METAL FORMING PROCESSES - DEFECTS -

REMEDIAL MEASURES
PREAMBLE

The defects in metal deformation area are too many that,

a systematic approach to enumerate the defects has been
attempted based on the classification of metal forming
processes itself. Individual processes are dealt in brief
and defects associated with them are discussed

By

Prof. Dr. P. Venugopal,

Indian Institute of Technology Madras .,
Professor & Head, Metal Forming Laboratory, Department of
Metallurgical Engineering,
IIT Madras, Chennai - 600 036/India

MAY, 2001
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author records his deep sense of gratitude to the Indian Institute of
Technology Madras, Chennai for permitting him to use his time in preparing this
manual on defects in metal forming processes. Particularly to my Director, Prof. R.
NATARAJAN, who has been inspiring colleagues with ISO quality in whatever is
being attempted. The author has made an attempt to meet his set goal within his
own limited capacity.

My dear colleagues, Mr. G. Jothinathan and Prof. Krishnan Bala are gratefully
acknowledged for inviting me to write this notes and particularly Mr. Jothinathan
who had been literally at the back of me to finish this task with deep concern. In
spite of persistent backache, I would not have been able to complete the
preparation of the entire manual single-handed but for his driving force. This has
in fact helped me in gathering large information for teaching the students of the
Institute also in a capsule form.

Many of the materials contained in this manual are the results of original thought
process of the author. However, the author will be failing in his professional duty,
if, sincere acknowledgements are not made to the wealth of information available
in 1. Hand Book of Metal Forming, KURT LANGE, Ed.-in.-Chief, McGraw Hill Publ.
New York, 1985, 2. Metal Forming Processes, Compendium II, by H.W. WAGENER,
1971, IIT Madras, 3. To his research students (too many to list) - which formed the
writing part easier by the author. In addition to this acknowledgement, wherever
information has been borrowed are cited with due respect as source or reference.
Due acknowledgements go to Mr. S. Venkatraman, B.Tech (IITM)., M.S (IITM) - my
brother - in - law, whom I consider as one of the authorities in Metal Forming with
rich academic and practical blend, for vetting the materials in the notes.

Dr. S.S. Bhattacharya, the colleague of the author gave an orientation to the
drawing of conceptual sketches with the micro soft word itself several months
ago. This had been so interesting and illustrative that, the author found immense
pleasure in conveying his ideas through many sketches which the reader may find
interesting too, it is presumed. Sincere thanks go to Dr.S.S.B (affectionately called)
on this aspect.

An attempt has been made by the author to cover by and large the defects and
remedial measures in metals and materials forming based on his own
understanding, through various industrial consultancy assignments, sponsored
projects under his charge, education through 33 years of teaching metal forming
to various audience like, industrialists, academicians, students of IIT Madras as
well other Institutes. The interaction with the above by way of numerous
questions can not go unrecorded in the acknowledgement. Suggestions for
improving the contents by the readers are most welcome and sincere
acknowledgements in advance, go to them.

The thoughts and time expended on the preparation in addition to regular duties
had been at the expense of neglecting totally the home department. The author
very gratefully records his appreciation and thanks to his wife (who had been
ailing) and his son - who totally lacked the companionship of his father for nearly
three months.

Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001.

i
 CONTENTS

Sl.No: Chapter page

ACKNOWLWDGEMENTS -i-

CONTENTS - ii -

1. Classification of Metal Forming Defects in a 1-4

Pictorial Form

2. Rolling Processes and Associated Defects 5 - 13

3. Extrusion of Metals & Materials - Defects 14 - 21

4. Cold Extrusion of Sintered P/M Preforms - Defects 22 - 27

5. Hot forging of Metals - Defects & Remedial Measures 28 - 33

6. Deep Drawing, Associated Defects & Remedial Measures 34 - 38

7. Defects in Bending & Remedial Measures 39 - 42

8. Blanking & Piecing Defects 43

9. Summary of Defects in Forming 44

Grouping of Failures in Forming 44
Depending upon State of Stress 44
Depending upon Temperature 44
Depending upon Strain Rate 44
Defects in Deep Drawing 45
Defects in Blanking 45
Defects in Bending of Sheets 45
Defects in Rolling 46
Defects in Hot Extrusion 46
Defects in Drop Forging 47
Defects in Cold Forging/Extrusion 48
Defects in Cold Heading 49

