The Dynamic Characteristics of A Hydrost PDF

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
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The Dynamic Characteristics of a Hydrostatic Transmission System

D. E. Bowns and J. Worton-Griffiths
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1972 186: 755
DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1972_186_091_02
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755
FLUID PLANT AND MACHINERY GROUP
THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A

HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
D. E. Bowns, BSc(Eng), PhD, CEng, MIMechE* J. Worton-Griffiths, BSc (Gmduute)t
The dynamic performance of a hydrostatic transmission with a variable delivery pump used for speed control
is predicted using a simple mathematical model. The analysis is then extended to take into account the trans-
mission slip and torque losses, and the prime mover droop by employing signal flow techniques. The results
were compared with those from an extensive test programme employing electro-hydraulic test techniques
carried out on a typical hydrostatic drive.
The signal flow analysis improved the prediction of the transmission dynamic performance, but it was found
that errors of up to 40 per cent were occurring, as many of the loads employed could not be accurately repre-
sented by simple mathematical models. A vector approach was adopted, using measured load loci that provided
a correlation of within 4 per cent of the experimentally measured response, by using a value of oil bulk modulus
midway between the isothermal and isentropic tangent values.
Mean return line pressure, restricted boost system and flexible pipeline effects were investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION Bulk modulus of elasticity of pipe.

ONE OF THE earliest attempts at the dynamic analysis of Maximum motor displacement/radian.
hydrostatic transmission systems was carried out in 1947 Maximum pump displacement/radian.
by Newton (I)*, but since that time there have been very Pump displacement/radian of swash/radian.
few reported attempts to verify this analysis and its as- Motor displacement/radian of swash/radian.
sumptions. The general method of approach is to consider Internal diameter of supply line pipe
the pump and motor as continuous linear elements driving Young’s modulus for pipe material.
a viscous and inertial load, the pump and motor being Load torque variations with speed, known as load
connected by a compressible oil column. This leads to a damping coefficient.
simple transfer function, relating changes in output speed Motor viscous torque loss coefficient.
with pump swash plate angular position changes, and with Pump viscous torque loss coefficient.
changes in load torque. Engine inertia.
The analysis gave rise to a second order differential Load inertia.
equation, which may have a resonance at a frequency de- Motor inertia.
termined by the system compressibility, the motor size Pump inertia.
and the load characteristic. Driving inertia (= J,+ J p ) .
Shearer (2), Lewis and Stern (3), Thoma (4), Gille ( 5 ) +
Driven inertia (= JM J J .
and several other writers have outlined this simple analy- Output speed/pump swash steady state gain.
sis, but more recent work has been concerned with the Governed engine speed droop with load.
valve controlled hydraulic servo and much discussion has Motor pressure dependent torque loss coefficient.
taken place on the system non-linearities. Pump pressure dependent torque loss coefficient.
The present investigation analyses in detail an engine- Governor speed control constant.
driven hydrostatic transmission, and then goes on to check Motor slip flow loss coefficient.
the validity of the assumptions by an extensive experi- Pump slip flow loss coefficient.
mental programme. The experiments employ electro- Pressure difference across lines ( = P H - P,,j.
hydraulic test techniques both for the control of the load Supply line pressure.
and for providing the necessary inputs to the transmission. Return line pressure.
Compressed flow.
1.1 Notation Total flow loss.
Be Effective bulk modulus of elasticity of oil in pipe. Flow to motor.
B, Bulk modulus of elasticity of oil. Pump output flow.
Slip flow loss.
This paper is published for written discussion. The M S . was received on
22ndJuly 1971 and accepted for publication on 5th April 1972. 23 Differential operator (= d/dt).
* Fluid Power Centre, School of Engineering, University of Bath, Available torque from engine.
Claverton Down, Bath B A 2 7 A Y . Load torque.
t Project Engineer, Cessna Fluid Power Ltd, Glenrothes, Fife.
4 References are given in Appendix 3. Torque to accelerate hydraulic motor.
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972 Vol 186 55/72

D. E. BOWNS AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
Torque available to drive pump. pipe resilience, and most experimenters have allowed for
Torque required to accelerate motor and load. this by using an arbitrary value of effective bulk modulus
Supply line pipe wall thickness. which gave good agreement between predicted and experi-
Volume of oil in supply line including the dead mentally obtained values.
volume of pump and motor exposed to supply The determination of the bulk modulus of hydraulic
line. oil has been the subject of papers by Hayward (6)(7)
Fraction of motor displacement. and other writers, and because of the non-linear change
Fraction of pump displacement. of volume with pressure and the effects of heat inter-
Engine governor setting. change, it is necessary to consider, on the one hand,
Damping ratio. whether to take the secant value or the tangent value and
Time constants. on the other whether to assume that the compression or
Engine and pump rotational speed. expansion is isothermal or isentropic. In addition, in
Motor and load rotational speed. practical systems, the effect of wall elasticity has to be
Frequency of sinusoidal swash plate variations. taken into account, and the effective bulk modulus is
Transmission and load natural frequency. given by the well-known relation
Lower case letters throughout the text refer to small varia- -1_--+-
1 1 . . .
tions about a steady state operating condition, unless Be B o B ,
otherwise stated. 1
where - = d/tE
BP
2 THEORETICAL C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
For example, Hansen (8) used an effective bulk modulus
2.1 Bulk modulus Be of 1 1 . 6 ~ 1 0bar
~ ( 1 . 7 ~lo5 lbf/in2) to predict the
In the reported experimental work on hydraulic systems, dynamic response of a valve-controlled hydraulic motor
there have been many attempts to obtain a reasonable system. This gave an overestimate of natural frequency.
correlation between the experimental and predicted values Lambert and Davies (9) and Renner (10) used values of
obtained for system natural frequency. The main un- 7.75 x lo3 bar (1.14 x lo5 lbf/in2) and 6.8 x lo3 bar (1.00
known has been the effect of the oil compressibility and the x lo5 lbf/in2) respectively, and both obtained reasonable
1
1
2' xM -KF M
Fig. 1. (a)Transmission layout, ( b ) Signal f l o w diagram and resultant transfer function

