Conduction of Electricity in Metal and Gase PDF

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CONDUCTION OF ⇒this means that potential difference set

ELECTRICITY IN METAL up a force to drive the charge in an electric
AND GAS circuits.in order to produce an electric
current potential difference must applied
MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION OF across the conductor.
ELECTRICITY IN METAL
In metal electricity is due to the flow of an ⇒the mean velocity with which electrons
electrons in the material, the flow of an move in the material is called drift
electrons in the material cause the velocity.
production of an electric current. Note
The number of charge that pass through
any point in an electric circuits in one Whenever charge are in motion an
second is electric current is produced
called an electric RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DRIFT
current. VELOCITY AND ELECTRIC
CURRENT IN THE CONDUCTOR
To determine the relationship between
From above drift velocity (𝑉𝑑 in metal the diagram
below can be considered.
𝑄𝑋1 = 𝐼𝑋𝑡 ⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑸 𝒅𝑸
𝑰= ,⇒
𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Thus an electric current is some
time refers the rate of flow of an
electric charge in the materials.
From
From quantization of charge, 𝑄 = 𝑁 𝑒. 𝑑𝑄
𝐼= , but Q=Ne
𝑑𝑡
Question #01
𝑑𝑁𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑁
1. If charge flowing in the circuits Is given 𝐼= ⇒𝐼=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
as q = 3t + 2 t. find amount of current after 𝑒𝑑𝑁 𝑁
t=3 second.
𝐼= ,𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = ,𝑁 = 𝑛𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
HOW ELECTRIC CURRENT IS 𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴𝑥

PRODUCED? 𝑒𝑑(𝑛𝐴𝑥)
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
When potential difference is applied
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
across the end of the metallic conductor, 𝐼 = 𝑒𝑛𝐴 ,𝑏𝑢𝑡 = 𝑣𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
an electric field is produced and cross the
conduct. This makes free electrons in the 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
conductor to experience force and get Note
Moved (drifted) from one point to
another.
Empirical tuition center: contact 0756065543, 0718321654
The drift velocity of an electron is very
small, but lamp light on immediately once
a switch is pressed on, this is because the 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑁𝑒 2∏
𝐼= = ( )( )
2∏ 2∏ 𝑇
Speed of electric field is closer to that of 𝑁𝑒
light, therefore all electrons in the material 𝐼= = 𝑁𝑒
get drifted once as soon as switch is 𝑇
pressed. 𝐼 = 𝑓𝑒𝑁
ELECTRIC CUURENT IN THE
CURRENT DENSITY (j)
MATERIAL INTERM OF DENSITY
If we assume every atom in the material
Current density is an electric current
donate one free electron, the number of passing through a unit area of the
atom will be equal to the number of conductor.
electrons in the material.
⇒it is calculated as the ratio of the
From 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴 current to it cross section area
𝑁 𝐼
𝐼= 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴,𝑁 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴 𝐽=
𝑉
𝐴
𝑛𝑁𝐴
𝐼= 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴 Also
𝑉
𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
𝐼=
𝑛𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
,𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛 =
𝑚 𝐽= ,𝑗 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴
𝑉 𝑚𝑟
𝑚
𝑁 𝑒𝑣 𝐴 𝒋 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅
𝑚𝑟 𝐴 𝑑
𝐼=
𝑉 Also From
𝑚 𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑉𝑑𝐴 𝐼 𝑣
𝐼 = ( )( ) 𝐽= ⇒𝑗=
𝑣 𝑚𝑟 𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝜌𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝐼=
𝑚𝑟
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 1 𝑣
𝑗= = = = ( )( )
𝑅𝐴 𝜌𝐿 𝐴 𝜌𝐿 𝜌 𝐿
ELECRIC CURRENT FOR THE 𝐴
CHARGE DESCRIBING CIRCULAR
MOTION. 1 𝑣 1 𝐸
𝑗 = ( ) ( ) = ( ) (𝐸 ) =
Consider the diagram below.
𝜌 𝐿 𝜌 𝜌
Recall
𝐸
𝑗=
𝜌
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
𝑁 𝑁
𝐼= 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴 ⇒𝐼 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴
𝑉 𝐴𝐿
𝑁 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑟
⇒𝐼 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 ⇒⇒ 𝐼 = =𝐼 =
𝐿 2∏𝑟 2∏𝑟

Momentum of an electrons 9.0𝑥103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 And atomic mass unit is

63.5u.
Momentum(𝑝) = 𝑚𝑣𝑑 ⇒ (𝑝) =
𝐼 Example
𝑚
𝑛𝑒𝑎
Two wires A and B of the same
𝑚𝐼 𝑁
𝑝= , but 𝑛 = material, having radii in the ratio 1 :
𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝐴𝐿
2 and carry currents in the ratio 4: 1.
𝑚𝐼 𝑚𝐼𝐿
𝑝= 𝑁 ,=𝑝= Find the ratio of drift speeds of
𝑒𝐴 𝑁𝑒
𝐴𝐿
electrons in A and B
𝑚𝐼𝐿
𝑝= POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
𝑁𝑒 AND TERMINAL POTENTIAL
Example DIFFERENCE.
Is the work done required to move a
The number density of electron in
unit positive charge from the region
the copper is assumed to be
of low electric potential to the region
8.5𝑥1023 /𝑚3 how long electron
of high electric potential.
takes to travel from one end of the
3m long to another end. If the
crossection area is 2𝑥106 𝑚2 and carr
a current of 3A
Example 𝑊 𝑋 1 = 𝑄𝑋 𝑉
8A current passes through 𝑊 =𝑄𝑉⇒𝑉=
𝑊
𝑄
cylindrical copper wire with radius
𝑊𝐵𝐴
of 4mm.the density of copper is 𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
𝑄
8960kg/m3 and the mass of single
B is a point of low electric potential and A
copper atom is 1𝑥10−25 𝑘𝑔 is a point of high electric potential.
determine the drift velocity of
Then potential difference can also be
conduction. Assume one atom gives
defined as the work done per unit charge
one electrons for the conduction moved from low electric potential to high
Example electric potential. Ώ
Estimate the average drift velocity of an Also potential difference is defined as

electron in a copper wire of crossection different in electric potential between two
area of 3𝑥10−7 𝑚2 carrying a current of 5A points in an electric field.
.assume each atom contributes roughly
two electrons. The density of copper is

