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Unit-1 DCN - Lecture notes 1-9

Data communications & Networks (Bangalore University)

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1. Communication Networks & Services

Data Communication

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or

remote. Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while
remote communication takes place over distance. The term telecommunication, which
includes telephony, telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance (tele
is Greek for "far").
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

In every form of communication there are 5 components

 transmitter (sender, source)

 receiver (destination)
 message to be communicated
 medium (how message is carried)

Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Information may

include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by
a person who speaks only Japanese.
Computer Network

The term ''computer network'' to mean a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a

single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information. The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared,

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and communication satellites can also be used. Networks come in many sizes, shapes and
forms.

Uses of computer networks are in Business Applications, Home Applications, Mobile Users, and
Social Issues.

The goals of a computer network include:

• Resource sharing: programs (O.S., applications), data, equipment (printers, disks) are
available to all users of the network regardless of location.
• High reliability: By replicating files on different machines and having spare cpus, users
are more immune from hardware/software failure.
• Less cost: Small machines have about 1/10 the power of a mainframe but 1/1000 the
cost. By using such machines with file server machine(s), a local area network LAN can be
cheaply installed. It is easy to increase the capacity by adding new machines.
• Communications medium: Users have access to email and the Internet.

What is a communication network?

The equipment (hardware & software) and facilities that provide the basic
communication service is called communication network.

Equipment are Routers, servers, switches, multiplexers, hubs, modems,..

Facilities are Copper wires, coaxial cables, optical fiber,..

Types of Computer Networks or Categories of Network:

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to three primary categories:

 Local Area Network (LAN):

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

 Wide Area Network (WAN):

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Local Area Network (LAN):

When the computers in a network are located close together (usually less than 1or 2 Kms), the
network is called a LAN.
A Local Area Network is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common
communications lines or wireless link and share the resources of a single processor or
server within a small geographic area usually within an office building.

Usually, a LAN is installed in industrial plants, office buildings, college or university campuses
or similar locations. in these locations, it is feasible for the owning organization to install high
quality, high speed communication links interconnecting nodes. Typical data transmission
speeds are one to 100 megabits per second.

LAN size is limited to few kilometers.

LAN will use only one type of transmission media
LANs have the data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, however speeds
are increasing and can reach 100 Mbps with gigabit systems in development.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A MAN is a network that interconnects users with computer resource in a geographical area
larger than that covered by even a large LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN. A
Metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a single
network such as a cable television network, or it may be a means of connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-
to-device.

MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company or it may be a service provided
by a public company such as local telephone company.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

When the computers in a networks are separated by long distances (from a few Kms to
global distances) the network is called a WAN.

WAN is a telecommunication network which covers a large geographical area, and uses
communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes. WAN spans a wide
geographical area such as a state or country.
Numerous WAN have been constructed, including public packet networks, large
corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks and
airline reservation networks.

The transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps or
sometimes even more.

Many WANs are used to transfer and consolidate corporate data, such as daily
transaction summaries from branches.

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Network Topology

A Topology is a schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its nodes

and connecting lines.

The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There
are several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the figure.

There are five basic topologies

BUS, STAR, TREE, RING, MESH

Bus

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All
nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Fig. Linear Bus topology

In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus.
Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in
the network.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

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Star

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.

In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the
workstations are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other
through the central computer.

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to
its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted
pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire.

No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

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Tree

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of
groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The
central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network
is a bus network of star networks.

Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to
configure a network to meet their needs.

Fig. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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Ring:

In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration.
Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are
indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.

 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure

 Unidirectional traffic can be disadvantage
 A break in the ring can disable the entire network

Mesh:

Mesh networking (topology) is a type of networking where each node must not only capture
and distribute its own data, but also serve as a relay for other nodes, that is, it must
collaborate to propagate the data in the network.

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 The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems
 Mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system
 Privacy and security are ensured
 Fault identification would be easy

TRANSMISSION MODES

The direction of signal flow between two linked devices is called transmission modes.

There are three types of transmission modes:

1. Simplex: information is transmitted in one direction only and the roles of transmitter
and receiver are fixed. This form is not used for conventional data transmission.
Example: Pager, instructions / command send from computer to printer.

2. Half Duplex (HDX): transmission is allowed in both directions but in only one direction at
a time. Data communication systems that use the telephone network usually transmit in HDX.
Example: walkie-talkie.

3. Full Duplex (FDX): sender/receiver can transmit and receive from each other at the
same time. In order to transmit in FDX, the user usually has private direct lines.
Example: Telephone, Mobile.

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SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have

the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One
solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a mesh
topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology). These
methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-efficient,
and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time. Other topologies
employing multipoint connections, such as a bus, are ruled out because the distances
between devices and the total number of devices increase beyond the capacities of the
media and equipment. A better solution is switching.
A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are
devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the
switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones). Others are used only for routing.
We can then divide today's networks into three broad categories: circuit-switched
networks, packet-switched networks, and message-switched. Packet-switched
networks can further be divided into two subcategories-virtual-circuit networks and
datagram networks as shown in below figure.

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CIRCUIT SWITCHING

A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in

which each link is divided into n channels.

A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link.

