter is
especially true when the number of
castings is high and the production of
pilot castings is possible and practical.
Film radiography has been one of the
most effective nondestructive testing
techniques for quality control of castings.
Film radiography uses penetrating
ionizing radiation and provides
permanent reference data. The image, in
principle, is a record of variation in the
total thickness of radiation absorbing
material displayed in a single plane; or a
planar projection of conditions prevailing
in the three-dimensional space of the
item tested.
Other common nondestructive testing
methods are affected by the
metallographic structure and degree of
working to which the metal has been
subjected; generally these considerations
have no effect on the radiation
transmission or subsequent legibility of
the radiographic indications. The only
exceptions are grain and the condition
called mottling, as described in some detail
below. Hence radiography is the most
effective nondestructive testing method
for castings, which generally are studied
for presence of volumetric defect types. As
is true of any important engineering
fabrication where stress concentrations
may cause trouble, surface methods such
as magnetic particle or liquid penetrant
testing should supplement radiography
because discontinuities such as surface
cracks are difficult to detect
radiographically.
To be effective, the radiographic
method requires proper interpretation of
resulting images. Interpretation, in turn,
demands a familiarity with the types of
discontinuities generated. Important
things to consider include the method of
casting; mold and core materials and
design; melting and pouring
temperatures; cooling rates and time; and
possible interaction of the particular
metallographic structure with the test
radiation.
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PART 2. General Radiographic Techniques for
Metal Castings
Radiation Sources Used
Gamma ray sources, especially as used in
casting radiography, have the following
advantages over X-rays: (1) simple
apparatus; (2) compactness;
(3) independence from external power;
(4) ability to provide simultaneous testing
of many objects and complete
circumferences of large cylindrical objects;
(5) practicality when access to the interior
of the object is difficult; and (6) usability
when testing must occur in confined
spaces. Radium, a naturally occurring
gamma ray source, came into use in the
late 1930s; it has since been replaced by
artificial isotopes (see Table 1).
X-rays, however, are essential for some
applications. Low (kilovolt) X-ray energies
are needed for obtaining required
radiographic sensitivities in light metals
(such as aluminum) and in thin material
thicknesses of steel. High energy
(megavolt) X-rays are necessary for
penetration of steel thicknesses in excess
of 200 mm (8.0 in.). As with all
nondestructive testing, casting inspection
is best done with the method that
produces the desired results for the
specific application.
Gamma ray sources, unlike X-ray
machines, emit penetrating radiation
having only one or a few discrete
wavelengths. Sources are commonly
specified by the energy of the individual
quantum (using units of electronvolts)
rather than by wavelength. Thus a gamma
ray with an energy of 1.25 MeV is
TABLE 1. Gamma ray sources used in industrial radiography.
Radioactive Energy
Element (MeV)
Cesium-137 0.66 a
Cobalt-60 1.17 and 1.33
Iridium-192 0.137 to 0.651b
Thulium-170 0.048 and 0.054 c
a. Usual form used is cesium chloride, soluble powder calling for special precautions to prevent leakage, such as double encapsulation in
welded stainless steel.
b. Has at least 12 gamma rays, principal ones at 0.310, 0.470 and 0.600 keV.
c. Produced in limited intensities for desired energies, so use is not widespread. Has excellent portability and may be used at two percent
sensitivity down to 13 mm (0.5 in.) aluminum and for light nonmetals.
equivalent in wavelength and penetrating
power to the most penetrating radiation
emitted by an X-ray tube operating at
1.2 MeV. The total penetrating power of
the gamma radiation source is about equal
to that of a 3 MeV X-ray machine that
emits a spectrum or wide range of
energies.
The wavelengths (or energies) emitted
by a gamma ray source depend only on
the nature of the emitter and are not
variable at the will of the operator, as
X-rays are.
Important gamma source
characteristics include: (1) the curie value
and specific activity, (2) half life,
(3) energy of quanta, (4) dosage rate and
(5) application thickness limit. The
intensity of gamma radiation depends on
the number of radioactive atoms that
disintegrate per second in the source. For
small or moderate sources, this intensity is
proportional to the source activity in
becquerel (1 disintegration per second) or
curie (3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per
second). The proportionality fails for large
sources or for those emitting low energy
gamma rays because of self-absorption.
The specific activity, expressed in
becquerel (or curie) per gram, is important
because it influences geometrical
unsharpness of the images. Higher specific
activity allows shorter source-to-sensor
distances without a loss of image
sharpness.
Gamma ray dosage is expressed in
microsievert per gigabecquerel hour at
one meter (µSv·GBq–1·h–1 at 1 m), or
roentgen per curie hour at one meter
Dosage Rate
__________________________ Metallurgical Application and
mSv·GBq–1·h–1 (R·Ci–1·h–1 Thickness of Steel or Equivalent
_______________________________
Half Life at 1 m at 1 m) mm (in.)
33 yr 0.1053 (0.39) 12 to 88 (0.5 to 3.5)
5.3 yr 0.3645 (1.35) 25 to 200 (1.0 to 8.0)
75 dy 0.1485 (0.55) 12 to 75 (0.5 to 3.0)
127 dy 0.0081 (0.003) 0.75 to 13 (0.03 to 0.5)
Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 455
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(R·Ci–1·h–1 at 1 m). Gamma ray sources
lose activity with time, the rate depending
on the material half life shown in Table 1.
Knowing the half life of the isotope allows
preparation of decay curves as illustrated
for iridium-192 in Fig. 1. This graph of
activity versus time permits revised
calculation of exposure time as the
activity of the gamma ray source
diminishes.
X-rays are made by using electrical
energy to produce electrons accelerated to
very high velocities. X-rays are emitted by
deceleration of the electrons when they
strike a target, which for industrial
radiography is usually made of tungsten.
FIGURE 1. Decay curves for iridium-192:
(a) linear plot; (b) logarithmic plot.
(a)
100
90
80
Remaining activity (percent)
The higher the voltage of the applied
energy, the greater the speed of the
electrons striking the focal spot. The result
is a decrease in wavelength of the X-rays
emitted, with a simultaneous increase in
penetrating power and intensity. Thus,
unlike gamma ray sources, X-ray machine
radiations may be varied at the will of the
operator within the range of the
equipment used.
The various X-ray machines
commercially available may be very
roughly classified according to their
maximum voltage. Table 2 is a generalized
guide for typical X-ray machines by
voltage ranges and applications.2 The
table must be used with the
understanding that particular machines
differ in their specifications from model
to model.
Although most commonly used X-ray
machines are less mobile than
radioisotopes and depend on electric
current, they are available in portable
designs. In addition, those with rod anode
tubes (in which the target is perpendicular
to the electron stream) can be used to