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 Also,
𝑊𝐵𝐴 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑰𝑨𝑩
From 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = ⇒ 𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑄
𝑄 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝐼𝐴𝐵
𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑄, 𝑊𝐵𝐴 = (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )𝑄 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑰𝑨𝑩 + 𝑽𝑩
1. The equation above implies that
𝑊𝐵𝐴 = (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )𝑄 resistance cause the potential drop
thus creates potential difference
If𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0
between the points
𝑊𝐵𝐴 = (0)𝑄 2. The high potential is equal to the
𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 0 summation of low potential with the
potential difference between the given
This means that whenever two points are points.
at the same potential, there will be no
energy to move charge between them VARIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW
hence no electric current will be Experimentally ohms law can be verified
produced. by using the circuits below.
Therefore whenever current flow between
two points it implies that the two points
are at potential difference.
POTENTIAL DIFFERNCE
BETWEEN TWO POINTS IN  When the switch K is pressed current
AN LECTRI CIRCUITS flowing in the circuits will be recorded,
The potential difference between two and the potential difference between
points in an electric circuit’s is point A and B will be recorded.
determined by using OHM’S LAW.  When the variable resistor is adjusted,
The law state that, the potential the magnitude of current will varies
difference between two points in a and the voltmeter reading will also
metallic conductor is directly  Varies. Each ammeter reading and its
proportional to the quantity of an electric corresponding voltmeter reading was
current flowing through given points, recorded and tabulated as shown
provided that temperature and other below.
physical factor remain constant
Potential Current(I)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 ⍺ 𝐼𝐴𝐵 difference(V)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐾𝐼𝐴𝐵 , 𝑉1 𝐼1
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐾 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑰𝑨𝑩
𝑉3 𝐼3

When the graph of v against I was plotted NON OHMIC CONDUCTOR

the graph below was obtained.
These are the material whose electric
properties do not obey ohms law. That
means potential difference between the
given points is not directly proportional to
the flow of an electric current in it.
The graph above satisfy the graph for the

directly proportional, thus the ohms law
is verified.
∆𝑉
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚 = , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑚 = 𝑅
∆𝐼
∆𝑉
𝑅=
∆𝐼 SOURCE OF POTENTIAL
∆𝑉 = 𝑅∆𝐼 DFFERENCE
The source of potential difference in an
LIMITARTON OF OHM’S LAW
Electric circuits is called an electric cell.
The following are the limitation of ohm’s Its symbol is
law.
The combination of more than one cell is
1. Do not apply in variable temperature. called battery. Represented as
2. physical parameter of the device must
remain constant CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
3. The conductor should be metallic. ELECTRIC CELL
Any Electric cell has the following
CLASSIFICATION OF
MATERIAL BASED ON OHM’S 1. Internal resistance
LAW 2. Potential difference across its
Based on ohm’s law, we have the following terminal.
types of the material 1. INTERNAL RESISTANCE
1. Ohmic conductor Internal resistance is an opposition
2. Non ohmic conductor. offered by an electric cell to the flow of an
OHMICCONDUCTOR electric cell.it is denoted as r.
These are the material whose electric 2. POTENTIAL DIFFERNCE
properties obey ohms law. That means BETWEEN TERMINALS OF CELLS
potential difference between the given The potential difference across the
points is directly proportional to the flow terminal of the cell in complete or closed
of an electric current in it. circuits is called terminal potential
difference.

𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
Analysis of the equation above
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = 0
The terminal potential difference across 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 0𝑥𝑟 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝑉
the terminal of the cell in complete
Thus when voltmeter is connected across
circuits is equal to that drop across the
the terminal of the cell in an open circuits
external resistor.
its reading is equal to the electromotive
The terminal potential difference across force of the cell
the terminal of the cell in an open circuits
When the circuits is complete (closed), 𝐼
is called electromotive force of the
cell. 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 ≠ 0
Electromotive force, is the potential 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
difference across the terminal of the cell
or batter in an open circuits. 𝑽 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓
Thus when the voltmeter is connected
across the terminal of the cell or battery in
closed circuits its reading is less than the
Or is the work done required to move a emf of the cell by 𝑰𝒓, which is potential
unit Positive charge across the terminal of drop across internal resistance of the cell.
the cell.
Thus the equivalent circuits of an electric
cell is as shown below
Therefore any circuits containing an TERMINAL POTENTIAL

electric cell can be represented as follow DIFFERENCE
Terminal potential difference is the
potential difference across the terminal of
the cell in a closed circuits. Which is equal
to potential drop across the external
resistance of the circuits.
Thus the equation for the complete TEMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERNCE
circuits can be as follows, IN THE SAME DIRECTION AS EMF
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅 + 𝑟 OF THE GIVEN CELL
From ohms law Consider the diagram below
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
From 𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟), then
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝐼𝑟, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 ≠ 0
i.e. i = 0.
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 Thus the sum of the currents entering the
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓 junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the junction.
TEMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERNCE
IN OPPOSION AS EMF OF THE
GIVEN CELL
𝑖1 + 𝑖3 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖4
IMPLICATION OF THE 1ST LAW
𝑉𝐴 − 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 + 𝐼𝑟 ⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐸 This law implies that charge is conserved,
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝒓 + 𝑬, 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬 + 𝑰𝒓 as if current reaching a junction is not
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑬 + 𝑰𝒓 Equal to the current leaving the junction,
charge will not be conserved.
Example
KIRCHHOF’S SECOND
A storage battery of emf 3.0V and internal LAW/VOLTAGE LAW
resistance of 0.5Ώ is connected across The law state that total emf in the given
20Ώ resistor. Find the terminal potential loop is equal to the total potential drop
difference. across the loop.
∑ 𝐸𝑀𝐹 = ∑ 𝐼𝑅
Example
A cell of emf E and internal resistance of Loop means the complete path of
2Ώ was connected across 5Ώ resistor find current between the points in an electric
circuits.
1. The current flowing in the circuits Consider the circuits below
2. The e.m.f of the cell.
EXTENSION OF OHM’S LAW
Kirchhoff’s used the principle
conservation of energy and the
conservation of charge to power ohms law
to be able to analyze complex circuits.
Kirchhoff gave two laws to extent the RULES OF APPLYING KIRCHFO’S
ohms law, these are current law (1st law) VOLTAGE LAW
and voltage law (2rd law) To apply Kirchhoff voltage law the
following rule are considered
Kirchhoff’s first law (current law): 1. The direction of loop is the direction of
This law is also known as junction rule or resultant current.
current law (KCL). 2. Any emf opposite with that of loop is
The law state that, taken as negative
The algebraic sum of currents meeting at
a junction is zero
3. Any potential drop in the same

direction with the direction of loop is
taken as positive.
4. The direction of loop is roughly

selected. 1. Find the reading of ammeter A, B
and C.
Thus from the circuits above 2. Find the potential difference
𝐸1 − 𝐸3 = 𝐼𝑅1 …………1 between X and Y. and potential
difference between A and B.
𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = −𝐼𝑅1 ……….2 Example
Example Solve for I.
Consider the circuits diagram below and
answer the question that follows
RESISTANCE AND ITS

MEASUREMENT
1. Find the current I1,I2,and I3 Resistance is an opposition offered by the
2. Find the potential difference conductor to the flow of an electric
between B and D. current through it. The si unit of
Example resistance is called ohms (Ώ).
Consider the circuits diagram below and
answer the question that follows CAUSES OF RESISTNCE IN THE
MATERIAL
Resistance of the material is caused by the
collision between the moving electrons
and the site atom in the materials.as th
result of this collision electrons loses its
velocity and hence reduce an electric
current. Since 𝐼⍺𝑉.
1. Find the current I1,I2,and I3 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT

2. Find the potential difference RESISTANCE OF THE MATERIAL.
between C and E. and potential The following are the factors which affect
difference between A and C. resistance of the material.
Example 1. Length of the conductor
Consider the circuits diagram below and 2. Crossection area of the conductor
answer the question that follows 3. Nature of the material
4. Temperature of the materials
A.EFFECT OF THE LENGTH OF
THE CONDUCTOR
across the cubes of 1𝑚3 . Sometime
If the length of the conductor is very long resistivity is called specific resistance.
means, electrons will experience many
number of collision causing greater fall in OTHER TERMILOGIES USED IN
the velocity of an electrons. This fall in CURRENT ELECTRICITY
velocity leads to the decrease in current A. conductance
hence increase in the resistance of the Conductance is the reciprocal of
material. resistance.it is denoted by G and its unit is
𝑅⍺𝐿 Siemens(s) or ohms inverse.
B.CROSSECTION AREA OF THE G=
1
CONDUCTOR 𝑅
B. Conductivity
if the crossection area is larger, then
Conductivity is the reciprocal of the
electrons experience few collision than
resistivity. It is denoted as 𝞂.
when the conductor is very thin.
1 𝜌𝐿
Therefore 𝑅⍺ 𝑅=
𝐴 𝐴
NATURE OF THE CONDUCTOR
Reciprocates the equation above
Deferent material has different atomic
1 𝐴 1 𝐴
arrangement, therefore electrons at = ⇒ ( )( )
different material will experience 𝑅 𝜌𝐿 𝜌 𝐿
different number of collision at the same
condition. 𝐴 𝜎𝐴
⇒The factor which determine the ability 𝐺 = 𝜎( ) ⇒ ( )
of the material to offer resistance is called
𝐿 𝐿
𝜎𝐴
resistivity (𝞀) 𝐺=( )
Note 𝐿
At constant temperature If A =1𝑚2 , 𝑙 1𝑚
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝑥1
𝑅⍺𝐿……………………….1 𝐺=( )=( )=𝞼
1
𝐿 1
𝑅⍺ ……………………….2 𝐺=𝞼
𝐴
𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑2. Therefore conductivity is the conductance
1 𝐾𝐿
𝑅 ⍺ 𝐿. ⇒𝑅 = 𝐴 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌) of the conductor of 1𝑚2 and the length of
𝐴
1𝑚.sometime conductivity is called
Then
𝜌𝐿 specific conductance
𝑅=
𝐴 C.EFEFCT OF TEMPERATURE ON
THE MEANING OF RESISTIVITY THE RESISTANCE OF THE
MATERIALS.
For the conductor with length of 1M and
cross section area of 1𝑚2 When metal is heated its site atom start to
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝑥1
vibrate. This vibration of site atom
𝑅= = =𝞺 increases chance of collision between the
𝐴 1
𝑅=𝞺 site atom and the free electrons in the
Then, resistivity is the resistance of material, thus increase the resistance of
conductor with the length of 1m and cros the materials.
section area of 1m2.or is the resistance
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 ⍺∆𝞱
The fractional change in the resistance of
When compared with equation of straight
the materials per decrease change in the line
temperature is called temperature 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 ⍺∆𝞱 + 𝑹𝟏
coefficient of the resistance. 𝑌= 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
∆𝑅 When the graph of R is drawn against ∆𝝷,
⍺=
𝑅∆𝜃 the graph with nature below was
obtained.
CHANGE IN THE RSISTANCE
OF THE MATERIAL AS THE
TPES OF TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE CHANGE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE.
∆𝑅 = ⍺𝑅∆𝜃 There are two types of temperature
By integrating both sides coefficient of resistance
∫ 𝑑𝑅 = ∫ ⍺𝑅∆𝜃 a. positive temperature coefficient
of resistance implies that if the
∫ 𝑑𝑅 = ∫ ⍺𝑅∆𝜃 temperature of the material is increased
𝑅2 𝑑𝑅 𝜃 then the resistance of the material will
∫𝑅 = ∫𝜃 2 ⍺𝑑𝜃 increases eg metal
1 𝑅 1
𝑅2 𝜃
[ln 𝑅 ]𝑅1 = ⍺ ∫𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 b. negative temperature coefficient
1
of resistance,
[ln 𝑅 ]𝑅𝑅21 = ⍺[𝜃 ]𝜃𝜃2 Negative temperature coefficient of
1
[ln 𝑅2 − ln 𝑅1 ] = ⍺[𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ] resistance implies that if the temperature
of the material is increased then the
ln
𝑅2
= ⍺(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) resistance of the material will decreases
𝑅1 eg semiconductor
𝑅2
= 𝑒 ⍺(𝜃2−𝜃1) = 1 + ⍺(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + (⍺(𝜃2 − Example
𝑅1
2 A silver wire has resistance of 2.1Ώ at 27oc
𝜃1 )) ….. and resistance of 2.7 at 100oc.determine
Ignore higher power of ⍺, then the temperature coefficient of resistance
𝑅2 of the silver.
= 1 + ⍺(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑅1 Example
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟏 + ⍺(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )) At room temperature the resistance of
heating coil is 100Ώwhat is the
THE GRAPH OF R AGANST ∆𝝷 temperature of element at 117oc.given the
Temperature coefficient of resistance is
From 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟏 + ⍺(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )) 1.7𝑥10−4 /oc
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 ⍺(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )

Example CONNECTION OF RESISTOR

A heating coil made by nicrome wire IN AN ELECTTRIC CIRCUITS.
connected to 230V supply draw current of There are two ways that resistor is
3Awhich settle after few second to steady connected in an electric circuits, these are
value of 2.8A what is the steady 1. Series connection of resistor
temperature heating coil, if the room 2. Parallel connection of resistor.
temperature was 27oc and the SEREIES CONNECTION OF
temperature coefficient of resistance is
1.7𝑥10−4 /oc
RESISTOR
Two resistor are said to be in series
connection when the one terminal of
Example
resistor are is connected to another
a heating coil is made from nicrome wire
terminal of another resistor.by this way
which will operate at 12v supply and will
the current passing through these resistor
have a power of 36w when immersed in
are equal.
water at 373K.the wire available has an
area of crossection of0.10𝑚𝑚2 .what
length of the wire will be required? The
The resistance of the series resistor can be
resistivity of nichrome wire at
−6 combined to give a single resistance called
273K=1.08𝑥10 .the temperature effective resistance
coefficient of resistivity is 8𝑥10−5 /k
DETERMINATION OF
RESISTANCE AND ITS
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF
MEASUREMENT.
SERIES RESISTOR
In an electric circuits there is a special
Consider the diagram below
component deigned to offer resistance.
That component is called resistor.
Resistor is the circuit’s component which
offer resistance to the passage of an
electric current in the circuits.
From the circuits above
TYPES OF RESISTOR IN 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS Also
There are two types of resistor which are 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐶
1. Fixed resistor, this is the resistor 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶
whose resistance do not change. 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = (𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ) − (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐶 )
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶
2. Variable resistor 𝑉 𝑉
This is the types of resistor whose But. 𝑅 = 𝐴𝐶 =
𝐼𝐴𝐶 𝐼
resistance can be varied. From 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐶
𝑉 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝐼𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐵𝐶 , 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 , ⇒ 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

