Basic Information

An electrical machine is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical energy
or electrical energy to mechanical energy. When such a device I used to convert mechanical
energy to electrical energy, it is called a generator.
When it converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, it is called a motor. Since any given
electrical machine can convert power in either direction, any machine can be used as either a
generator or a motor. Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form
to another through the action of a magnetic field.
These three types of electric devices are global in modern daily life. Electric motors in the home
run refrigerators, freezers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, air conditioners, fans, and many similar
appliances. In the workplace, motors provide the motive power for almost all tools. Of course,
generators are necessary to supply the power used by all these motors.
Electric motors and generators are common as electric power is a clean and efficient energy
source that is easy to transmit over long distances, and easy to control. An electric motor does
not require constant ventilation and fuel the way that an internal-combustion engine does, so the
motor is very well suited for use in environments where the pollutants associated with
combustion are not desirable. Instead, heat or mechanical energy can be converted to electrical
form at a distant location, the energy can be transmitted over long distances to the place where it
is to be used, and it can be used cleanly in any home, office, or factory. Transformers aid this
process by reducing the energy loss between the point of electric power generation and the point
of its use.
ROTATIONAL MOTION, NEWTON'S LAW, AND POWER
RELATIONSHIPS
Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the shaft of the machine.
Because of the rotational nature of machinery, it is important to have a basic understanding of
rotational motion. This section contains a brief review of the concepts of distance, velocity,
acceleration, Newton's law, and power as they apply to rotating machinery. For a more detailed
discussion of the concepts of rotational dynamics.
In general, a three-dimensional vector is required to completely describe the rotation of an object
in space. However, machines normally turn on a fixed shaft, so their rotation is restricted to one
angular dimension. Relative to a given end of the machine's shaft, the direction of rotation can be
described as either clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW). For the purpose of this volume,
a counterclockwise angle of rotation is assumed to be positive, and a clockwise one is assumed
to be negative. For rotation about a fixed shaft, all the concepts in this section reduce to scalars.
Each major concept of rotational motion is defined below and is related to the corresponding
idea from linear motion.

PROBLEMS IN REAL MACHINES

The commutation process is not as simple in practice as it seems in theory, because two major
effects occur in the real world to disturb it:
1. Armature reaction
2. 𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 voltages
Armature Reaction
If the magnetic field windings of a dc machine are connected to a power supply and the rotor of
the machine is turned by an external source of mechanical power, then a voltage will be induced
in the conductors of the rotor. This voltage will be rectified into a dc output by the action of the
machine's commutator.
Now connect a load to the terminals of the machine, and a current will flow in its armature
windings. This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own, which will distort the
original magnetic field from the machine's poles. This distortion of the flux in a machine as the
load is increased is called armature reaction.
It causes two serious problems in real dc machines.
The first problem caused by armature reaction is neutral-plane shift. The magnetic neutral
plane is defined as the plane within the machine where the velocity of the rotor wires is exactly
parallel to the magnetic flux lines, so that 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero.
𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 Voltages
The second major problem is the 𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 voltage that occurs in commutator segments being
shorted out by the brushes, sometimes called inductive kick. This figure represents a series of
commutator segments and the conductors connected between them. Assuming that the current in
the brush is 400 A, the current in each path is 200 A. Notice that when a commutator segment is
shorted out, the current flow through that commutator segment must reverse. Assuming that the
machine is turning at 800 r/min and that there are 50 commutator segments (a reasonable
number for a typical motor), each commutator segment moves under a brush and clears it again
in t = 0.00 15 s. Therefore, the rate of change in current with respect to time in the shorted loop
must average
𝒅𝒊 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑨
= = 𝟐𝟔𝟔, 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑨/𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒔
With even a tiny inductance in the loop, a very significant inductive voltage kick
𝑽 = 𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕
will be induced in the shorted commutator segment. This high voltage naturally causes sparking
at the brushes of the machine, resulting in the same arcing problems that the neutral-plane shift
causes.
Solutions to the Problems with Commutation
Three approaches have been developed to partially or completely correct the problems of
armature reaction and 𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕 voltages:
1. Brush shifting
2. Commutating poles or interpoles
3. Compensating windings
Each of these techniques is explained below, together with its advantages and disadvantages.
BRUSH SHIFTING
Historically, the first attempts to improve the process of commutation in real dc machines started
with attempts to stop the sparking at the brushes caused by the neutral-plane shifts and 𝑳 𝒅𝒊/𝒅𝒕
effects. The first approach taken by machine designers was simple: If the neutral plane of the
machine shifts, there are several serious problems associated with it. For one thing, the neutral
plane moves with every change in load, and the shift direction reverses when the machine goes
from motor operation to generator operation.
Therefore, someone had to adjust the brushes every time the load on the machine changed. In
addition, shifting the brushes may have stopped the brush sparking, but it actually aggravated the
flux-weakening effect of the armature reaction in the machine. This is true because of two
effects:
1. The rotor magnetomotive force now has a vector component that opposes the
magnetomotive force from the poles (see Figure 8- 27).
2. The change in armature current distribution causes the flux to bunch up even more at the
saturated parts of the pole faces.
Another slightly different approach sometimes taken was to fix the brushes in a compromise
position (say, one that caused no sparking at two-thirds of full load). In this case, the motor
sparked at no load and somewhat at full load, but if it spent most of its life operating at about
two-thirds of full load, then sparking was minimized. Of course, such a machine could not be
used as a generator at all--the sparking would have been horrible.
By about 1910, the brush-shifting approach to controlling sparking was already outdated. Today,
brush shifting is only used in very small machines that always run as motors. This is done
because better solutions to the problem are simply not economical in such small motors.
1. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in a
generator.