produce radiographs with circumferential

70 coverage of appropriate items. The major
advantages of X-rays are their ability to
60
generate higher intensities of penetrating
50 radiation and their variability in radiation
intensity (quantity) and energy (quality)
40 as determined by the operator and the
application.
30

20

10
TABLE 2. Representative energies of X-ray machines and
their applicable thickness limits.
0
Maximum Approximate
0 50 100 150 200
Voltage (kV) Screens Thickness Limits a
Time (days)
50 none thin sections of most metals b
(b) none or lead foil 125 mm (5.0 in.) aluminum c
100 150 none or lead foil 25 mm (1.0 in.) steel c
90 fluorescent 38 mm (1.5 in.) steel c
80 250 lead foil 50 mm (2.0 in.) steel c
70 fluorescent 75 mm (3.0 in.) steel c
60
75 mm (3.0 in.) steel c
Remaining activity (percent)

400 lead foil

50 fluorescent 100 mm (4.0 in.) steel c
1000 lead foil 125 mm (5.0 in.) steel c
40
fluorescent 200 mm (8.0 in.) steel c
2000 lead foil 200 mm (8.0 in.) steel c
30
8000 to 25 000 lead foil 400 mm (16.0 in.) steel c
a. Also used for important nonmetallics such as moderate thicknesses of
graphite and small electronic components, wood and plastics.
20
b. Lower limit depends on particular machine and how secondary voltage
may be adjusted.
c. Or equivalent.

10
0 50 100 150 200

Time (days)

456 Radiographic Testing

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(4 in.) or less). With isotope radiography,

Specification Requirements
Radiographic testing of castings provides
information about the quality of the
product within the limits of the test
method. Hence, the contract between
producer and consumer should, for their
mutual benefit, refer to time proven
specifications. Among the most widely
used specifications are those of ASTM
International with emphasis on technique
and interpretation of radiographic
indications3 and those of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
with emphasis on product quality and
in-process weld repairs.4
During the preparation of radiographic
test requirements, it is essential to
recognize that radiographic coverage has
its limitations, especially when inspecting
castings with complex geometries or part
configurations. Geometry or part
configurations that do not allow complete
coverage with normal radiographic
techniques should be acknowledged by
supplier and user before the start of work.
Supplementary nondestructive testing
methods should be clearly agreed on from
the outset.
It should be noted that the
radiographic method is particularly
effective for discontinuities that displace a
volume of cast material. Cracks and
planar discontinuities that do not displace
an appreciable volume of material may
not be detected by radiography unless the
radiation is favorably oriented. Additional
nondestructive test methods and criteria
for acceptability must be agreed on by
supplier and user.
it is often convenient to examine a
number of castings simultaneously. In all
cases, special consideration must be given
to proper identification of the images.
This is usually done using lead letters
attached to the object under test. Because
sources are never actually ideal point
sources, the source-to-sensor distance
should be such that it limits geometric
unsharpness Ug with reasonably
economical exposure times. This
unsharpness is given by:
F⋅ t
(1) Ug =
D
where D is the source-to-object distance,
F is the effective focal spot size and t is
the object-to-sensor distance.
The equipment parameters for digital
acquisition, processing and display of test
results must be applicable to the
inspection goals. This technology is
discussed elsewhere.
FIGURE 2. Sample of radiographic shooting sketch (RSS),
showing film placement and Identification.1,3,5