𝑉
= (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 𝑅
𝐼
𝑅 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
Generally for the resistor in series its
resistance can be obtained as
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 … ….
POTENIAL DEVIDER PARALLEL CONNECTION

Potential divider is an electric circuits Resistor are said to be parallel if their
which divides an electric voltage corresponding terminal are connected at
connected across it.it is made by the common points
connecting two resistor in series.
Consider below
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 … … … 1. But 𝑅 = 𝐴𝐵 =
𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝐼
𝑉𝑋 = 𝐼𝑅2 … … 2.
Then
Divide equation 2 by 1.
𝑉𝑋 𝐼𝑅2
= 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵 1 1 1
𝑉 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝐼= + + = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ( + + )
𝑉𝑋 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
= ((𝑅 2 )) 1 1 1 𝐼
𝑉 1 +𝑅2
𝑹𝟐 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ( + + )⇒
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝑽𝑿 = ( )𝑽 1 1 1
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 )
=( + + )
The equation above is called potential 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
divider rules. 𝐼 1
= =( + + )
1 1 1
Example 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
From the circuits below find the potential 1 1 1 1
=( + + )
at A. 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Generally for parallel resistor the effective
resistance is obtained as
1 1 1 1
= ( + + ………..)
𝑅 𝑅
1 𝑅 2 𝑅 3
FOR TWO RESISTOR IN PARALLEL

1 1 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= + ⇒
Example 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
= ⇒𝑅=
Find potential difference between points 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
A and B from the circuits below 𝑹=
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐

CURRENT DEVIDER
Current divider is the circuits which is WHEAT STONE BRIDGE
used to divide an electric current supplied Wheat stone bridge is an arrangement of
Into them.it can simply mad by using two resistor as shown below.
resistor in parallel as shown below.
From 𝑹=
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 The unknown resistance at the AD gap,
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
then the variable resistor is adjusted until
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 … … … … … . . 𝒊
galvanometer gives zero deflection.at zero
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 … … … … … … 𝒊𝒊 Deflection means𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐶 , when this
𝑹 𝑹 happen the bridge is said to be balanced
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰 𝟏 𝟐 … … … … . . 𝒊𝒊𝒊
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖 At balance point the circuits can be drawn
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹𝟐 as below
𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑰 𝟏 𝟐 ⇒ 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = ( )𝑰
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹𝟏
𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰 𝟏 𝟐 ⇒𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏
𝑰𝟐 = ( )𝑰 𝑅3
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑉𝐷 = ( )𝑉……..𝑖
Example 𝑅3 +𝑅4
Find the reading of each ammeter in the 𝑅2
circuits below
𝑉𝐶 = ( ) 𝑉 … … 𝑖𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1. At balancing point
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑅3 𝑅2
( )𝑉 = ( )𝑉
2. 𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑅3 𝑅2
( )=( )
𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1 +𝑅2
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE 𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) = 𝑅2 (𝑅3 + 𝑅4 )
The unknown resistance of the given 𝑅3 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅4
resistor or material can be determined by 𝑹𝟑 𝑹 𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
the following devices. The equation above implies that when
1. Wheat stone bridge wheat stone bridge is balanced, the
2. A meter bridge
product of opposite resistor is constant
3. Potentiometer.
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐
Or =
𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟏

From equation above any unknown 𝑃 𝑅

resistor can be calculated if other three =
𝑄 𝑆
are given. Recall 𝑅⍺𝐿
A METER BRIDGE 𝑅 = 𝑘𝐿
The devices connected as shown below is 𝑃 = 𝐾𝐿 … … … … 𝑖
called Meter Bridge. 𝑄 = 𝐾 (100 − 𝐿) … … . 𝑖𝑖
Divide equation I by ii
𝑃 𝐾𝐿
=
𝑄 𝐾 (100 − 𝐿)
𝑃 𝐿 𝑅
= =
𝑄 (100 − 𝐿) 𝑆
Thus.
𝑹 𝑳
=
𝑺 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳)
The jock is made to slide along the wire Example
AC until a galvanometer read zero. The In a Meter Bridge below the null point is
Point along AC where galvanometer read found at distance of 36.7cm from A. if now
zero, is called balancing point. a resistance of 12Ώ is connected in
parallel with S, the null point occurs at
At balance point 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐷 and the 51.9cm.determine the value of R and S
meter brdidge can be redrawn as below.
POTENTIAOMETER
𝑆 The potentiometer is the devices
𝑉𝐷 = ( )𝑉……..𝑖 which is used to measure an electric
𝑅+𝑆
𝑄 potential at a points in an electric
𝑉𝐵 = ( ) 𝑉 … … 𝑖𝑖 circuits. AB=is the potential meter
𝑄+𝑃
At balancing point wire, and cell Q is called driver cell
Which drive uniform current along
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐵 the wire AB.
𝑆 𝑄
( )𝑉 = ( )𝑉
𝑅+𝑆 𝑄+𝑃
𝑆 𝑄
( )=( )
𝑅+𝑆 𝑄+𝑃
𝑆(𝑄 + 𝑃) = 𝑄 (𝑅 + 𝑆)
𝑆𝑄 + 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑆𝑄
𝑆𝑃 = 𝑄𝑅
PRINCIPLE OF THE
POTENTIALMETER WIRE
Potential meter principle state that
the potential at the given point on
the potential meter wire is directly When the connection is made like
proportional with length from one shown above the jockeys is adjusted
end of potentiometer wire. until the galvanometer read Zero for
Recall the standard cell Eo an the length BP
𝜌𝐿 be 𝑙0 take unknown cell (𝐸) and find
𝑅=
𝐴
𝜌𝐿 the balance length 𝑙
But 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼 From potentiometer principle
𝐴
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐼
𝑉 = (𝐼 ) ⇒ 𝑉 = ( ) 𝐿 𝐸0 = 𝐾𝑙0 … … … … … . . 𝑖
𝐴 𝐴
𝜌𝐼 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑙 … … … … . . 𝑖𝑖
𝑉 = ( ) 𝐿, Divide equation ii by i
𝐴
𝐸 𝐾𝑙
=
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝐸0 𝐾𝑙0
𝑉 = 𝐾𝐿 Then
𝑉⍺𝐿 𝐸 𝑙
=
𝐸0 𝑙0
Therefore any unknown from
equation above can be calculated if
other three are known.
NOTE
In order to get the balancing length
APPLICATION OF the following condition must be
POTENTIALMETER meets
The following are the application of 1. The emf of driver cell must be
potential meter larger than that of test cell,
1. To determine emf of the cell 2. otherwise no point on the wire
2. To determine internal resistance that will have potential to balance
of the cell with the cell
3. To determine the emf of thermal 3. The identical terminal of the cell
couple etc. must be connected, otherwise all
DETERMINATION OF EMF OF the current will pass through
THE CELL BY galvanometer, and therefore
POTENTIOMETER balancing point will not be
To determine an emf by the potential obtained.
meter the diagram below is
considered.
DETERMINATION OF DETERMINATION OF
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THERCOUPLE EMF
CELL BY POTENTIAL METER. To determine the EMF of thermal
To determine the internal resistance couple the connection like shown
of the cell by the potentiometer, the below is used.
diagram below is used.
When K is open and the balance