2. The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a motor.
having both compensating windings and interpoles on such a machine, these windings are used
only where the extremely severe nature of a motor's duty demands them.
POWER FLOW AND LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
DC generators take in mechanical power and produce electric power, while dc motors take in
electric power and produce mechanical power. In either case, not all the power input to the
machine appears in useful form at the other end-there is always some loss associated with the
process.
The efficiency of a dc machine is defined by the equation
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
The difference between the input power and the output power of a machine is the losses that
occur inside it. Therefore,
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏

The Losses in DC Machines

The losses that occur in dc machines can be divided into five basic categories:
1. Electrical or copper losses (𝑰𝟐 𝑹 losses)
2. Brush losses
3. Core losses
4. Mechanical losses
5. Stray load losses
ELECTRICAL OR COPPER LOSSES
Copper losses are the losses that occur in the armature and field windings of the machine. The
copper losses for the armature and field windings are given by
𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑰 𝑨 𝟐 𝑹𝑨
𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑷𝑭 = 𝑰 𝑭 𝟐 𝑹𝑭

Where
𝑷𝑨 - armature loss
𝑷𝑭 - field circuit loss
𝑰𝑨 - armature current
𝑰𝑭 - field current
𝑹𝑨 - armature resistance
𝑹𝑭 - field resistance
The resistance used in these calculations is usually the winding resistance at normal operating
temperature.
BRUSH LOSSES
The brush drop loss is the power lost across the contact potential at the brushes of the machine. It
is give n by the equation
𝑷𝑩𝑫 = 𝑽𝑩𝑫 𝑰𝑨

where
𝑷𝑩𝑫 = brush drop loss
𝑽𝑩𝑫 = brush voltage drop
𝑰𝑨 = armature current
The reason that the brush losses are calculated in this manner is that the voltage drop across a set
of brushes is approximately constant over a large range of armature currents. Unless otherwise
specified, the brush voltage drop is usually assumed to be about 2 V.
CORE LOSSES
The core losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses occurring in the metal of the
motor. These losses vary as the square of the flux density (𝑩𝟐 ) and. for the rotor, as the 1.5th
power of the speed of rotation (𝒏𝟏.𝟓 ).
MECHANICAL LOSSES
The mechanical losses in a dc machine are the losses associated with mechanical effects. There
are two basic types of mechanical losses: friction and windage. Friction losses are losses caused
by the friction of the bearings in the machine, while windage losses are caused by the friction
between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the motor's casing. These losses vary
as the cube of the speed of rotation of the machine.
STRAY LOSSES (OR MISCELLANEOUS LOSSES)
Stray losses are losses that cannot be placed in one of the previous categories. No matter how
carefully losses are accounted for, some always escape inclusion in one of the above categories.
All such losses are lumped into stray losses. For most machines, stray losses are taken by
convention to be 1 percent of full load.

DC Motors
Dc motors are dc machines used as motors and dc generators are dc machines used as
generators. The same physical machine can operate as either a motor or a generator-it is
simply a question of the direction of the power now through it.
DC motors are often compared by their speed regulations. The speed regulation (SR) of a
motor is defined by
𝝎𝒏𝒍 − 𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝒏𝒏𝒍 − 𝒏𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒏𝒇𝒍
It is a rough measure of the shape of a motor's torque- speed characteristic-a positive speed
regulation means that a motor's speed drops with increasing load and a negative speed regulation
means a motor's speed increases with increasing load. The magnitude of the speed regulation
tells approximately how steep the slope of the torque- speed curve is.
DC motors are, of course, driven from a dc power supply. Unless otherwise specified, the input
voltage to a dc motor is assumed to be constant, because that assumption simplifies the analysis
of motors and the comparison between different types of motors.