Radiographic Setup
Radiographic coverage is determined by
the casting geometry, especially those
portions to which gates and risers are
connected during casting; cylindrical
portions; flanges; bosses; and portions
inaccessible to radiation and to film or
sensing apparatus. The inaccessible
portions always call for special
considerations in nondestructive testing
contract dealings. All radiographic testing
(especially of portions critical to use or
loading) requires the making of
radiographic shooting sketches (RSS) and the
compilation of associated data.
Recommended radiographic shooting
sketch types (for example, Fig. 2) are
covered by ASTM International.1,3,5
Shooting sketches may take into
consideration such aspects as
simultaneous coverage of cylindrical
portions, completely or by sectors; and
single or double wall shots when inside
diameters are relatively small, 100 mm

Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 457

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on the source side of the casting. When

Penetrameters
Plaque Penetrameters5
A relatively simple way to determine
whether the radiographic testing
procedure has met the required quality
level (even without detailed consideration
of the many factors involved) is by the
proper choice and use of penetrameters.
The penetrameter (also referred to as the
image quality indicator, or IQI) is simply a
metal plaque with holes. Its material is
chosen to have radiation absorption
characteristics close to those of the
material under test. Its thickness and hole
sizes are predetermined percentages of the
section thickness to be radiographed. The
plaque, as most commonly used in casting
radiography, is 2 percent of the section
thickness and its three holes have
diameters of 1, 2 and 4 percent of the
plaque thickness. Where casting thickness
and/or exposures vary appreciably, more
than one penetrameter must be used to
indicate image sensitivity.
Penetrameters are usually placed on the
portion radiographed. If this is not
possible, because of curvature of the part
or possible interference with radiographic
legibility, the penetrameters are placed as
close as possible to the portion
radiographed, on blocks of the same
material and a similar thickness and as
close to the casting as possible. In
addition, penetrameters are usually placed
they are placed on the sensor side, it
should be indicated on the radiograph
with a lead marker and the comparability
of penetrameter size to the one required
for the source side must be suitably
demonstrated.
Wire Penetrameters6
Wire penetrameters, originally introduced
in Germany and known as Deutsche
Institut für Normung (DIN) types, have
been used in the United States as an
alternative means of radiographic quality
control. Such a device is illustrated in
Fig. 3. When a wire penetrameter is used,
the size must be equivalent to the
customarily specified plaque type. Table 3
shows equivalence data that compare wire
penetrameters to plaque types for the 2-2T
level. This designation signifies that
radiographs must show, as a minimum, a
plaque thickness within two percent (that
is, the first 2 in 2-2T ) and a hole diameter
within twice the plaque thickness, or 2T .
Discontinuity Detection
and Radiographic
Sensitivity
For optimum radiographic sensitivity the
image must meet contrast requirements.
Film density requirements and image

TABLE 3. Wire penetrameter sizes equivalent to 2-2T hole

FIGURE 3. Wire penetrameter, shown in levels.6
positive image radiograph of 19 mm Minimum Specimen Thickness Wire Diameter
_____________________________ _______________________
(0.75 in.) thick casting. mm (in.) mm (in.)

6.35 (0.250) 0.08 a (0.0032) a

7.95 (0.313) 0.10 a (0.0040) a
9.50 (0.375) 0.13 a (0.0050) a
12.7 (0.500) 0.16 (0.0063)
15.9 (0.625) 0.20 (0.008)
19.1 (0.750) 0.25 (0.010)
22.2 (0.875) 0.33 (0.013)
25.4 (1.00) 0.40 (0.016)
31.8 (1.25) 0.51 (0.020)
38.1 (1.50) 0.64 (0.025)
44.4 (1.75) 0.81 (0.032)
50.8 (2.00) 1.02 (0.040)
63.5 (2.50) 1.27 (0.050)
76.2 (3.00) 1.60 (0.063)
88.9 (3.50) 2.03 (0.080)
102.0 (4.00) 2.50 (0.100)
114.0 (4.50) 3.20 (0.126)
127.0 (5.00) 4.06 (0.160)
a. Wire diameters for use with specimens less than 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in
thickness do not represent true 2-2T level. They follow the same
relationship as hole type.