10. Schematic of Hand outs of Forming Processes, Description, Definition

Numbers (DIN or CIRP) and Applications. 50 - 55

ii
 METAL FORMING PROCESSES - DEFECTS - REMEDIAL MEASURES

Prof. Dr. P. Venugopal, Professor & Head, Metal Forming Laboratory,

Department of Metallurgical Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai - 600 036

0. PREAMBLE:

The defects in metal deformation area are too many that, a systematic approach to enumerate the
defects has been attempted based on the classification of metal forming processes itself. Individual
processes are dealt in brief and defects associated with them are discussed.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING PROCESSES

Schematic of Characteristics
1.1 Based on State of state of stress
Stress BULK FORMING: All the principal stresses are purely
compressive. Crack closure is
implicit. Deformation (ideal) is
Pure
around 99%. Limitations are:
Compression
Expensive tools, tool stresses are
σZ, σR, σT
high, failure of punch, die, die shrink
Extrusion ring etc. Form error & Dimensional
Process Error are more. Intentional change in
thickness. Lub - depletion., tool pick -
up & galling defects

Primary principal stress is tensile. The

other two stresses in the deformation
Tension and zone are compressive. % deformation
Compression is only (ideal) 66.33 as against
compression. Crack opening is
σZ, σR, σT distinct. Cup and cone fracture,
Rod Drawing instability are the problems. Since
Process forces are less, form error is less. Tool
life is increased w.r.t pure
compression mode.

Based on State of Wrinkle on flange and cup wall due to

Stress SHEET compressive stresses. Earing due to
FORMING an-isotropy., worms due to DSA.,
Tension and σZ, σR, σT spring back due to bending., thinning
due improper die dimensions, wall
Compression
tearing and bottom tearing
Deep Drawing
Process

Thickness S0
Engineering strain = S0/2Rd., for a
large radius and for a small thickness
Pure Tension
sheet stretch forming is sought after.
Tool Radius RD In other tensile forming, instability is
a defect. Spring back, tearing amount
Sheet with of deformation being less are the
Stretch Forming thickness S0 &
Process other problems.
Punch radius Rd

Designed & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001 1

 CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING PROCESSES..contd..

Based on State of
Stress SHEET N.A S0/2 Characteristics
FORMING
b Involves compressive stress in
lower plane and tensile stress
Compression & S0 RD in upper plane. Upper plane is
Tension likely to develop cracks due
tensile stresses. Adjacent to
neutral plane, elastic stresses
Bending Process are present. So spring back is
another defect arising. Remedy
lies in coining. Load increases.
Tool failure as a result is
distinct. Optimal load should
α + δα after bending be applied.

Flow lines get depleted in

Shear Stress bending & get monitored in off
set shear. Fatigue life is
Offset Shear Fibre
Original Rod decreased in case 1, increased
Process
in case 2. For a vertical load,
only a small component of this
force is acting perpendicular to
the fibre and hence, life is
increased in case 2. Mass
One point Crank One point Crank gathering by roll forging prior
shaft produced shaft produced to sequence 2 favours the
by bending by off set shear increase in life of the product.

1.2 Primary
Process Roll
Function of the primary
Hot Working process is to break down the
Scale cast structure into a wrought
structure. Wrought structure is
HOT characterized by, structural,
BLOOM chemical, strain free grains,
fused fibres into the ductile
matrix for improved
Semi- mechanical properties.
finished Working is easier because,
HOT ROLLING
part flow stress is less and there is
Roll no strain hardening effect.
dRX/dt = dε/dt, where dRX
Initial breaking down Process(Cogging Mill) means recrystallization rate
and dε/dt means strain rate.
Scale losses, grain growth, residual stresses, silvers, scores, less accuracy, pitting, blisters,
rolled in oxides, gas pockets, high temperature furnace requirement, energy loss ∝ θ4 are the
chief attendant problems associated with any hot working process. The product that comes out of
primary process is called semi - finished part, since, it will be further processed by many
secondary metal working processes. Note the form error on the product produced. Ovality (form
error) is obtained instead of round form for several mets. of length.

Designed & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001 2

 CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING PROCESSES..contd..