relating output speed t o input swash angle derived from signal f l o w diagram

T H E DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 157
agreement between their predicted and experimental teristics of the various transmission elements. For example,
values. Aeration and mounting compliances were suggested the typical speed-torque characteristics of an engine for
as possible causes of the low values of bulk modulus. various governor settings are shown, together with the
Healey and Stringer (11) used a value of 1 8 . 4 lo3
~ bar linearized equation relating small changes in speed with
(2-7x lo5 lbf/in2) and obtained good agreement by taking the engine torque variations and governor settings. The
into account the effect of oil inertia in the pipelines. quantity SSZJST, (= KE), the engine speed droop, shows
More recently Keating and Martin (12)used a value of how the engine speed changes with torque and the
6.80 x lo3 bar (1.00 x lo5 lbf/in2) and obtained reasonable quantity 8QJS Y (= KG), the governor speed control con-
agreement between their theoretical approach and their stant, shows how the engine speed varies with governor
experimentally obtained values for natural frequency. setting. Delays in development of engine developed torque
Many workers in the field including Walters (13)~Gille after a change in governor setting have been neglected as
(5) and Shearer (2), suggest a general value for B to be relatively insignificant.
taken as 13.6 x lo3 bar (2 x los lbf/in2), despite the fact The hydrostatic pump is dealt with in two parts. First,
that this value is considerably lower than that determined the linearized relation between flow, speed, swash plate
by static tests. Shearer stated ‘The logical basis of the angle, and pressure is obtained. The quantity SQp/SPH
practice is open to question, but it seems to work’. (= Kp)is the pump slip coefficient. SQp/S Y p(= &Q,) is
the change in flowlunit change in swash angle, and
SQp/SQ, (= DIXp) is the flow change/unit change in
2.2 Transmission transfer function pump speed. I n a similar manner, the change in pump
Simple linearized analysis can be applied to the transmis- torque for changes in speed, swash plate angle, and pres-
sion shown diagrammatically in Fig. la. Assuming it has a sure are obtained. STp/SP, (= DIXp+Kfp)is the pump
constant speed prime mover, no losses, and constant re- displacement plus the pressure dependent torque co-
turn line pressure, the following transfer function is ob- efficient, STp/SXp(= D1PH) is the change in pump
tained : torque/unit change of swash plate angle. STp/SQl (= Fp)
(DZXM)2Be is the pump viscous torque coefficient. A constant return
line pressure has been assumed.
An overall transfer function can now be obtained by the
use of the signal flow techniques developed by Mason (14)
and applied to oil hydraulics by Bowns (15)and Korn (16).
a second order equation where The right-hand column on Fig. 2 gives the signal flow
graph appropriate to each of the individual equations.
The signal flow graphs can be combined to obtain a
complete signal flow graph for the transmission system;
using Mason’s Rule, the transfer function relating any
two system parameters can be readily obtained. The signal
flow graph and the transfer function relating output speed
Shearer (2) used Newton’s linearized analysis (I) and to input swash plate position is also shown in Fig. 1. The
carefully discussed the assumptions made. He pointed out engine droop increases the order of the equation and is
that there are lower limits that can occur in line pressures, also responsible for the additional terms in the numerator.
and that these should be avoided for linearity. Newton’s A lumping of parameters in the equation of Fig. 1 gives
analysis assumed a constant speed prime mover, and took a transfer function of the following form:
into account the losses within the transmission. The return
line pressure was considered to be constant. The natural
frequency W , and damping ratio 5 obtained is as follows :
The effect of varying any one system parameter on the
overall system response depends on the values of the
other relevant parameters, and cannot be expressed in a
general form. However, for a particular system, the effect
of varying any one parameter can be obtained by substitu-
tion of values into the transfer function of Fig. 1. For
convenience a digital computer programme has been
written to substitute values of system parameter into the
above transfer function; it uses the Newton Raphson
2.3 Analysis using signal flow techniques technique to evaluate T~ and hence K, T ~ w,,
, and 5 (see
A fuller analysis of the basic transmission system shown in Appendix 1).
Fig. 1 can be obtained with the aid of signal flow theory.
This facilitates the use of a more complex model. A change 2.4 The effect of a change in system parameters on
in load, a change in engine speed, or a change in swash the natural frequency and damping ratio
plate position of either unit will give a resultant change in The hydrostatic system tested later has been taken as an
the running conditions of each of the units involved. The example and the effect of varying the supply line volume
static and dynamic characteristics of each element are to and the slope of the torque speed curve of the load (fL)
some extent non-linear, and small perturbation tech- has been investigated.
niques can be used if the changes are not too great. Fig. 3 shows that the natural frequency rises rapidly
Fig. 2 shows graphically the static and dynamic charac- with the reduction of supply line volume, and is therefore
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972 Vo I 186 55/72

758 D. E. BOWNS AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
Steady state Transmittance at operating signal flow