458 Radiographic Testing

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signal levels are used to quantify this
parameter. It must be remembered that a
penetrameter is used to indicate the
quality level of the radiographic
technique and not necessarily to provide
a measurement of the size of minimum
discontinuity that can be shown in the
object. Thus, if required penetrameter
details are visible in the radiograph, there
is no certainty that an equivalent flaw in
the casting will be revealed. This is
because the penetrameter holes have
sharp boundaries while natural casting
holes of the same size may have
boundaries that are more or less rounded,
with sides gradually merging into
surrounding casting portions. Hence, the
hole of the penetrameter may be readily
discerned, even though its density differs
only slightly from that of the surrounding
casting area.
Similar considerations apply to linear
or crack like indications. If the plane of
the linear discontinuity is inclined away
from the beam (by at least 7 degrees), the
crack may not be visible on the
radiograph because of the relatively
gradual transition of densities in the
image. Similarly, the visibility of a wire
penetrameter does not guarantee that a
casting discontinuity of the same cross
section will actually be visible. The
human eye discerns a long boundary
more readily than it does a short one,
even if the density increase and image
sharpness are the same. Nevertheless, it is
true that the probability of flaw detection
in the object radiographed (to ensure the
required quality) is related to the
discernibility of penetrameter features,
when all other factors are the same.6-9
Considerations Specific to
Castings
Mold Type
As castings progress from sand mold
castings to shell mold, permanent mold,
investment, precision, plastic mold and
die castings, the radiographic procedure
must be changed to accommodate more
castings with more complex shapes and
thinner sections. All these factors provide
justification for using one or more pilot
runs designed to improve yields and
minimize or eliminate systematic flaws.
Mold type also determines the amount
and frequency of radiographic testing. For
sand castings, sections are relatively
thicker with rougher skins; there is more
allowance for machining, especially for
surfaces joined to other system
components. Difficulties in radiographic
interpretation are increased by surface
roughness and by sections with
dimensions substantially thicker than
when finished.
Exposures must be made in such a way
that penetrameter sensitivity, as dictated
by finished section thicknesses, is not
compromised. This is usually done by
using penetrameters based on finished
rather than rough wall thicknesses. As
foundry techniques improve, precision
and die cast sections become thinner and
smoother; the interpretation of
radiographs is improved and radiation
energies must be reduced. Of course, in
the more precise casting techniques, cost
of all production steps must be watched.
Systematic flaws must be determined
using pilot runs of sufficient number to
ensure the required quality levels. It
should be noted that smoother surfaces
also tend to considerably reduce random
flaws.
Individual sand castings generally
require more radiography because the
possibility of nonsystematic (random)
flaws is larger than for the more precise
casting techniques. Important sand
castings, however, require individual
radiography, especially of critical portions,
to locate both systematic and random
flaws. It may be pointed out that
systematic flaws are generally associated
with the casting details (gates, risers,
junctions of heavy to thin portions and
other locations). Random flaws may be
due to accidental conditions (local gas
due to mold moisture; local stresses
causing incidence of linear flaws and
other anomalies).
Alloy Castings
When testing alloys, the major factor
affecting the radiography is alloy density,
which determines the energy levels
needed in the radiation sources. It is well
known that alloys are prone to reaction
with the atmosphere or mold material.
The general solidification peculiarities of
alloys may affect the indication types that
are discernible in their radiographs.
Industrial casting alloys fall into the
following major types according to atomic
number: (1) light metals (including
magnesium, aluminum and tin);
(2) intermediate alloy types (including
zinc, cast iron, steels, brasses and
bronzes); and (3) heavy metals (including
lead and tantalum). The densities of some
of the most common alloys are shown in
Table 4.
Of the heavy alloys, tantalum may be
used as an example for a typical castings
application. Tantalum castings are used in
acid resistant chemical equipment such as
heat exchangers, centrifugal pumps and
valves. Tantalum has a combination of
characteristics not found in many
refractory metals. These characteristics
Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 459
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include ease of fabrication, low and interpretation requires some sort of

ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
and high melting point.
Tantalum oxidizes in air above 299 °C
(570 °F). Because of its high density, it
requires longer exposures or a different
choice of radiation energy than needed
for less dense materials. Thus a section
7.5 mm (0.30 in.) thick requires an
exposure of about half an hour with a
medium size cesium-137 source when fast
industrial films or sensitive sensors are
used with intensifying screens.
Superalloys
Superalloys have requirements unique to
their physical characteristics. Test
personnel must consult applicable
standards and specifications when
conducting radiographic tests of these
materials.
Radiographic Standards
Standards for radiographic testing of
castings have been written (with the help
of producers, consumers, government and
educational institutions) for radiographic
practices and image quality control.3-27
Following the standards ensures the
production of reference radiographic
images that can be meaningfully read by
representatives of both producer and
consumer interests.
Of course, the reading leads to an
interpretation of the casting’s soundness
standardized guideline. ASTM
International’s work on reference
radiograph documents (beginning in 1950
and continuing to the present) has led to
the development of standards that
encourage relatively unbiased
determination of casting quality for use in
meeting contractually required acceptance
criteria.14 Reference radiograph
documents published by ASTM
International include information on
fabrication material of the hardware used;
section thickness ranges; discontinuity
types represented; and numbers of
discontinuities shown in graded types.15-27
Reference radiographs for steel castings
were first issued by the United States Navy
Bureau of Engineering in 1938 as Gamma
Ray Radiographic Standards for Steam
Pressure Service.15 These were reissued in
1942 by the Bureau of Ships as Reference
Radiographic Standards for Steel Castings
and adopted in 1952 by ASTM
International.16
ASTM International has also developed
improved techniques for mass production
and monitoring of document illustrations,
either in the form of actual radiographs or
photographic copies of originally selected
radiographs. Its recent work involves
reference radiographs for titanium alloys.
Documents for ductile and gray iron
castings13,25 have been produced. Another
document discusses how images change as
certain radiographic parameters vary.8