and the induced torque developed by the machine is given by

𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝑲𝝋𝑰𝑨
THE PERMANENT-MAGNET DC MOTOR

A permanent-magnet dc motor (PMDC) is a dc motor whose poles are made of permanent

magnets. Permanent-magnet dc motors offer a number of benefits compared with shunt dc
motors in some applications. Since these motors do not require an external field circuit, they
do not have the field circuit copper losses associated with shunt dc motors. Because no field
windings are required, they can be smaller than corresponding shunt dc motors. PMDC
motors are especially common in smaller fractional- and sub fractional-horsepower sizes,
where the expense and space of a separate field circuit cannot be justified. However, PMDC
motors also have disadvantages. Permanent magnets cannot produce as high a flux density as
an externally supplied shunt field, so a PMDC motor will have a lower induced torque 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅
per ampere of armature current 𝑰𝑨 than a shunt motor of the same size and construction. In
addition, PMDC motors run the risk of demagnetization.

Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

Working principle of permanent magnet DC motor, when a current carrying conductor
comes inside a magnetic field, a mechanical force will be experience by the conductor and
the direction of this force can be found using Fleming’s left hand rule.
(The difference between Fleming’s left and right hand rule is that if a force acts on a current
carrying conductor, direction of force can be found. If current is induced in a conductor when
brought in a magnetic field, direction of induced current can be found)

It is a plot of flux density B versus magnetizing intensity H (or equivalently, a plot of flux 𝜙
versus magnetomotive force 𝑭𝒎 ). When a strong external magnetomotive force is applied to
this material and then removed, a residual flux 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒔 will remain in the material. To force the
residual flux to zero, it is necessary to apply a coercive magnetizing intensity 𝑯𝑪 with a
polarity opposite to the polarity of the magnetizing intensity H that originally established the
magnetic field. For normal machine
applications such as rotors and stators, a ferromagnetic material should be picked which has
as small a 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒔 and 𝑯𝒄 as possible, since such a material will have low hysteresis losses.
On the other hand, a good material for the poles of a PMDC motor should have as large a
residual flux density 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒔 as possible, while simultaneously having as large a coercive
magnetizing intensity 𝑯𝒄 as possible. The magnetization curve of such a material is shown in
Figure 9-19b. The large 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒔 produces a large flux in the machine, while the large 𝑯𝒄 means
that a very large current would be required to demagnetize the poles.

In the last 40 years, a number of new magnetic materials have been developed which have
desirable characteristics for making permanent magnets. The major types of materials are the
ceramic (ferrite) magnetic materials and the rare earth magnetic materials. Figure 9-19c
shows the second quadrant of the magnetization curves of some typical ceramic and rare-
earth magnets, compared to the magnetization curve of a conventional ferromagnetic alloy
(Alnico 5). It is obvious from the comparison that the best rare-earth magnets can produce
the same residual flux as the best conventional ferromagnetic alloys, while simultaneously
being largely immune to demagnetization problems due to armature reaction. A permanent-
magnet dc motor is basically the same machine as a shunt dc motor, except that the flux of a
PMDC motor is fixed. Therefore, it is not possible to control the speed of a PMDC motor by
varying the field current or flux. The only methods of speed control available for a PMDC
motor are armature voltage control and armature resistance control.
 SO there can be three types of PMDC motor depending upon nature or material of magnet:
Alnicos: Alnicos has a low coercive magnetizing intensity and high residual flux density. Hence,
it is used where low current and high voltage is required.

Ferrites: They are used in cost sensitive applications such as Air conditioners, compressors, and
refrigerators.

Rare earths: Rare earth magnets are made of Samarium cobalt, neodymium-iron-boron. They
have a high residual flux and high coercive magnetizing intensity. The rare earth magnets are
exempted from demagnetizing problems due to armature reaction. It is an expensive material.

The Neodymium iron boron is cheaper as compared to Samarium cobalt. But it can withstand
higher temperature. Rare earth magnets are used for size-sensitive applications. They are used in
automobiles, servo industrial drives and in large industrial motors.

Applications of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The PMDC motors are used in various applications ranging from fractions to several
horsepower. They are developed up to about 200 kW for use in various industries. The
following applications are given below.

 PMDC motors are mainly used in automobiles to operate windshield wipers and washers, to raise
the lower windows, to drive blowers for heaters and air conditioners etc.
 They are also used in computer drives.
 These types of motors are also used in toy industries.
 PMDC motors are used in electric toothbrushes, portable vacuum cleaners and food mixers.
 Used in a portable electric tool such as drilling machines, hedge trimmers etc.