CharaaeristiC point (lower case letters graph
refer to small changes)
ENGINE
ENGINE 8i PUMP
INERTIA
PUMP-FLOW
RELATIONSHIP
3'
PI PRESSURE-Pa
PUMP-TORQUE
RELATIONSHIP
TRANSMISSION
tINB
Chrmmsmnm
OR
MOZOR-FLOW
OR
MOZOR-TORQUE
RELATIONSHIP
.a
Fig. 2. Signal flow analysis

EFFECTIVE LOAD INERTIA Jz kg m2
" b6 08 10 2.0 40 6.0 8Q100 200

SYSTEM VOLUME V litres
Fig. 4. Effect of load inertia on (a)system natural

frequency and ( b ) damping ratio
I n an extreme case the low frequency variation of the

Fig. 3. The effect of system volume on (a)transmission output is attenuated considerably. If the governor loop
natural frequency and (6) damping ratio
gain was reduced to 1/40 of that in the above example, the
T ~1.718; giving an attenuation of 4.30 dB.
ratio of T ~ / is
more difficult to determine when the lines are very short. The driving inertia J , will affect the time constants T , and
In the case of back to back transmissions, the natural fre- T ~ it, does not affect the amount of attenuation taking
quency will be determined by the dead volume in the place. However, increases in the load damping coefficient
pump and motor units. The figure also shows how a slight will increase the low frequency attenuation.
increase in natural frequency occurs with increase in the
slope of the torque speed curvetL (termed the load damp-
ing coefficient). The results of the simple theoretical 2.6 Vector analysis
treatment of equation (2) is shown dotted on Fig. 3. It can Many loads which a transmission can be expected to drive
be seen that this gives a lower damping ratio than that cannot be expressed in the form of the first order lag,
predicted by the signal flow analysis. developed from consideration of an inertial and viscous
Fig. 4 examines the effect of load inertia on natural fre- load, and it may be impossible to obtain simple mathe-
quency and damping ratio. Again the change in natural matical models which satisfactorily describe their charac-
frequency is large for changes in load inertia, at low values teristics. The frequency response of the transmission can,
of load inertia. The damping ratio is again underestimated however, be obtained if the frequency response of the load
by the simple theory. (change of load torque relative to change in load speed) is
known, by plotting the vectors of all the relevant quanti-
2.5 The effect of prime mover droop ties.
The fall off of speed with load of the prime mover is a In Fig. 5 an experimental vector locus YXZ has been
secondary effect for systems powered by closely governed plotted for a typical load. Let us assume that at a certain
L
engines or electric motors. T h e natural frequency and input frequency the load vector is t L / W Z terminating at the
damping ratio remain unchanged and the time constants point X.
T , and r 2 in equation (5) are close together, thus mak- We will now work backwards to the input movement of
ing little difference to the overall system response. For the swash plate, x,.
example with a 5 per cent droop (no load to full load) the Stage (I) The torque to accelerate the hydraulic motor
A
ratio of T 2 / r 1is 1.008 giving an attenuation in the output must be included as the vect .>I-t,/wz. This will be 90" in
at low frequencies of only 0.05 dB. advance of the speed vector w 2 .

Stage (8) The pump flow vector can now be obtained

by vector addition,
- . -
4 P 4m 4 L
-=
"2
-+-
W2 WZ
Stage ( 9 ) The pump flow variation q,, is

4Il = DlQIX,
Hence
Hence
P
\ 4P
= D,SLIL
W
Thus the overall response of the transmission can be ob-

tained.
2.7 Effect of r e t u r n line

So far we have ignored the possibility of return line pres-
sure variations; in other words we have considered a sys-
tem supplied by a large capacity boost pump, or having
an efficient accumulator in the return line.
Fig. 5. Vector analysis for determining overall trans- Many systems, however, have a boost pump sufficiently
mission response using measured load locus large to make up leakage flows with very little excess
capacity, and accumulators are not fitted. In this case a
Stage (2) By vector addition, the total torque vector sudden increase in load or swash plate angle can cause
L
t 2 / w 2isobtained, suction starvation of the main pump; see McCallion

_. ~- et al. (17).
-
t2 - t m ,'L The behaviour of the return line during frequency re-
W2 W2 W2 sponse tests can be shown by reference to Fig. 6a. This
Motor viscous torque lossesf, may be added if significant. shows the return line pressure as a function of system
Stage (3) The pressure difference across the motor can demand from the boost pump. The relief valve shown has
be predicted by the relation a steeply rising characteristic, and when the system de-
t z = PdDzXM
mands no flow, the pressure is that which would be given
by the relief valve when all the boost pump flow, other
than that required to make up leakage, is passing through
it (point A).
A
It is in phase with t z / w 2 . During low frequency oscillations there is negligible

If the return line pressure is considered constant, phase difference between pump and motor flows, and the
boost pump has only to make up the leakage. Thus there
Pd = Ph-
Stage ( 4 ) The slip flow loss qs in the transmission can will be a continuous steady flow through the relief valve,
now be estimated from the steady state characteristics of and the pressure appropriate to this will be given at point
the pump and motor, A.
At higher frequencies, the phase difference in flows be-
43 = (KP+K?4)Ph tween the pump and motor will be considerable, and the
system demand for flow from the boost system will oscil-
Hence
late at the input frequency from B to B', with a corre-
-A
sponding change in pressure due to the relief valve
and is in phase with Ph/WZ. characteristic.
Stage ( 5 ) The compressibility flow loss qC:is If the flow fluctuation in the return line becomes
vdph very large, due to large phase differences and/or large
4c = --
B, dt = -
Bej W P h swash plate amplitudes, the instantaneous flow re-
~. quirement may become greater than the boost capacity
or & ---lo-
V. 6 and the points may move to C and C', showing that cavita-
W2 Be W2
tion will occur in the return line. The corresponding
This will be 90' in advance of p&i. -2
pressure time curves for these three conditions are shown
Stage (6) By vector addition, the total flow loss qJwZ on Fig. 6b, c and d. Oil compressibility will modify this
may be obtained, simple argument to some extent.
41 -- -+-
- ~~
The effect on system dynamic performance can now be