TABLE 4. Common alloy casting densities versus radiographic sources used and American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) reference radiograph documents.
Density Range Radiographic Sources Available ASTM
Element or Alloy (g·cm–3) Commonly Used Reference Radiographs

Magnesium 1.79 to 1.86 X-rays a E 15517 and E 50524

Aluminum 2.57 to 2.95 X-rays a E 15517 and E 50524
Titanium 4.43 to 4.65 X-rays and iridium-192 see note b
Cast iron 5.54 to 7.48 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 80225 plus applicable steel documents
Zinc 6.60 to 6.70 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 nonec
Carbon steels 7.81 to 7.84 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 192,19 E 446,16 E 18618 and E 28021
Stainless steels 7.53 to 7.75 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 192,19 E 446,16 E 18618 and E 28021
Aluminum bronze 7.50 to 7.80 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 27220
Manganese bronze 7.70 to 8.30 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 27220
Silicon bronze 8.30 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 27220
Tin bronze 8.70 to 8.80 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 31022
Navy bronze 8.70 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 27220
Nickel silver 8.85 to 8.95 X-rays, iridium-192, cobalt-60 E 27220
Tantalum 16.60 cesium-137 none
a. Up to about 300 kV peak.
b. Depending on thickness involved, use applicable documents for aluminum or steel including source type.
c. Use available documents closest in density.

460 Radiographic Testing

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PART 3. Radiographic Indications for Metal

Castings

The major objective of radiographic adequately fed by risers that sacrificially

testing of castings is the disclosure of
discontinuities (with emphasis on
volumetric types) that adversely affect the
strength of the product. These
discontinuities, of course, are related to
casting process deficiencies which, if
properly understood, can lead to accurate
accept/reject decisions as well as to
suitable corrective measures. Following is
a brief description of the most common
discontinuity types included in existing
reference radiograph documents (in
graded types or as single illustrations).
The discontinuities in Figs. 4 to 10 are
offered for illustrative purposes only and
may exhibit appearances different from
those of other cast materials.
More information on discontinuity
types may be found in this volume’s
chapter on radiographic interpretation.
retain the shrinkage.
Shrinkage can be recognized in a
number of characteristic but varying
appearances on radiographs. There are at
least five types: (1) cavity, (2) dendritic,
(3) filamentary, (4) sponge types and
(5) microshrinkage. Some documents
designate these types by numbers,
without actual names, to avoid possible
misunderstanding.
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with
distinct jagged boundaries. It may be
produced when metal solidifies between
two original streams of melt, coming from
opposite directions to join a common
FIGURE 4. Radiographs of 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) aluminum
casting: (a) gas voids; (b) elongated gas porosity.
(a)

Radiographic Indications
from Casting Process
Gas porosity is a form of more or less
spherical voids within the cast metal.
These voids are usually due to occluded
gas in the melt, gas that had no chance to
rise and escape through the casting top or
its risers. Gas porosity often comes from
the atmosphere or from interactions
between mold and metal. Overheating of
melt and excessive moisture in molds
and/or cores tends to promote this flaw
type (Figs. 4 and 5).
Sand inclusions and dross are
nonmetallic oxides, appearing on the (b)
radiograph as irregular, dark blotches.
These come from disintegrated portions of
mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) that have not been
skimmed off before metal is introduced
into the mold gates. Careful control of the
melt, proper holding time in the ladle and
skimming of the melt during pouring will
minimize or obviate this source of
trouble.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity
that appears as dark regions on the
radiograph. Individual shrinks assume
various forms but in all cases shrinkage
occurs because molten metal shrinks as it
solidifies in all portions of the final
casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making
sure that the volume of the casting is

Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 461

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front; cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a

time when the melt has almost reached FIGURE 6. Sponge shrinkage in 13 mm (0.5 in.) aluminum
solidification temperature and there is no casting.
source of supplementary liquid to feed
possible cavities.
Dendritic shrinkage is a treelike
distribution of very fine lines or small
elongated cavities that may vary in
density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a
continuous structure of connected lines or
branches of variable length, width and
density or occasionally as a network.
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of
lacy texture with diffuse outlines,
generally toward the mid thickness of
heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage
may be dendritic or filamentary
shrinkage; filamentary sponge shrinkage
appears more blurred because it is
projected through the relatively thick
coating between the discontinuities and
the sensor surface (Fig. 6).
Groups of tiny shrinks are referred to
as microshrinkage (Fig. 7).28
FIGURE 7. Microshrinkage in 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) thick
magnesium base alloy castings: (a) sponge microshrink;
(b) feathery microshrink.28
FIGURE 5. Gas discontinuities in 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) thick
castings: (a) gas voids in steel; (b) round gas porosity in (a)
aluminum.28
(a)