HMI
HMI is the acronym for Human Machine Interface, and can be designed as just that; an interface
between the user and the machine. An HMI is considered an interface; a very broad term that can
include MP3 players, industrial computers, household appliances, and office equipment.
However, an HMI is much more specific to manufacturing and process control systems. An HMI
provides a visual representation of a control system and provides real time data acquisition. An
HMI can increase productivity by having a centralized control center that is extremely user-
friendly.

A Human Machine Interface (HMI) is exactly what the name implies; a graphical interface that
allows humans and machines to interact. Human machine interfaces vary widely, from control
panels for nuclear power plants, to the screen on an iPhone. However, for this discussion we are
referring to an HMI control panel for manufacturing-type processes. An HMI is the centralized
control unit for manufacturing lines, equipped with Data Recipes, event logging, video feed, and
event triggering, so that one may access the system at any moment for any purpose. For a
manufacturing line to be integrated with an HMI, it must first be working with a Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC). It is the PLC that takes the information from the sensors, and transforms
it to Boolean algebra, so the HMI can decipher and make decisions.

There are three basic types of HMIs: the pushbutton replacer, the data handler, and the overseer.
Before the HMI came into existence, a control might consist of hundreds of pushbuttons and
LEDs performing different operations. The pushbutton replacer HMI has streamlined
manufacturing processes, centralizing all the functions of each button into one location. The data
handler is perfect for applications requiring constant feedback from the system, or printouts of
the production reports. With the data handler, you must ensure the HMI screen is big enough for
such things as graphs, visual representations and production summaries. The data handler
includes such functions as recipes, data trending, data logging and alarm handling/logging.
Finally, anytime an application involves SCADA or MES, an overseer HMI is extremely
beneficial. The overseer HMI will most likely need to run Windows, and have several Ethernet
ports.

Advantages of an HMI

The greatest advantage of an HMI is the user-friendliness of the graphical interface. The
graphical interface contains color coding that allows for easy identification (for example: red for
trouble). Pictures and icons allow for fast recognition, easing the problems of illiteracy. HMI can
reduce the cost of product manufacturing, and potentially increase profit margins and lower
production costs. HMI devices are now extremely innovative and capable of higher capacity and
more interactive, elaborate functions than ever before. Some technological advantages the HMI
offers are: converting hardware to software, eliminating the need for mouse and keyboard, and
allowing kinesthetic computer/human interaction.
Advantage of an HMI over a PLC alone

The advantage to using an HMI over using just a PLC is the fact that there are no disadvantages!
Using just a PLC will not provide any real-time feedback, cannot set off alarms nor modify the
system without reprogramming the PLC. The key advantage to an HMI is it functionality; an
HMI can be used for simple tasks such as a coffee brewing controller, or a sophisticated control
unit of a nuclear plant. With new HMI designs emerging every day, we are now seeing HMIs
that offer remote access, allowing for access of the terminal while away. Another advantage of
an HMI is that the user can personally design the user interface.

Power Supply

Components commonly used:

1. Transformer
2. Full wave bridge rectifier
3. Heat Sink
4. Voltage Regulator
5. Capacitor
6. Resistors

Transformer
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one voltage level to AC electric
power at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It consists of two or more
coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core. These coils are (usually) not
directly connected. The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic flux present
within the core.
One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of AC electric power, and the second
(and perhaps third) transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The transformer
winding connected to the power source is called the primary winding or input winding, and the
winding connected to the loads is called the secondary winding or output winding. If there is a
third winding on the transformer, it is called the tertiary winding.
In a modern power system, electric power is generated at voltages of 12 to 25 kV. Transformers
step up the voltage to between 110 kV and nearly 1000 kV for transmission over long distances
at very low losses. Transformers then step down the voltage to the 11 to 34.5 kV range for local
distribution and finally permit the power to be used safely in homes, offices, and factories at
voltages as low as 120 V.
Types:
Power transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores. One type of construction
consists of a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped
around two sides of the rectangle. This type of construction is known as core form and is
illustrated in Figure 2- 2.
The other type consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the
center leg. This type of construction is known as shell form and is illustrated in
Figure 2- 3. In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations electrically isolated from
each other in order to minimize eddy currents.
The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top of the
other with the low-voltage winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:
1. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
2. It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings were
separated by a distance on the core.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER

An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding. The
relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and between the input current and
the output current are given by two simple equations.
The transformer shown in Figure 2- 4 has 𝑵𝑷 turns of wire on its primary side and 𝑵𝑺 turns of
wire on its secondary side. The relationship between the volt age 𝒗𝑷 (𝒕) applied to the primary
side of the transformer and the voltage 𝒗𝑺 (𝒕) produced on the secondary side is
𝒗𝑷 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑷
= =𝒂
𝒗𝑺 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑺
where a is defined to be the turns ratio of the transformer:
𝑵𝑷
𝒂=
𝑵𝑺
The relationship between the current 𝒊𝑷 (𝒕) flowing into the primary side of the transformer and
the current 𝒊𝑺 (𝒕) flowing out of the secondary side of the transformer is
𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 (𝒕) = 𝑵𝒔 𝒊𝒔 (𝒕)

𝟏 𝒊𝑷 (𝒕)
=
𝒂 𝒊𝑺 (𝒕)
In terms of phasor quantities, these equations are

𝑽𝑷
𝒂=
𝑽𝑺
𝟏 𝑰𝑷
=
𝒂 𝑰𝑺
In real transformers, it would be possible to tell the secondary’s polarity only if the transformer
were opened and its windings examined.
To avoid this necessity, transformers utilize the dot convention. The dots appearing at one end of
each winding in Figure 2-4 tell the polarity of the voltage and current on the secondary side of
the transformer. The relationship is as follows:
1. If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the winding with respect to the
undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage
polarities are the same with respect to the dots on each side of the core.
2. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the primary
winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.
Transformer Losses

The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate model of
transformer behavior. The major items to be considered in the construction of such a model
are
1. Copper 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 losses: Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses: Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the
transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses: Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are a complex, nonlinear
function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage f1ux: The fluxes 𝜙𝐿𝑃 and 𝜙𝐿𝑆 which escape the core and pass through only
one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a
self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance
must be accounted for.

Bridge Rectifier
A diode is a semiconductor device designed to conduct current in one direction only. The symbol
for this device is shown in Figure 3-1. A diode is designed to conduct current from its anode to
its cathode, but not in the opposite direction.
The voltage-current characteristic of a diode is shown in Figure 3- 2. When a voltage is applied
to the diode in the forward direction, a large current flow results. When a voltage is applied to
the diode in the reverse direction, the current flow is limited to a very small value (on the order
of microamperes or less). If a large enough reverse voltage is applied to the diode, eventually the
diode will break down and allow current to flow in the reverse direction. 1llese three regions of
diode operation are shown on the characteristic in Figure 3- 2.
Diodes are rated by the amount of power they can safely dissipate and by the maximum reverse
voltage that they can take before breaking down.

The power dissipated by a diode during forward operation is equal to the forward voltage drop
across the diode times the current flowing through it. This power must be limited to protect the
diode from overheating. The maximum reverse voltage of a diode is known as its peak inverse
voltage (PIV). It must be high enough to ensure that the diode does not break down in a circuit
and conduct in the reverse direction. Diodes are also rated by their switching time, that is, by the
time it takes to go from the off state to the on state, and vice versa. Because power diodes are
large, high-power devices with a lot of stored charge in their junctions, they switch states much
more slowly than the diodes found in electronic circuits. Essentially all power diodes can switch
states fast enough to be used as rectifiers in 50- or 60-Hz circuits. However, some applications
such as pulse-width modulation (PWM) can require power diodes to switch states at rates higher
than 10,000 Hz. For these very fast switching applications, special diodes called fast recovery
high-speed diodes are employed.
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating-current (AC) input
into a direct-current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as
compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary
winding.
The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of
the polarity at the input.

Prior to the availability of integrated circuits, a bridge rectifier was constructed from "discrete
components", i.e., separate diodes. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal component
containing the four diodes connected in a bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current ratings.
Heat Sink

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a
mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away
from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device's temperature at optimal levels. In
computers, heat sinks are used to cool CPUs, GPUs, and some chipsets and RAM modules. Heat
sinks are used with high-power semiconductor devices such as power transistors and
optoelectronics such as lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs), where the heat dissipation ability
of the component itself is insufficient to moderate its temperature.
Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A

voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may include negative feedback. It
may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it
may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and
central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an
electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along
distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is
drawn from the line.
A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of
diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes
only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage
control and efficiency are not important, this design may be fine. Since the forward voltage of a
diode is small, this kind of voltage regulator is only suitable for low voltage regulated output.
Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed
reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such
a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the
open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability. There will also be a
trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is too
low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element is
commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltage–by dropping less of the input
voltage, or to draw input current for longer periods; if the output voltage is too high, the
regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many
regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit
the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may also shut
down if the input voltage is outside a given range.