_ 4c 4 s
deduced. Taking the case of Fig. 6c, the return line pressure
"2 W2 Wa
--A
variations contribute to the motor torque, and hence to the
Stage (7) The motor flow vector q m / W zcan be drawn, system stiffness. These variations can be included in the
since qm = D , X , in phase with w 2 . signal flow diagram, or can be allowed for in the vector

THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 761
pump and motor units of maximum displacement

53.25~ litre/rev are coupled together in a closed
circuit. I n order to obtain constant pressure, the return
line of the closed circuit was provided with the flow from
a large capacity boost pump, 23 litres/min, the excess
Relief valve being returned to tank via a two-stage relief valve specially
characteristics
modified to maintain a constant pressure in the return
line. The swash plate angles on the pump and motor units
valve were controlled by electro-hydraulic position servos en-
am abling sinusoidal disturbances to be applied to the swash
I
I Boost pump plates with a bandwidth of 20 Hz at a peak to peak ampli-
I characteristics tude of 4.3 degrees.
1 I I
IC The prime mover was a Perkins three cylinder four
Leakage only T
--System
ve
flow demand - +ve a
stroke diesel of 2.5 litres capacity, modified to provide
variable droop governing, using an electro-hydraulic
position control servo to actuate the fuel rack with an
additional speed feedback loop (17). Hydraulic power for
the three electro-hydraulic servos was obtained from a
laboratory oil supply.
The output from the transmission motor drives an axial
1
TIME - Atmos b piston load pump with variable delivery and pressure
compensation override. The load pump delivers oil to a
variable orifice and a pressure relief valve; this enables a
variety of load torque-speed curves to be simulated. It
should be noted that backlash on the transmission input
and output shafts was kept to a minimum, and these
shafts were stiff enough to be considered as rigid connec-
I Atmos c tions between the engine and pump, and motor and load.
TIME-
Dynamic measurements required that system variables
be measured as electrical signals. The input and output
speeds were measured using high quality d.c. tacho-
generators, and torques by means of strain gauge torque-
meters. The swash plate angles of the pump and motor
Atmos d were measured using rotary inductive position trans-
TlME- ducers. It was felt desirable to measure and record the
supply and return line pressures separately, as well as the
Fig. 6. Behaviour of return line during frequency differential line pressure and therefore three inductive
response tests
pressure transducers were employed.
The frequency response testing was carried out with
L
locus approach. The effective torque vector t z / w z can be the aid of a digital transfer function analyser.
- L
converted to a differential pressure vector p d / w Z .The re-
turn line pressure vector pL/wz can be added to this to
L
4 T E S T PROGRAMME
Frequency response tests were carried out with a nomin-
obtain the supply pressure ph/wZ.The analysis can then ally constant engine speed, to determine the effect of pump
be carried forward as above. The case of Fig. 6d with cavi- swash plate angle, motor swash plate angle, mean load
tation could be analysed in a similar manner using the torque and the slope of the torque-speed curve, the slope
describing function technique if thought necessary. of the engine torque-speed curve, load inertia, system
Extensive cavitation may, however, reduce the pump per- volume, mean pressure in the low pressure line, back up
formance, and the mean motor speed may drop. pump capacity, and the low pressure line relief valve
characteristic. Effects of flexible pipes and of pressure
The work presented throughout this paper is based gauges in the supply line were investigated.
upon the use of lumped parameters. The justification for Oil temperature and oil properties were kept as con-
this assumption lies in the fact that all the transmission stant as possible. The oil used was Shell Tellus 27, at a
lines used are very short in relation to the wavelength of temperature of 5O0Cf2 K.
the pressure signals being transmitted. However, the The input variable for the above tests was pump swash
assumption must be checked before the analysis presented plate angle. Frequency response tests were carried out
is applied to any system. with different amplitude sinusoidal inputs.
4.1 Test procedure

3 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The main object of the test programme was to correlate
3.1 Hydrostatic transmission test rig for dynamic the experimental results of the frequency response tests
analysis with predictions obtained from measurement of the sys-
The general layout of the hydrostatic transmission test rig tem parameters.
is shown in Figs 7 and 8. Variable delivery axial piston One method of frequency response testing using
Proc lnsin Mech Engrs 1972 Vol 186 55/72

electro-hydraulic inputs is to carry out a closed loop fre- However, using the digital transfer function analyser, it
quency response test of the electro-hydraulic input servo, is possible to record the response of the electro-hydraulic
and subsequently allow for this after obtaining the overall servo, and the overall transmission, including the servo
frequency response of the system. This method is time system, consecutively a t any frequency, and then by sub-
consuming, and it is not always possible to ensure that the traction immediately obtain the net transmission response.
servo dynamic performance has not been affected by a It is also a simple matter to continuously monitor the
change in system variables, such as oil temperature. servo response, to ensure a constant amplitude of pump
3-
Boost pump
Tank
Fig. 7. Line diagram of test rig
Fig. 8. Layout of engine driven hydrostatic transmission and load pump