(b) (b)

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Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) misruns appear on the radiograph as

linearly disposed discontinuities that prominent dense areas of variable
occur after the melt has solidified. They dimensions with a definite smooth
generally appear singly and originate at outline. They are mostly random in
casting surfaces. occurrence and not readily eliminated by
Cold shuts generally appear on or near specific remedial actions in the process.
a surface of cast metal as a result of two Mottling is a radiographic indication
streams of liquid meeting and failing to that appears as an indistinct area of more
unite (Fig. 8). or less dense images. The condition is a
Inclusions are other materials in a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively
supposedly uniform metallic matrix. They vague, thin section radiographs, most
may be less or more dense than the often with austenitic stainless steel.
matrix alloy and will appear on the Mottling is caused by interaction of the
radiograph, respectively, as darker or
lighter indications. The latter type is more
common in light metal castings (Figs. 9
and 10). FIGURE 9. Inclusion less dense than
Chills, chaplets and other inserts used surrounding material in 3.2 mm (0.125 in.)
to support cores or cool casting metal aluminum casting.
appear as discontinuities when they are
not united with the poured metal. They
appear as broken lines or concentric
circles in the image.
Core shift shows itself as a variation in
section thickness, usually on radiographic
views representing diametrically opposite
portions of cylindrical casting portions.
Hot tears are linearly disposed
indications that represent fractures
formed in a metal during solidification
because of hindered contraction. The
latter may occur because of overly hard
(completely unyielding) mold or core
walls. The effect of hot tears, as a stress
concentration, is similar to that of an
ordinary crack; hot tears are usually
systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as
hot tears in larger runs of a casting type,
FIGURE 10. Inclusion more dense than
they may call for explicit improvements
surrounding material in 6.4 mm (0.25 in.)
in technique.
aluminum casting.
Misruns occur as a result of molten
metal’s failure to fill a mold cavity:

FIGURE 8. Cold shut in 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) aluminum casting.

Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 463

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object’s grain boundary material with low

energy X-rays (300 kV or lower).
Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly
consider mottling as indications of
unacceptable casting flaws. Even
experienced interpreters often have to
check the condition by reradiography
from slightly different source-to-sensor
angles. Shifts in mottling are then very
pronounced, while true casting
discontinuities change only slightly in
appearance.

Radiographic Indications in
Casting Repair Welds
Most common alloy castings require
welding either in their upgrading from
anomalous conditions or in joining them
to other system parts. It is mainly for
reasons of casting repair that these
descriptions of the more common weld
discontinuities are given. The terms
appear as indication types in
ASTM E 390.23 For additional information,
see the chapter on welds in this volume.
Slag is nonmetallic solid material
entrapped in weld metal or between weld
material and base metal.
Porosity shows gas pockets or voids in
the weld metal.
Undercut is a groove melted in the base
metal at the edge of a weld and left
unfilled by weld metal. It represents a
stress concentration that often must be
corrected.
Incomplete penetration, as the name
implies, is a lack of weld penetration
through the thickness of the joint (or
penetration less than specified).
Incomplete fusion is lack of complete
fusion of some portions of the metal in a
weld joint with adjacent metal; either
base or previously deposited weld metal.
Arc strike is an indication from a
localized heat affected zone or a change in
surface contour of a finished weld or
adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused
by the heat generated when electrical
energy passes between surfaces of the
finished weld or base metal and the
current source.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas
welding as metal particles that are
expelled during welding and do not form
part of the actual weld.
Tungsten inclusion is usually more dense
than base metal particles.
Oxidation is the condition of a surface
that is heated during welding, resulting in
oxide formation on the surface, because of
partial or complete lack of purge of the
weld atmosphere.