length is𝑙1 , then NOTE
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑙1 … … … … … 𝑖 The emf of thermal couple is very
When switch is closed and the small, therefore due to high p.d of
balance length is 𝑙2 .then the p.d on the driver cell, the balance length
the wire balance with terminal p.d of along the wire will be very small and
the cell. Then practically very difficult to
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑙2 measure.to avoid this difficult a
𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) larger resistor is connected in series
𝑉 with potentiometer wire so that the
𝐸 = (𝑅 + 𝑟) small p.d is dropped along the wire,
𝑅
𝐸 1 this will increase the balancing
= (𝑅 + 𝑟) length to the extent that it will be
𝑉 𝑅
𝐸 𝑟 simple to measure.
=1+ Example#01
𝑉 𝑅
The diagram below shows
𝐾𝑙1 𝑟 potentiometer with cell of 2.0v and
=1+
𝐾𝑙2 𝑅 internal resistance of 04Ώ
maintaining the potential drop
across the resistor wire AB. a
𝑙1 𝑟 standard cell which maintains
=1+
𝑙2 𝑅 constant emf of 1.02Vgives a balance
𝑙1 𝑟 length of 67.3cmlenghof the wire.to
−1=
𝑙2 𝑅 ensure very low currents drawn from
𝑙
( 1 − 1) 𝑅 = 𝑟 the standard cell, Avery high
𝑙2
𝒍𝟏 resistance of 600KΏ is put in series
𝒓 = ( − 𝟏) 𝑹 with it, which is shorted close to the
𝒍𝟐
balance point. The standard cell is

then replaced by a cell of unknown
emf E and the balance point found
similarly is 82.3cm length of wire.
ELECTRIC ENERGY AND

POWER
Electric energy is the energy
possessed by the charge in motion in
the material. This energy is equal to
the work done required to move
charge from low electric potential to
Example higher electric potential.
The circuits below show
potentiometer circuits for From definition of potential
comparison of two resistances. The difference, potential difference
balance point with a standard is the work done required to move a
resistor R=10.0Ώ is found to be unit positive charge from one point
58.3cm,while that with the unknown to another in an electric current
resistance X is 68.5cm.determine
the value of What might you do if you
failed to find a balance point with the 𝑊𝐵𝐴
𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
given cell of emf E. 𝑄
𝑊𝐵𝐴 = 𝐸𝑒 = 𝐼𝑅𝑥𝐼𝑡,
𝑬𝒆 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
Also,
𝑉
From 𝐼 =
𝑅
Example
The circuits below show potentiometer
circuits for determination of internal 𝑉 2 𝑉2
resistances of 1.5V cell. The balance point 𝐸𝑒 = ( ) 𝑅𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
of a cell in open circuits is 76.3cm.when a
𝑽𝟐
resistor of 9.5Ώ is used in the external 𝑬𝒆 = 𝒕
𝑹
circuits of the cell, the balance point shifts
to 64.8cmlength of the potentiometer 𝑉2 𝑉
Also 𝐸𝑒 = 𝑡 = ( ) 𝑉𝑡
wire. Determine the internal resistance of 𝑅 𝑅
the cell.
𝑉 𝑉 kinetic energy into heat energy due to

𝐸𝑒 = ( ) 𝑉𝑡, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 ( ) = 𝐼 the collision between free electrons
𝑅 𝑅
𝐸𝑒 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 = 𝐼𝑡𝑉 and the site atom. This implies that
many collision (high resistance)
𝑬𝒆 = 𝑰𝒕𝑽 more heat energy is released.
ELECTRIC POWER NOTE
Electric power, is the rate of electric ⇒ If electric energy is supplied across
energy. Or is an electric energy resistor, some of electrons energy is
consumed in one second. lost as heat.
𝐸𝑒
𝑃𝑒 =
𝑡
𝐼2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃𝑒 =
𝑡
𝑷𝒆 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
Also The resistor designed to provide heat
energy when electric current is
𝑉2 supplied into it is called heating the
𝐸𝑒 𝑡
𝑃𝑒 = = 𝑅 coil.
𝑡 𝑡
The ration of heat energy dissipated to
𝑽𝟐
𝑷𝒆 = the electric energy supplied times one
𝑹 hundred is called efficiency of heating
Also coil.
𝐸𝑒 𝐼𝑡𝑉 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑒 = = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥100%
𝑡 𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐼𝑡𝑉 If all electric energy is converted into
𝑃𝑒 = heat energy on passing through the
𝑡
resistor that resistor is called passive
𝑷𝒆 = 𝑰𝑽 resistor.
HEATING EFFECT OF AN LABELING OF ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC CURRENT APPLIANCE.
This is the phenomenon at which a
Electric appliance are labelled as(𝑃, 𝑉)
conductor a conductor carrying an
electric current is associated with That label implies that under the
heat energy. supply of 𝑉 across an appliance, the
given appliance convert 𝑃 joules into
The heating effect is due to the
conversion of the lost electrons heat energy in one second. Or under

2
The supply of V the given 𝐸
appliance dissipate heat energy at the 𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅
(𝑅 + 𝑟)
rate of P.
When the graph of 𝑃𝐿 is plotted
Example. The heating coil is labeled against R the graph with nature
(200V, 800W), find the heat energy below was obtained.
Produced after 50s if the efficiency of
heating coil is
1. 80% efficient
2. 100% efficient.
POWER TRANSIMISSION TO THE
LOAD
Power transmission is the process of Based on the graph above it is
transferring electric power from the observed that maximum power
delivered to the load is maximum
source to an electric load.
when the load resistance is matched
Electric load, is anything which with internal resistance of the cell.
consume electric energy. The process of matching the load
Practically the power received to the resistance and the internal resistance
load is less than that received, due to of the source in order to achieve
the power lose as heat energy along maximum power delivery to the load
the transmitting cable. is called resistance matching.
HOW WE CAN TRSIMIT POWER TO Resistance matching, is the process
THE LOAD AT MAXIMUM VALUE equalizing the internal and the
external resistance in order to
Consider the diagram below achieve maximum power delivery to
the load.
MAXIMUM POWER
DELIVERED
Recall
2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝐸𝐼, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐸 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) 𝐸
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅
𝐸 (𝑅 + 𝑟)
=𝐼
(𝑅+𝑟) When 𝑅 = 𝑟 , 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
Then 𝐸 2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿 ==( ) 𝑟
(𝑟 + 𝑟)
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼2 𝑅