swash plate angular movement. I n addition to recording load damping coefficient has been increased. Therefore,
the output speed response of the transmission, line pres- the set of results, although valid for the particular engine,
sure variations and torque variations could be recorded transmission and load configuration, lacks generality, and
simultaneously. cannot readily be compared with the theoretical work.
I n conjunction with the digital readout from the trans- The remainder of the tests have been carried out in what
fer function analyser, the supply and return line pressures, is apparently a more artificial manner, to allow comparison
differential line pressure, transmission output speed, and with the theoretical analysis.
pump swash plate angle were recorded, using an ultra-
violet recorder. 5.2 Investigation of load effects
Variation of load damping coefficient was carried out by
5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS altering the loading system characteristics and holding the
mean swash plate angles, mean pump and motor speeds
5.1 Test with typical load and load torque constant (tests 5-8). The rest results are
Consider first tests 1-4 (see Table l), in which the torque- shown on Fig. 9, and the effects are shown on Fig. 10. The
speed characteristic of the load was set up to represent a apparent natural frequency, as determined from the 90'
typical windage type load. Frequency response tests were phase lag point, alters with the load damping coefficient
carried out at different pump swash plate positions. The from 4.8 Hz at 0.037 Nm/rad s to 6.5 Hz at 0.587 Nm/
load in this case was applied by screwing up a needle rad s. This suggests a considerable increase in natural
valve in the loading pump delivery line. The amplitude of frequency with increase in load damping coefficient. This
the pump swash plate oscillation was kept constant. The is not in agreement with the theoretical predictions, but
test results are shown on Fig. 9. the reasons for the apparent discrepancy are given below.
However, a short consideration of the set-up shows that The damping ratio can be seen to increase rapidly with
many of the system parameters have been altered. For increase in load damping.
example, the system pressure and the motor speed have Tests 9-12 were carried out at reduced amplitude. The
both altered, with corresponding change in the slip and results are shown on Fig. 11 and are similar in all respects
torque losses of the units. By increasing the motor speed to those shown on Fig. 10, indicating that there were no
and moving up the load torque-speed characteristic, the significant non-linearities present.
Table 1. Frequency response tests carried out on hydrostatic transmission
Test Amplitudeof Return Load Supply Test feature

No. inputswash line damP*g line
ansle, pressure, daent volume,
peak to pealr, bar fLI litreS
degrees Nrnlrad s
~ ~~
2.50 3.40 7.42

2-50 5.20 7.42 Windage load
2.50 7.00 7.42 0.0167 simulation
2.50 8-80 7.42 0.0167
3.76 4.75 7.42 0.0167 0.587 0.957 Load damping coefficient
3.76 4-75 7.42 0-0167 0.407 0-957 fi varied, other
3.76 4.75 7-42 00167 0.194 0.957 parameters held
1 I
3.76 4.75 7.42 0.0167 0.037 0.957 constant
1.25 0.0167 13.6 Tests 5-8

1:
11
1.25
1*25
:;:4.75 7-42
0.0167
0.0167
repeated with
smaller input
12 1*25 4.75 0.0167 13.6 0.035 0.957 amplitude
14 I 4.75
4.75 I 7-42
7.42
0.190
0.190
13.6
13.6
0.035
0.037
0.957
0.957 I) Large load inertia at two
input amplitudes
0.0167 6-1 0.415
0.0167 20.4 0.419 line pressure
1 1 1
0-0167 25.0 0.422 0.957
18 1.25 4.75 7.42 0.0167 13.6 05% Testswith
19 4-75 7.42 0.540 restricted
20 0.0167 boost system
1 I
21 7.42 0,0167 13.6 0.234 0.957
3-76
i!i
7.42 0.0167
iz
0.037
i:g
0.957
r z b hose
flexible y
3.76 7.42 0.0167 0.597 0.957 ptessure gauge

f
29
iii
3-76
3.76
3-76
4-75
4.75
4.75
7.42
7.42
7-42
0-0167
0-0167
0-0167
13.6
13.6
13.6
0.460
0-324
0.037
0957
0.957
1.096
CoMected
into supply
line

Test Symbol Pump Motor

no. swash, speed
degrees
1 X 3.40 245 0-288

2 0 5.20 625 0.365
3 El 7.0 910 0.405
4 Q 8.8 1158 0.47 1
6 C O R R E L A T I O N OF R E S U L T S All the methods give natural frequencies within 30 per

Four methods have been presented to determine system cent of each other; if this type of accuracy is all that is re-
dynamic response: the simple theory of equation (2), the quired, then any of the methods can be used. However,
signal flow graph method, vector analysis, and experi- when it is considered that variations in natural frequency
ment. In order to obtain values from the first three, the are proportional to the square root of most of the system
system volume was carefully measured and the isentropic parameters, it shows that very wide discrepancies have
tangent bulk modulus for the oil obtained from the manu- occurred.
facturers' literature (18). The pipe resilience was taken
into account in accordance with equation (1). 6.1 Simple theory
In comparing numerically the results of the different The simple theory of equation (2) gave a value of natural
analyses, the frequency at which the phase lag was 90" was frequency that did not vary with load damping coefficient,
taken as the apparent natural frequency. An apparent and only provided good correlation with the experimental
damping ratio was also obtained from the phase plot results at the higher load damping coefficients. The damp-
(Table 2). ing ratio was very much underestimated.
Test
No.
Simple
theory of
Natural frequency--om, Hz
Experimental Simple
theory of
equation (2)
1 signal
flow analysis
1
Damping ratio-[
From Vector
analysis
1 Experimental
5 I 6.20 1 6.63 I 6.54 I 6.4 I 0.44 1 050 I 0.55 I 0.60