The wrought parts are usually annealed,

Punch Die Ring pickled & lubricated & finished by the
various secondary processes to obtain
1.3 NET SHAPE parts. The processes are
Secondary done usually at cold working temperature
Processes and thus many of the demerits of the hot
working are eliminated. Accuracy is
better. To large extent, post-forming
Die Shrink Ring
operations are done with. Tool stresses
E.g.: Cold are high. As a result, tool failures are
Extrusion/ more common. Proper lubrication is
Cold necessary to ensure least friction during
Working forming. Tool pick up and tool galling will
otherwise be distinct. Work hardening
Work Piece due to cold work increases the stages of
forming.
By proper control of cold work and annealing cycles, the part can be produced with desired
mechanical properties. Implies that, heat treatment can be done with in most cases. Due to
surface accuracy, notch effect is reduced and improved fatigue property is ensured. The
miscellaneous secondary processes can be seen in the attached process description hand out.
The process shown can be used for cold pressure welding, extrusion of metals and materials.
Since, tri-axial compressive stresses are involved in the deformation zone, crack closure is
ensured & thus, deformation assured. This process competes with machining, rolling, joining and
drop forging. Any method of reduction of force will obviate the failure of tool members.

P
1.4 1
WARM
R 8
O LOG PLOT
Working C
2
E
S
S 9
P
3 RT to 1500C
Dynamic
A 4
R 5
Strain Ageing A
M
E 6
T
E 7
R
S Forming Temperature
Volume
Dilation 150 to 3000C

Pinning down atoms., dislocation

1. Tool Stress, 2. Flow Stress, 3. Lubricant Efficacy, 4. Ductility, 5.

Scale Loss, 6. Tolerance, 7. Properties, 8. Fuel Energy, 9. Strain rate
sensitivity index, "m".
Beyond 3000C
Warm Extrusion competes with hot and cold extrusion today since it
combines the merits of clod & hot working. Apart from the parameters
cited above, the strain rate sensitive index & μ are powerful tools to
arrive at the warm working temperature range.

Designed & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001 3

 CLASSIFICATION OF FORMING PROCESSES..contd..

V
1.5 Strain
Rate: Strain Rate is given by dε/dt = dh/h/dt = dh/dt/h =
h0 V/h where V is the velocity of the tool. Machine
velocity characteristics thus have strong influence
Strain Rate = of strain rate. Higher strain rate generally causes
V/h s-1 increased strain hardening. Increases the adiabatic
Φd0 heating and possibly fouling with the DSA.
Before Upsetting Retardational stresses in the tools are increased
Increased by equation: σR = E.V/C, Mpa increases where E is
Strain Rate Φd
young's mod. of elasticity of hitting member, C is
h After Upsetting compression shock wave velocity given by: √E/ρ.
This leads to tool failure. Reflected tensile wave
leads to fracture on work pieces. Increased velocity increases cracking of extrudes, rod/wire
drawing & deep drawing. In creased strain rate increases the melting of Mns leading to hot
shortness. Higher strain rate demands higher hot working temperature & leads to attendant
demerits like increased scale losses, material loss, under filling, metallurgical and
mechanical properties of formed parts. (Please note: dRX = dε/dt to avoid work hardening).
The positive aspects of increased strain rate are: 1. Time of contact of tools - work piece is
reduced. 2. μ is reduced., 3. Large d/h ratio parts can be easily formed vide equation (after
SIEBEL): σZ = σF [ 1 + 1/3. μ.d/h]. 4. Friction hill formation (dead zone) disc forgings are
reduced. 5. More homogeneous deformation is assured. 6. At cold work, with low resident
temperature of the work piece, work softening is achieved. Less demand on the selection of
lubricant. STRAIN RATE SENSITIVITY INDEX "m" DISTINGUISHES THE COLD WARM AND
HOT WORK TEMPERATURE RANGE OF MATERIALS BEING SELECTED. [Please refer
selection of warming temperature in which, the variation of "m" is shown.

Decreased In hot working, higher heat losses to dies occur. Die temperature increases.
Strain Rate Die tempering and failure is distinct. Die wear increases. Reflects on poor
Quality of the products. In H.W, stick friction is dominant. Frictional stresses are more. Flow
of material is hampered. Under filling is also thus a possibility. Positive aspects are: In
extrusion (hot) rod/wire and deep drawing the cracking is eliminated. Especially in hot
extrusion, isothermal extrusion is ensured so that, large extrusion ratio (R) is possible. Very
serious transverse cracks in hot extrusion are avoided. (Snake skin or fir-tree defect)

Typical Under filing &
Folds or laps (dark) in
hot forging - common
defects encountered
due to temperature
effect and & improper
die geometry
Typical transverse crack in hot extrusion due to high exit
velocity (influenced by high strain rate).( Mass)
(acceleration) is the inertial forces. Acceleration being
high and fracture stress being low at elevated
temperature, snake skin defects are normally
encountered. Extrudes exit in bits as shown.

Designed & Drawn : Prof. P. Venugopal, IIT Madras, May, 2001 4