𝒓=𝑹
𝐸 2 Alternatively
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =( ) 𝑟
(2𝑟) From
𝐸 2 𝐸 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝑟 𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅
4𝑟 (𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝐸2 𝐸2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑅
4𝑟 (𝑅 + 𝑟)2
𝑬𝟐 (𝑅 + 𝑟)2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 + 2𝑅𝑟
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒𝒓 (𝑅 + 𝑟)2 = (𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + 2𝑅𝑟 + 2𝑅𝑟
DERIVATION FOR THE
(𝑅 + 𝑟)2 = (𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + 4𝑅
CONDITION OF RESISTANCE
MATCHING. Then
From calculus 𝐸2
𝑃𝐿 = (𝑅+𝑟)2 𝑅⇒
2
𝐸 𝐸2
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅 𝑃𝐿 = (𝑅−𝑟)2 𝑅
(𝑅 + 𝑟) +4𝑅𝑟
Differentiate with respect to R both 𝐸2

𝑃𝐿 =
sides (𝑅 − 𝑟)2
+ 4𝑟
2 𝑅
𝑑𝑃𝐿 𝑑 𝐸
= (( ) 𝑅) Power is Maximum when
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑅 (𝑅 + 𝑟)
(𝑅 − 𝑟)2
𝑑𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑅 2 𝑑 =0
= 𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 + 𝑅𝐸 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 𝑅
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑃𝐿
= 𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 − 2𝑅𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−3
𝑑𝑅 (𝑅 − 𝑟)2 = 0 𝑥𝑅
𝑑𝑃𝐿
At maximum point =0 (𝑅 − 𝑟)2 = 0
𝑑𝑅
0 = 𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 − 2𝑅𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−3 𝑅−𝑟=0
0 − 𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 = −2𝑅𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−3 𝑅 =0+𝑟
−𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 = −2𝑅𝐸 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−3 𝑹=𝒓
(𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 = 2𝑅 (𝑅 + 𝑟)−3 Also
(𝑅 + 𝑟)−2 𝐸2
= 2𝑅 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(𝑅 + 𝑟)−3 4𝑟
𝐸2
𝑅 + 𝑟 = 2𝑅 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑟
𝑟 = 2𝑅 − 𝑅
ALTERNATING CURRENT MEASUREMENT OF AN

Alternating current, is an electric ALTENATING CURRENT
current which reverse its polarity Alternating current is measured in
periodically and continuously. root mean squire value. (rms)
The root mean square current,
is the value of direct current which
dissipate the same power as a.c
current measured when passed in the
same resistor. Or this is the value of
EQUATION OF ALTENATING CURRENT. the equivalent direct (non varying)
to determine the equation of an voltage or current which would
alternating current the diagram provide the same energy to a circuit
below can be considered as the sine wave measured. That is, if
an AC sine wave has a RMS value of
240 volts, it will provide the same
energy to a circuit as a DC supply of
240 volts.
From the diagram below
𝐼 HOW TO CALCULATE ROOT

sin 𝜃 = , 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 MEAN SQURE CURRENT.
𝐼𝑚
𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃,𝑏𝑢𝑡 , 𝜃 = 𝑤𝑡
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒘𝒕
For the voltage
𝑉
sin 𝜃 = , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃
𝑉𝑚
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒘𝒕
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 Square both sides
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡)2
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑚
2
sin 𝑤𝑡 ALTERNATING CURRENT IN
1 2 ( ∏ CAPACITOR
𝐼2 = ∫0 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡)2
∏ Consider the diagram below
𝐼 ∏
𝐼2 = 𝑚 ∫0 (sin 𝑤𝑡)2
∏
On solving
𝐼 2
𝐼2 = 𝑚
2
Recall 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼 2 𝑑𝑄
But 𝐼= , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝑡
2 𝑑𝐶𝑉 𝑑
𝐼𝑚 𝐼= =𝐼=𝐶 (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 (sin 𝑤𝑡)
𝑰𝒎 𝑑𝑡
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 (𝑤 cos 𝑤𝑡)
√𝟐
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN 𝐼 = 𝑤𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡
RESISTOR. From the analysis above it shown
that 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 and
𝐼 = 𝑤𝑉𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡.
Since sine and cosine are out of phase
Consider the diagram by 900 thus alternating current
and voltage in capacitor are out of
From ohms law phase by 900 , with current lead
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 voltage.
But 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
Then 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 sin 𝑤𝑡
Therefore, in resistor alternating
current and voltage are in phase.
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN
INDUCTOR
Consider the diagram below

Recall 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 Mathematically reactance is equal to

𝐿𝑑𝐼 the ratio of maximum value of
But 𝑉=− alternating voltage to the maximum
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡) value of alternating current
𝑉=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼𝑚
𝑑
(sin 𝑤𝑡) 𝑥=
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝑚
𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼𝑚 (𝑤 cos 𝑤𝑡 ) TYPES OF REACTANCE
𝐼 = 𝑤𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡 There are two types of reactance
From the analysis above it shown 1. Capacitive reactance
that 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 2. Inductive reactance
And 𝑉 = 𝑤𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡. CAPACITIVE REACTANCE(𝑿𝑪 ).
Since sine and cosine are out of phase This is an opposition to the flow of an
by 90 degree, thus alternating electric current through the
current and voltage in Inductor are capacitor. Or the opposition offered
out of phase by900 , with voltage lead by the capacitor to the flow of an
current. alternating current through it.
DETERMINATION OF
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE.
𝑉𝑚
Then 𝑋𝐶 =
𝐼𝑚
The phase lead of inductor and capacitor From

can memorized by the following word. 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝑤𝑡
CIVIL, the first three letters CIV indicate
that in a capacitor (C), V lags (comes after) When sin 𝑤𝑡 = 1, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚
I OR (in capacitor I lead V), and the last
three letters VIL indicate that I lags
Also
(comes after) V in an inductor (L) or (V 𝐼 = 𝑤𝑉𝑚 Ccos 𝑤𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝑤𝑡 = 1
lead I in inductor).
𝐼𝑚 = 𝑤𝐶𝑉𝑚
REACTANCE (X)
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 1 1
From 𝑋𝐶 = = = =
Reactance is an opposition offered to 𝐼𝑚 𝑤𝑉𝑚 𝑤 2∏𝑓𝐶
the flow of an alternating current in 𝑿𝑪 =
𝟏
the circuits. They oppose variation of 𝟐∏𝒇𝑪
current or voltage .they are called Thus the capacitive reactance
reactance because they react depend on
according to the rate of change of
1. Capacitance of the capacitor
alternating current or voltage.