464 Radiographic Testing

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PART 4. Radiographic Testing and Process

Scheduling

It is important to determine when in the process as possible, to permit

radiographic testing should be done, with
respect to required heat treatment,
necessary repair welding and rough or
finish machining. The timing of such tests
is usually determined by mutual
agreement between producer and user,
with due consideration to the costs.
If a casting could possibly be rejected,
further steps in its manufacture and
testing should be minimized or
eliminated. In addition, it is also known
that heat treatment, especially drastic
temperature changes, may cause
aggravation of some discontinuity types.
On the other hand, the closer the
casting surfaces are to their finished
condition, the easier it is to read
radiographic images and disclose linear
surface flaws; these tend to act as stress
concentrations and could be the most
damaging discontinuities in service. All
other things being equal, however,
radiographic testing is performed as early
necessary weld repairs. Consequently,
radiographic interpreters must have the
actual casting available for their
inspection to make allowance for surface
irregularities.
In addition, experience has shown that
castings should be examined in their final
form with surface nondestructive testing
methods, usually magnetic particle or
liquid penetrant testing. The coverage and
test frequency (if many castings of a
single type are involved) is subject to
mutual agreement between producer and
user, with a logical statistical basis for the
number and exact locations to be tested.
Factors Influencing Choice
of Acceptance Criteria
The advent of reference radiographs has
done much to improve the measurement
of casting quality, especially as applied to

TABLE 5. Statistical correlation data between tensile properties and severity of

representative types of radiographic indications in 75 mm (3.0 in.) thick steel and
manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze plate castings.14
Tensile
__________________ Yield
__________________ Percent Elongation b
___________________
Discontinuity Slope Tolerance c Slope Tolerance c Slope Tolerance c

Class B Steel (MIL-S-15083)

Gas porosity –3.28 ±5.2 –0.43 ——d –3.65 +5.0
Inclusions –0.03 ——d –0.03 ——d –1.36 ——d
Linear shrinks –8.11 ±6.2 1.76 ±2.3 –3.38 ±4.8
Dendritic shrinkage –8.11 ±9.2 –0.69 ±3.0 –1.22 ±3.8
Worm hole shrinkage –7.60 ±5.4 –1.43 ±2.2 –3.46 ±5.6
Hot tears –8.06 ±6.8 –1.23 ±2.0 –4.40 ±5.8
Chill inserts –2.58 ±5.2 –0.08 ——d –2.59 ±4.3
Chaplet inserts –4.93 ±5.4 –0.061 ±1.9 –3.26 ±3.8
Manganese-Nickel-Aluminum Bronze (MIL-B-21250A, Alloy #2)
Gas porosity –4.07 ±6.4 ——e ——e ——d ——d
Sand inclusions –0.06 ±7.2 ——e ——e ——d ——d
Dross inclusions –3.85 ±9.0 ——e ——e –1.20 ±3.9
Linear shrinkage –3.62 ±8.4 ——e ——e –1.10 ±2.6
Spongy shrinkage –3.58 ±10.1 ——e ——e –0.93 ±3.0

a. At 6.9 MPa (1000 lbf·in.–2).

b. At 100 mm (4.0 in.) gage length.
c. 95 percent tolerance limit.
d. No significant relationship indicated.
e. Data not taken.

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important technological applications. It

must be remembered that reference
radiographs are sets of illustrations
(especially of the graded severity
discontinuity types), which cover a wide
range of attainable casting quality levels.
There is no recommendation of
acceptability criteria for particular
applications.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code 4 does point out accept/reject criteria
for various graded steel casting
discontinuity types. Briefly, accept/reject
criteria for castings should be based on
the following considerations: (1) alloy
type; (2) section thickness; (3) pressure
(including temperature and superheat
when steam is involved); (4) service stress;
(5) presence of impact and vibration;
(6) fatigue; (7) exposure to penetrating
radiation; (8) accessibility for
maintenance and replacement during
expected life; and (9) alloy solidification
peculiarities, if any. At best, however, the
acceptance criteria are largely qualitative.
Table 5 presents data to illustrate the
advantages of correlating radiographic
discontinuity indications with destructive
test results. The term slope in Table 5 is
the deterioration Y per grade of severity
and is expressed by Eq. 2:

(2) Y = a – bX

where a is average value for substantially

sound plates and X is indication severity.
The radiographer has little say in
determining criteria for acceptance or
rejection. Establishing such criteria is the
responsibility of the customers. Criteria
are frequently specified by using a
standardized grading system — for
example, AMS-STD-2175,29 radiographic
grades A, B, C and D.