Circuit switching communication involves three stages.

i. Circuit establishment.
ii. Data transfer.
iii. Circuit Disconnect.

The route must be determined and the connection made before any information is transmitted.
Network maintain the “dedicated” connection until a node terminates it
Common in the telephone systems
The significant about circuit switching is that the communication path remains intact for the
duration of the connection, engaging the nodes and the links involved in the path for that
period. (However, these nodes and links are typically capable of supporting many channels, so
only a portion of their capacity is taken away by the circuit.)

In the above fig. Each of the six rectangles represents a carrier switching office (end office, toll
office, etc.). In this example, each office has three incoming lines and three outgoing lines.
When a call passes through a switching office, a physical connection is (conceptually)
established between the line on which the call came in and one of the output lines, as shown
by the dotted lines.

We need to emphasize several points here:

 Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the resources to
beused during the communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in
frequency-

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division multiplexing and time slots in time-division multiplexing), switch buffers, switch processing time,
and switch input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data
transfer until the teardown phase.
Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical layer transfer of
thesignal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the
destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the data
based on their occupied band (frequency-division multiplexing) or time slot (time-division multiplexing).

MESSAGE SWITCHING

It is a concept of Store and Forward Networks.

The message is stored temporarily before sending it.
When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance between
sender and receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in
the first switching office (i.e., router) and then forwarded later, one hop at a time. Each block
is received in its entirety, inspected for errors, and then retransmitted. A network using this
technique is called a store-and-forward network.

The first electromechanical telecommunication systems used message switching, namely, for
telegrams. The message was punched on paper tape (off-line) at the sending office, and then
read in and transmitted over a communication line to the next office along the way, where it
was punched out on paper tape. An operator there tore the tape off and read it in on one of
the many tape readers, one reader per outgoing trunk. Such a switching office was called a
torn tape office. Paper tape is long gone and message switching is not used any more.

PACKET SWITCHING

A packet is handed over from node to node across the network. Each receiving
node temporarily stores the packet, until the next node is ready to receive it, and then
passes it onto the next node. This technique is called store-and-forward and
overcomes one of the limitations of circuit switching.
A packet-switched network has a much higher capacity for accepting further connections.
Additional connections are usually not blocked but simply slow down existing connections,
because they increase the overall number of packets in the network and hence increase
the delivery time of each packet.
Packet switching is to combine datagram networks and virtual circuit networks. Networks route
the first packet based on the datagram addressing idea, but then create a virtual-circuit
network for the rest of the packets coming from the same

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source and going to the same destination .

The message is divided into smaller units called packets. When all the packets arrive, they are
reassembled. A physical connection is NOT maintained.
•Datagram
–Each packet contains its destination address and is transmitted independently
•Virtual Circuit
–Each packet contains V.C.I
–Network protocol establishes a virtual circuit before sending any packets
–Packets are delivered using the same route

The packet switching, shown in above fig. With this technology, individual packets are sent as
need be, with no dedicated path being set up in advance. It is up to each packet to find its
way to the destination on its own.

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Virtual Circuit Datagram

Host to host address is always needed in

Host to host address is needed in link setup
sending the datagram (Embedded in the
only
datagram itself)

Errors is handled by subnetwork. Host will Error checking is required by host to resemble
receive the packets in correct sequence. the packet and find out the missing packets.

messages may be out of order in the

Messages passed in order to the network.
communication sub-network

Connection setup is initially required prior to

Connection setup is not required
sending data

Is a flexible foundation to support a range of

Network component failure in path may affect
higher level protocols which can provide for
the result
additional network services

Less overhead in addressing embedded in the

Overhead in addressing
packet

Example is X.25 Level 3 Example is Internet Protocol of (TCP/IP)

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Evolution of Network Architecture and services

a) Telegraph Networks and Message Switching

The first electrical communication system is telegraph. Telegraph transmit test message over
the long distances. It used direct current pulse signals on single wire ie copier wire. The
original text message converts into number of dots and dashes. These dots and dashes
transmit the short and long pulses of electrical current over copper wire. For this purpose
morse code was used.

In these networks a message or telegram would arrive at telegraph station, and an operator
would make a routing decision based on the destination address until the communication line
became available the operator would store the message and then forward the message to
the next appropriate station. This method is called as store and forward technique and would
be repeat at each intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination station.
And this approach is called as message switching.

b) Telephone Networks and Circuit Switching

The telephone system was designed for voice and analog signals. Sending data require
bandwidth. The amount of band width needed is directly related to the data rate that is
desired. An analog voice signal contains its data in a relatively narrow bandwidth, in proportion
to the amount of data it carries. For digital signals, distortion may cause the receiver to
misinterpret the signal that is sent and so produce an error.

An end-to-end path setup beginning of a session, dedicated to the application, and then
released at the end of session. This is called circuit switching. Circuit switching is effectively for
application which make comparatively steady use of channel.

c) Internet

Internet connection can be via a network interface card or other device in the NT server
computer. This device along with the bandwidth of the communications circuit to which it is
attached determines the capacity of the web server. Bandwidth is expressed in terms of
megabits per second(Mbps).

The below fig shows the main components of typical LAN to internet Service Provider(ISP)
to the internet communications connection.

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d) Next-Generation Internet

- Multi-service packet switching network

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