𝑿𝑪 ⍺ 𝑳
𝑿𝑪 ⍺
𝟏 2. The frequency of alternating
𝑪
current.
2. The frequency of alternating
current. 𝑿𝑪 ⍺ 𝒇
𝟏
𝑿𝑪 ⍺
𝑪
IMPEDENCE IN AN A.C
CIRCUITS (Z)
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE(𝑋𝐿 ). Impedance is the total opposition
This is an opposition to the flow of an offered to an a.c in the circuits. The
electric current through the impedance depend on the way at
Inductor. Or the opposition offered which components are connected in
by the inductor to the flow of an the circuits.
alternating current through it. IMPEDENCE OF THE SERIES
DETERMINATION OF CIRCUITS
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE. 1. When R and C are in series
𝑉𝑚
Then 𝑋𝑙 =
𝐼𝑚
From 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝑤𝑡
When sin 𝑤𝑡 = 1, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚
Also
𝑉 = 𝑤𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝑤𝑡 = 1 The phasor diagram for the current and
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑤𝐿𝐼𝑚 the voltage can be drawn as shown below.
From
𝑉𝑚 𝑤𝐿𝐼𝑚
𝑋𝐿 = = = 𝑤𝐿 = 2∏𝑓𝐿
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑿𝑳 = 2∏𝑓𝐿
⇒
Thus the capacitive reactance
depend on
1. Inductance of an inductor

𝑉
𝑉 2 = (𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐶 )2 = 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )
𝐼
𝑉 2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼2 𝑋𝑐 2
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )
𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )
𝑉2 2 2
𝑍 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
= (𝑅 + 𝑋𝑐 )
𝐼2
𝑉 3. WHEN C AND L ARE IN
= √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 ) SERIES
𝐼
𝑉
= 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )
𝐼
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑐 2 )
2. WHEN R AND L ARE IN SERIES.
The phasor diagram for the current
and the voltage can be drawn as

shown below.
shown below.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶
𝑉 = 𝐼 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑉
= (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑉 2 = (𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 )2 𝐼
𝑉
𝑉 2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2 = 𝑍 = (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝐼
𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼2 𝑋𝑐 2
𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) 𝒁 = (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )
𝑉2 When𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , the net impendence
2
= (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) will be zero, and the current in the
𝐼
𝑉 circuits will be high, at this point the
= √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) circuits is said to resonance.
𝐼
The frequency of a.c that will cause 𝑉 2 = (𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

resonance (i.e. 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ) is called 𝑉 2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑉𝐶 )2
resonance frequency. 𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼2 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Recall 𝑉 2 = 𝐼2 (𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
𝑋𝐿 = 2∏𝑓𝑙 𝑉2
1 2
= (𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼
2∏𝑓𝐶 𝑉
= √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
At resonance, 𝐼
1 𝑉
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 = 2∏𝑓𝑜 𝑙 = = 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
2∏𝑓𝑜 𝐶 𝐼
4∏2 𝑓𝑜2 𝑙𝐶 = 1 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )

𝑓02 = 2
1 𝑍 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.
4∏ 𝐿𝐶
1 IMPEDENCE VARIATION
𝑓𝑜 = √ 2 WITH FREQENCY IN L, C R
4∏ 𝐿𝐶
CIRCUITS
1 Consider the diagram below
𝑓𝑜 =
2∏√𝐿𝐶
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐∏√𝑳𝑪
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
The diagram above show that as
frequency of a.c is varied it will reach
4. WHEN L, C AND R ARE IN
a frequency where the 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 at
SERIES.
this point Z=R, Therefore the
current flowing in the circuits
become maximum and the circuit is
said to be at resonance.
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
The
phasor diagram for the current and the 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
voltage can be drawn as shown below. 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (0)2 )
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 )
𝑍=𝑅
At resonance.
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

1
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 = 2∏𝑓𝑜 𝑙 =
2∏𝑓𝑜 𝐶
4∏2 𝑓𝑜2 𝑙𝐶 = 1
1
𝑓02 = 2
4∏ 𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓𝑜 = √
4∏2 𝐿𝐶 IMPEDENCE IN PARALLEL
1 CIRCUITS.
𝑓𝑜 =
2∏√𝐿𝐶 In parallel circuits the potential drop
across all components are equal but
𝟏 current is different
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐∏√𝑳𝑪
1. When C and R are parallel
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
The equation above show that the
resonance frequency depend on the
1. Inductance of the inductor
2. Capacitance of the capacitor
From that we can change the
frequency at which the circuits will The phasor diagram for the current
resonance by changing either of two and the voltage can be drawn as
factor. This is the basis of operation shown below
of the tuner circuits.
In tuner circuits, antenna intercept

different electromagnetic energy of
different frequency, the required
frequency is selected by adjusting
the resonance frequency of the
circuits to match that of required
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐶 )2
signal, to do this the capacitance of 2 2
the capacitor is adjusted to the value 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼2 = ( ) + ( )
that the circuits will resonance to the 𝑅 𝑋𝑐
frequency of required signals.at 2 2
1 1
𝐼 = 𝑉 ( 2 + 2)
resonance the current due to that 𝑅 𝑋𝐶
signal will be high than others hence 𝐼2 1 1
selected. = ( + )
𝑉2 𝑅 2 𝑋𝐶2
𝐼 1 1 1
= = √( 2 + 2 ) 3. When L and C are parallel
𝑉 𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐶
1 1 1
= √( 2 + 2 )
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐶
2. When L and R are parallel The phasor diagram for the current
shown below

shown below
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= −
𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
1 1
𝐼 = 𝑉( − )
𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝐼 1 1
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐿 )2 =( − )
𝑉 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
2
𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝐼 1 1 1
𝐼 =( ) +( ) = =( − )
𝑅 𝑋𝐿 𝑉 𝑍 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
1 1 1 1 1
𝐼2 = 𝑉 2 ( 2 + 2 ) =( − )
𝑅 𝑋𝐿 𝑍 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝐼 2
1 1 4. WHEN L, C AND R ARE IN
= ( 2 + 2) PARALLEL.
𝑉2 𝑅 𝑋𝐿
𝐼 1 1 1
= = √( 2 + 2 )
𝑉 𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐿
1 1 1
= √( 2 + 2 )
𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐿
But and the voltage can be drawn as
𝑍 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 shown below