6.2 Signal flow analysis

I800
The signal flow analysis predicted a small change in
170° natural frequency with load damping coefficient, but not
100
t6O0 to the extent of the values obtained experimentally (see
Table 2). The prediction of damping ratio was very much
200
I500 improved.
i40° 300
6.3 Vector locus technique
While carrying out the frequency response tests, the
1300 40° torque on the load shaft was also measured, and hence the
frequency response for the actual load used obtained. I n
the theoretical analysis, the load was assumed to com-
prise a viscous and inertial component, the response of the
120° llOo looo 90° BOO 70° 60° 50° load torque to changes in speed being a first order lead,
n
i.e. t i = (fL+JLs)wz . . . . (6)

It will be convenient to rearrange this and put it in the
form :
tL JL
-= If--s
%fL f L
therefore ---o;.)= 1 + - p .
tL
WZfL
JL
fL'
. . . (7)
If this is plotted on a vector locus, it gives the vertical
line shown on Fig. 12. The actual values obtained during
tests 5-8, which departed significantly from this line, are
also shown on Fig. 12. This shows that the load was not by
any means the inertial and viscous load first assumed.
As can be seen from Table 2, the vector locus technique
is very much more accurate, and would appear to be the
most valuable tool for prediction of dynamic performance.
Fig. 10. Effect of load damping coefficent on transmission It slightly overestimates the natural frequency and slightly
dynamic response, ( a ) loci, ( b ) logarithmic plot underestimates the damping ratio.
HZ
Fig. 11. The effect of load damping on overall transmission response

using smaller input amplitude

vector has been obtained, and by using the vector diagram

of Fig. 5, starting from both ends, the compressible flow
d
vector qc/w2 determined. It is then possible to determine
the effective bulk modulus of the oil in the pipe, Be.
The mean value of the effective bulk modulus of the oil
in the pipe was found to be 15.5 x lo3 bar (2.28 x lo5 lbfl
in2). A statistical analysis of the results showed a standard
error of only 7.3 per cent over the 79 determinations
carried out.
If the elasticity of the steel pipe is then allowed for,
using equation (l), the bulk modulus for the oil was
determined to be 16.2 x lo3 bar (2.38 x lo5 lbf/in2).
This value should be compared with the manufacturers’
physical test value at the temperature and pressure of the
Test
Load damping tests. Secant values of bulk modulus are usually made on
coefficient the basis of the change in volume which occurs for a
No. Nm Iradlsec
x 5 0.587 change in pressure from atmospheric to working pressure.
@ 6 0.407 These are not appropriate in this case as the pressure
A 7 0.194 fluctuations about the mean working pressure are rela-
1 8 0.039
tively small. Hence tangent values have been used. At 50-C
and 82.0 bar:
isentropic tangent bulk modulus of oil
= 16.5 x lo3 bar (2.40 x los lbf/in2)
Using the vector locus technique it is therefore possible
to predict the natural frequency of the transmission to
within 4 per cent.
It should be noted that the analysis had assumed the
Fig. 12. The locus of the measured hydrostatic load pump and motor to be continuous linear elements, but
from the outset it had been considered possible that the
slippers might leave the swash plate under some oscillatory
6.4 Bulk modulus conditions. This would lead to a reduction in flow from
If we refer to the initial discussion we find that most in- the pump, and could cause damage to the unit. The ex-
vestigators, when confronted with a discrepancy between perimental results showed no sign that this had happened,
their theoretical and experimental results, have worked and on stripping the units after the tests no sign of exces-
backwards to determine the effective bulk modulus of the sive wear of the slipper pad or swash plate surface could
oil in the system. This procedure has also been adopted be determined.
here for a large number of tests with different load damp- I n order to provide a clear procedure for the designer to
ing coefficients, all using the steel pipe supply line. Over a adopt when predicting the dynamic performance of a
range of frequencies between 0.1 Hz and 12.0 Hz the load transmission, Appendix 2 has been presented.
Hz
Fig. 13. The effect of an increased inertia load on overall transmission
response

6.5 Effect of slip 6.8 Effect of boost system

The leakage past the pump, motor and valves in the system In the tests so far reported, the return line of the system
shows as a flow loss which is in phase with the pressure was supplied by a very large boost pump capable of main-
pulsations and 90" out of phase with the compressibility taining a constant return line pressure. A more practical
term. Careful tests were carried out on the pump and boost system was now fitted, with a boost pump capacity
motor units to determine whether the mean leakage of 6 per cent of the main pump maximum capacity. A
altered with frequency. No change was recorded up to single stage pressure relief valve was installed. Tests 18-21
frequency of 12 Hz. This indicates that the pump and were carried out at the conditions of tests 9, 5, 11, and 7
motor used were responding well to sinusoidal swash plate respectively, but with this new boost system. The mean
movements at the operating conditions of the tests. return line pressure was left constant at 13.6 bar.
At low frequencies, the slip losses cause a reduction in Traces of swash plate angle x,, output speed up,and
amplitude of response. The amount of this reduction return line pressure PR are shown on Fig. 14 for tests 18
could be predicted by using values of slip obtained by and 21. These tests correspond to the smallest and largest
pump and motor calibration. pressure variations in the return line obtained in this
At higher frequencies, slip losses are insignificant in series with the restricted boost supply, When the ampli-
comparison with compressibility losses. tude of the flow fluctuations was large, cavitation was
marked, and cut off the bottom of the sine wave, for the
6.6 Effect of load inertia reasons shown in Fig. 6. There was, however, bn inter-
The reduction in apparent natural frequency with in- mediate stage which occurred with smaller flow fluctua-
creased load inertia shown on Fig. 13 was predicted, using tions in the return line (i.e. correspondingly lower fre-
the vector locus technique, and good correlation obtained. quencies, see test 21, 2 Hz) where the pressure appears to
Since the load was now predominantly inertial, the simple rise exponentially after cavitation. This could be due to
mathematical model for the load was satisfactory. Using a the purging of voids in the return line following local
value for the effective bulk modulus of 1 6 . 2 ~ lo3 bar cavitation.
(2.38 x lo5 lbf/in2), the natural frequency of the transmis- The increase in apparent natural frequency shown in
sion was predicted to be 1.66 Hz using the simple theory Fig. 15 can be predicted using the vector locus technique.
L
of equation (2) and 1-75Hz using the signal flow analysis. The return line pressure variations PJwZ may be added
The experimentally measured value was 1.70 Hz. vectorially to the differential line pressure variations
d L
PD/wzto give the supply line pressure variations P H / w Z .