466 Radiographic Testing

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PART 5. Problems in Radiographic Testing of
Metal Castings
The important decisions in casting
radiography involve setup, actual
radiographic procedures and
interpretation. Each of these may at times
become problems in actual practice. The
intent of the present discussion is to
consolidate the discussion of casting
control problems and to indicate various
solutions.
Radiographic Source
The choice of radiographic source is based
on many considerations. Often the source
is determined by availability. If this is the
case, care must be taken to ensure that
the penetrameter sensitivity required by
contractual agreement can be met. The
usual limits for most commonly used
radiation sources, as far as metal section
thickness is concerned, are cited in
Tables 1 and 2. When deviation from
these limits is considered for available
sources, trial shots with carefully chosen
compensating parameters should be made
to determine whether the required
sensitivity can be achieved. These
parameters include higher resolution
image settings (or finer grained film),
larger source-to-sensor distance for
improved sharpness and proper base
density.
When a choice of source can be made,
the preferred one is determined by a
combination of factors, including: section
thickness; the ability to produce
simultaneous, complete coverage of a
cylindrical casting portion; and the
desirability for simultaneous radiography
of several castings at one time. A
reasonably small gamma ray source is
often the best choice for the heavier
metals, especially when portability is
desired and the radiography is scheduled
for raw castings — that is, before surface
preparations, necessary machining and
repair or assembly welding.
Radiographic Coverage
Contrary to a common misconception,
there is no such thing as 100 percent
radiographic coverage for all castings. To
make sure that no coverage problems arise
between producer and purchaser, it is
essential to follow proper and early
planning of the radiography. Decisions on
the radiographic techniques, especially for
castings produced in considerable
quantities, can best be made by shooting
sketches and associated tabular data (for
example, see Fig. 2).
In the control of castings, radiographic
coverage is recognized to be a problem
with certain configurations of the mold
and core; these include portions
connecting flanges with bodies and
include transition portions between
relatively thin bodies and heavy bosses,
especially when source location (with
respect to sensor) is limited by casting
geometry and details. Thus, for example,
the blackened portion in the casting of
Fig. 2 cannot be radiographed properly.
Placement of the source on the inside of
the cylinder is prohibited by the size of
the inside diameter; placement of the
source on the outside is made practically
impossible by the limited space between
the other flange and the portion of
interest.
Radiographic Scheduling
Scheduling of radiography is also an
important aspect that should be agreed on
by all concerned parties before actual
production. Scheduling requires such
coordination especially if the casting
requires considerable machining and
welding. Radiography performed early in
the manufacturing process has the
advantage of saving further production
expenses on castings that may ultimately
be rejected or may require extensive repair
and associated, unplanned heat
treatments. Where an appreciable number
of a particular casting is produced, pilot
castings may yield valuable information
for corrective action, even if they are
radiographed in the as-cast condition
(with gates and risers attached and section
thicknesses considerably greater than
finished dimensions). Note, however, that
required penetrameter sensitivities are
often based on the finished thickness
rather than on the as-cast thickness.
Once major problems in the pilot
castings(s) have been suitably solved,
future castings can be radiographed in the
nearly finished and weld repaired
condition, thereby obtaining the best
penetrameter sensitivity and optimized
Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings 467
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sensor or film sensitivity. The geometry and mold configuration are

interpretation of a pilot radiograph often capable of providing corresponding
includes consideration of how the casting stresses during the last stages of
process might have caused a given flaw. solidification.
Thus, radiographic interpretation is not
simply a search for casting discontinuities;
it also allows the discovery and eventual
repair of major systematic flaws. Choice of Reference
Radiographs
There is at present a wide range of
Radiographic reference documents for various alloy
types and section thicknesses, though not
Interpretation all alloys are represented. Because of this,
The interpretation of radiographic images a decision must be made by producer and
must be performed by trained and user on the document mutually
certified personnel. Proper reading of considered appropriate for judging
images demands that the casting be discontinuities. For example, ASTM E 310,
available for reference purposes. based on leaded bronze hardware, should
Regardless of when the radiography is not be used for bronzes that tend to
performed, visual testing of the part may solidify more rapidly (those containing
help decide whether indications on the little or no lead).22 A separate set of
radiograph are true internal flaws or reference radiographs are available for
indications caused by surface finish or titanium alloy castings.27
other conditions.
Knowledge of gate and riser locations,
if the casting is radiographed after their
removal, can also help image Conclusion
interpretation. Shrinkage is more likely to Specific problems in the radiographic
occur near risers, if they are of small control of castings are difficult to
volume or if the melt solidifies quickly. enumerate because of the wide variety of
Gas inclusions are more likely to be found casting materials, configurations and
near gates because of the influx of melt techniques. To ensure that problems are
when other portions have partially kept to an absolute minimum, the
solidified. Interior casting surfaces may at radiographic testing of castings in all its
times cause false indications on aspects should be specified in contracts,
radiographs because of surface or near purchase orders, product specifications
surface conditions of the wall; moisture in and drawings.
the core may introduce gas into the melt
before it has time to move upward and
out through the risers. At other times,
brittle components of the core surface
may be carried by the melt stream into
the casting wall and may then result in
near surface density differences; these also
could be incorrectly interpreted as
discontinuities.
The hot tear is another discontinuity
whose positive recognition is sometimes
difficult but nonetheless important. This
defect is linear in nature and has all the
adverse effects of a crack. It occurs when
the melt is nearly solidified and is the
result of an applied force in excess of
what the just solidified metal could
withstand at considerably higher
temperatures. This is the clue for
determining the accuracy of a hot tear
interpretation.
There must exist in the casting, as
confined by mold and core, a source of
suitably directed stress to make this type
of defect possible. In a cylindrical casting,
for example, a relatively unyielding core
may cause an outward force as the metal
shrinks and thus produce a hot tear.
When interpreting a linear discontinuity
as a hot tear, it must be verified that the

468 Radiographic Testing

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