Or
2
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
IN INDUCTOR
from 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )
= (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡)(𝑉𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡)
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 )2 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 cos 𝑤𝑡
2 2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼2 = ( ) + ( − ) 1
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝑤𝑡
2 2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 2
2
𝐼 =( ) +( − ) Since a.c power in inductor varies as sine
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 waves then the average power absorbed
2 2
1 1 1 2 by the inductor is zero. That means power
𝐼 =𝑉 ( 2+( − ) ) absorbed in one half of oscillation is
𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
returned back during the second half of
𝐼2 1 1 1 2 oscillation.
=( 2+( − ) )
𝑉2 𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
IN CAPACITOR
2
𝐼 1 1 1
= √( 2 + ( − ) ) From 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉 𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )
2
𝐼 1 1 1 1 = (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡)(𝑉𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡)
= = √( 2 + ( − ) )
𝑉 𝑍 𝑅 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 cos 𝑤𝑡
1
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 ) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝑤𝑡
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 2
= √( 𝟐 + ( − ) ) Since a.c power in capacitor varies as sine
𝒁 𝑹 𝑿𝑪 𝑿𝑳
waves then the average power absorbed
by the capacitor is zero. That means,
POWER IN A.C CIRCUIT power absorbed in one half of oscillation
Equation for the Power in a.c circuits is returned back during the second half of
depend on te resistive components it is oscillation.
connected. And it can be discussed as
follows. MORE PRECISE
1. IN RESISTOR Electric power, is the product of the

voltage and current in phase. If current and
Equation for a.c power in resistor are voltage are out of phase by an angle 𝝷,as
equal with that of d.c when root mean
shown below.
squire value are used
𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅(𝑃) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
power factor = cos 𝜃
Power factor can also be defined as
cosine of phase deference between voltage
and current in an a.c circuits.
Despite no a.c power is absorbed by pure
capacitor or inductor but they cause lose
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑰𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝞱, since in capacitor in transmission line and they are charged
and inductor, 𝜃 = 900 up by electric company, so they must be
corrected. To correct power factor to
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑰𝑽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟗𝟎𝟎 , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟗𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎
1.inductor and capacitor are connected in
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑰𝒙𝑽𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎
parallel.
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑰𝒙𝑽𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎
Generally: no a.c power is absorbed by CONDUCTIO OF ELECTRICITY
pure capacitor or inductor IN GAS
At normal atmospheric pressure, the
NOTE gases are poor conductor of electricity. If
Since no a.c power is absorbed by pure we establish a potential Difference (of the
capacitor or inductor, then the total order of 30 kV) between two electrodes
power suppled to the a.c circuit placed in air at a distance of few cm from
containing resistive and reactive each other, electric conduction starts in
component is greater than power the form of sparks.
absorbed. The ratio of power absorbed to
that supplied in an a.c circuit is called The passage of electric current through air
power factor. is called electric discharge through the air.
Consider the circuits below, the circuits The discharge of electricity through gases
contain reactive and resistive component, can be systematically studied with the
if the voltage V lead the current I by an help of discharge tube shown below
angle 𝝷, then V can be resolved as shown
below.
The discharge tube is filled with the gas

through which discharge is to be studied.
The pressure of the enclosed gas can be
The component V𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 is in phase with
reduced with the help of a vacuum pump
current, thus cause power absorption
and it’s value is read by manometer.
while the component V𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 are
Perpendicular with current, therefore
it does not absorb power. Thus
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 is given as
𝐼𝑉 cos 𝜃
power factor = = cos 𝜃
𝐼𝑉
Sequence of phenomenon 7. Called as Crook's dark space length of

As the pressure inside the discharge tube positive column further reduced. A
is gradually reduced, the following is the glow appear at cathode called cathode
sequence of phenomenon that are glow.
observed. 8. At a pressure of 0.05 mm of Hg : The
positive column splits into
dark and bright disc of
light called striations.
9. At the pressure of
0.01 or 10–2 mm of Hg
some invisible particle
move from cathode which
on striking with the glass
tube of the opposite side
1. At normal pressure no discharge takes of cathode cause the tube to glow.
place. These invisible rays emerging from
2. At the pressure 10 mm of Hg, a zig-zag Cathode are called cathode rays.
thin red spark runs from one electrode 10. Finally when pressure drops to
to other and cracking sound is heard. nearly 10–4 mm of Hg, there is no
3. At the pressure 4 mm. of Hg, an discharge in tube
illumination is observed at the
electrodes and the rest of the tube THE VARIATION OF ELECTRIC
appears dark. This type of discharge is CURRENT WITH P.D IN GAS.
called dark discharge. When gas start to conduct electricity at
4. When the pressure falls below 4 mm of appropriate pressure, the variation of p.d
Hg then the whole tube is filled with across it can cause the variation of an
bright light called positive column and electric current as shown in the graph
colour of light depends upon the below.
nature of gas in the tube.
5. At a pressure of 1.65 mm of Hg :
(i) Sky colour light is produced at the
cathode it is called as negative glow.
(ii) Positive column shrinks towards the
anode and the dark space between
positive column and negative glow is
called Faradays dark space (FDS) EXPLANATION OF THE
GRAPH.
6. At a pressure of 0.8 mm Hg : At this Stage I , at this stage the increase in p.d
pressure, negative glow is detached increase an electric current, this is
from the cathode and moves towards because the increase in p.d accelerates
the anode. The dark space created
between cathode and negative glow is
more electrons from cathode to anode in

the tube.
Stage II, at this stage change in p.d will
never change the current because, all the
electrons produced at cathode reaches the
anode
Stage III at some electric potential
electrons gain enough energy to ionize the
gas molecules when collides, it this point
the number of electrons in the tube
increases and the increase in p.d increase
the number of the accelerated to anode,
therefore current will increase with p.d at
this stage.

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PHYSICS GUIDE FOR CURRENT ELECTRICITY THIS GUIDE IS FREE AT OUR CENTRE

CONDUCTION OF ⇒this means that potential difference set

HOW ELECTRIC CURRENT IS 𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴𝑥

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Momentum of an electrons 9.0𝑥103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 And atomic mass unit is

Estimate the average drift velocity of an Also potential difference is defined as

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When the graph of v against I was plotted NON OHMIC CONDUCTOR

The graph above satisfy the graph for the

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Therefore any circuits containing an TERMINAL POTENTIAL

3. Any potential drop in the same

4. The direction of loop is roughly

RESISTANCE AND ITS

1. Find the current I1,I2,and I3 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT

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Example CONNECTION OF RESISTOR

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 , ⇒ 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

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POTENIAL DEVIDER PARALLEL CONNECTION

FOR TWO RESISTOR IN PARALLEL

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From equation above any unknown 𝑃 𝑅

When K is open and the balance

balance point. The standard cell is

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND

𝑉 𝑉 kinetic energy into heat energy due to

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Differentiate with respect to R both 𝐸2

ALTERNATING CURRENT MEASUREMENT OF AN

From the diagram below

𝐼 HOW TO CALCULATE ROOT

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Recall 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡 Mathematically reactance is equal to

The phase lead of inductor and capacitor From

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The phasor diagram for the current

The frequency of a.c that will cause 𝑉 2 = (𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

4∏2 𝑓𝑜2 𝑙𝐶 = 1 𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )

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In tuner circuits, antenna intercept

The phasor diagram for the current

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1. IN RESISTOR Electric power, is the product of the

The discharge tube is filled with the gas

Sequence of phenomenon 7. Called as Crook's dark space length of

more electrons from cathode to anode in

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