6.7 Mean return line pressure This procedure was carried out for tests 18-21. The vector
Tests 15-17 were carried out at the conditions of test 6, loci obtained were in very good agreement with the ex-
using the large capacity boost system but varying the mean perimental locus for all tests. The previously determined
return line pressure. This was felt desirable, as previous value of oil bulk modulus, 16.2 x lo3 bar (2.38 x lo5 lbf/
authors had suggested that aeration caused a reduction in in2) was used. When considerable cavitation occurred in
natural frequency, and the degree of aeration would be the return line, there was nevertheless a marked increase
influenced by the mean return line pressure. in apparent natural frequency, compared with the case
No significant changes in frequency response were where the return line pressure was held constant.
noted when the return line pressure was varied between It should be noted that the maximum increase in sys-
6.0 bar and 25.0 bar, tem stiffness would occur if the relief valve had a very
.z 1000-
z 800-
3
600-
W
% 400-
Pressure
200-
0
5: 0- 05 10 15 0 0.2 0.4 06
TIME s TIME s
TEST No. 21
80
.ClOOO-
s
$ 800- 60
", 600- 40
W
% 400-
a 20
200-
0
= 0- ' 0 0.5 10 1.5
TIME s TIME s TIME s
Fig. 14. Pressure, speed, and swash traces for system w i t h restricted boost upply, tests 18 and 21

corded with steel pipes, as is shown on Fig. 16, where test

24 is compared with test 7.
The vector locus technique was used to determine the
effective bulk modulus of the oil in the flexible pipe. A
value of 4.35 x lo3 bar (64 000 lbf/in2) was obtained with
an 8 per cent scatter. A static test carried out on the same
hose full of oil gave an effective isothermal bulk modulus
of 6.60 x lo3 bar (97 000 lbf/in2).
This discrepancy between dynamic and static test
results was much larger than that when steel pipe was em-
ployed.
6.10 Effect of pressure gauges

Most practical hydraulic transmission systems are fitted
with Bourdon gauges, with snubbers incorporated if
pressure fluctuations are likely to be experienced. Tests 5,
6, 7, and 8 were repeated with a 300 bar Bourdon tube
gauge fitted to the high pressure line (tests 26-29). It was
connected to the transmission supply line by an 8 m
length of & in i.d. pipe and snubber, from which the air had
Hz
been bled.
Fig. 15. The effect of restricted boost supply upon The average reduction in natural frequency resulting
overall transmission response from the inclusion of the pressure gauge and line was 34
per cent.
steep pressure-flow characteristic and there was no cavita-
tion in the return line. Both line pressures would then 7 CONCLUSIONS
vary equally, and provided the mean return line pressure An extensive series of frequency response tests has been
was high enough to prevent cavitation, the natural fre- carried out on a hydrostatic transmission to determine its
quency would be increased by 40 per cent. dynamic characteristics as an aid to system design.
The theoretical base has been extended to include the
6.9 Effect of flexible hose dynamic characteristics of the load, and the prime mover.
One of the many advantages of hydrostatic drives is their The effect of the return line and boost system is also con-
ability to transmit power to normally inaccessible places, sidered.
and very often flexible hose is incorporated. To determine The test results show that the dynamic response of the
the effect of this, the steel pipes were removed and re- transmission is influenced to a large extent by the dynamic
placed by a length of 1 in internal bore, two braid flexible characteristics of the load. Much of the scatter obtained in
hose. early tests can be attributed to neglect of this important
Tests 22-25 were carried out with a hose length of consideration.
2.44 m (8 ft) and its overall effect was to reduce the The effect of prime mover droop was relatively in-
natural frequency to approximately half of the value re- significant and could be ignored except in extreme cases.
40
w
Ol
80 TI
W
U
-1
w
120
I
k
160
I I I I I
0.4 0 6 0% 10 2.0 4.0 60 8.0 $0 20
Hz
Fig. 16. The effect o f using a flexible hose supply line on overall
transmission response

THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 7 69
The return line in most conventional systems contri- differentials across the pump and motor units, but there is
butes to the stiffness of the transmission. no reason to assume that the method should not apply
For the transmission considered the hydraulic pipeline when the pressure differential is much higher, nor when
was relatively short, 1.80 m (6 ft), which is approximately the oil temperatures are higher.
1
-5-, of the wavelength of pressure waves at 15 Hz; under
these conditions a lumped parameter approach is per-
fectly satisfactory. For longer pipelines, it may be neces- APPENDIX 1
sary to take into account the wave nature of the pressure
D I G I T A L C O M P U T E R P R O G R A M M E FOR
signals.
EVALUATING OVERALL TRANSFER F U N C T I O N
Oil inertia effects were found to add less than 1 per cent
OF T R A N S M I S S I O N F R O M S I G N A L F L O W
to the effective inertia of the motor.
ANALYSIS
Use of the isentropic tangent bulk modulus of the oil in
conjunction with carefully determined system parameters Subroutine 'solve'-solves transfer function for T ~ T, ~ 5,,
enables estimates of natural frequency to be made within w , and K.
4 per cent. Subroutine 'resp'-evaluates frequency response, ampli-
The tests were carried out at relatively low pressure tude ratio and phase angle.
P R 0 (i R A I*!T R I) R E S
C TR A N S!1 IS S 1014 n Y f l A M IC .P E S PON S E
C O l l f ! f I N A , B , C , E , G I H, AMP
77 FORMAT(I3)
RCAD(Sr77) NUllRER
I T Ef?=Q
DO 99 K n l l F I T a I I NUMOER
READ(Sr20O)KODE
200 F O R F l A T ( I 1 )
R E A D ( 5 , 3 ) A I U T l , D P , SP, P D T C P , V T C P , 8 , D M , S M , P D T C M , V T C M ,
1 AINTZ, ESLD, THETAP, V O L , THETAM, DFL, BOMGP, SPRESS
3 FORVAT (8EIOm3)
SP=-SP
s Fl=- s 11
ESLDn-ESLD
WRITE ( 6 1 5 ) ESLD, THETAP, VOLtTIIETAM, DFL, BOMGPtSPRESS
5 F O R M A T ( 1 H I I 1O X , 4 H E S L D , 1 3 X e 6 H T H E T A P t 1 4 X , 3 H V O L , 1 3 X , 6 H T H E T A M , 1 4 X t
9 S H D F L , 1 4 X ~ 5 H B O M G P , 1 2 % ~ 6 H S P R E S S / / lHO,lP7El8mS////)
AMP = DP*BOLIGP/ ( D M * T H E T A M )
A =-AINTl*ESLD
H=7=VTCP*ESLD+DP*SPRESS*ESLD*THETAP/ROMGP
D E N (1 I4 1 = D f.1* T H E T A bl* ( D M * 1 H E f A M - P b T C M )
G = l-VfCP*ESLD-(DFL+VTCM)*((SP*SM)*(l~VTCP*ESLD~+ESL~*~P*THETA
1 (DP*TIIETAP+PDTCP) )/flFNOf!1
E =-~ZNT~*ESLD-(~FL+VTC~)*(DVOL*(~-VTCP*ESLD))/(~EN~~~~*~)=AINT
1 SP~Sl4)*(l~VTCP*ESl.D)+ESLD*DP*THEfAP*(I)P*THETAP+PDTCP))/DENOI
1 + ( D F L + V T C 11 1 * ( S P + S M 1 * A 1 N T 1 E S L 0 / D L N 0 M 1
C = - ( 0 F L + V T C M 1 * V O L * A Ir4T1 * E S L D / ( B * D E N O M l ) + A 1 N t 2 * V O L * ( 1 - V T C P * E S L D
1 ( D E N o t I I * R 1 + A I N T 1 * A IN T Z * E S L D * ( S P + S M ) / D E N O M I
R X - A I r J T l * A I N T Z * E S L D * V O L / ( D E N O M I *R)'
W R I T E ( 6 ~ 1 )5A M P , 4 , G I E C t 8 , H
, , , ,
1 5 F 0 R M A T ( 1 H 0 t 1 1 X 3 11 A M P 1 6 X I 1 H A 1 7 X IH G ,A7 X 1H E I7 X 1 H C 1 1 7 X 1H B e l 7 ;
.
1 1t l t l / / l H ~ , l P 7 E 1 8 , 5 / / / / )
IF(KOD€-3)I0,20,10
70 C A L L PESP(KOD€,R99,&20)
20 CALL S O L V E ( 1 T E M )
99 C O N T I N I J E
W R I T E ( 6,2 2 2 1 N UM 0 E R I T E M
222 F O R M A T ( ' 1 * * * ' , I b , ' S E T S OF D A T A A R E P R O C E S S E D t ' t 1 3 , ' A R E T E R M
=TED AFTER 25 l l ' E R A T I O N S * * * I )
STOP
END

SIIDROIITINE SOLVE( I T E M )
C r ) f l M O N A , P , C p E ,G, H , Ar4P
x = o
ITN = 0
I P I TE (6 I 5O
4 I
Sr) FORt,AAT(11i% / / , 4 X , 4 H X N F W / )
35 W = O * X + * 3 + C * X * * Z + E + X + G
Y = 3*R*X++2+2+C+XtE
XNEW = X - W / Y
L J R I T E ( 0 , 4 5 ) XNEW
4 5 F O R V A T ( ' ' t 1P 1 E l 1 . 4 )
I F ( ARS((X-XNEW)/XNEW)-l.OE-03) 48, 3 9 , 39
39 IT14 f ITN+1
I F (ITN-25) 41, 47, 47
41 x = XNEW
GO TO 35
47 W R I T E ( h r Z 2 2 )
222 F O R M A T ( / / ' +** T E R M I N A T E D AFTER 25 I T E R A T I O N S +**')
I T EY 3I T E M+1
R E T 1) R N
48 XtlEW = - X N E W
R 1 = C-R*XrJEV
S 2 = E-(C-R+XNEW)*XNEW
k'CJ S Q = R 2 / R
G A I N = AMP*H/(B*WNSQ*XNEW)
T l = A/H
T2 =l/XNEW
DAI4P = R l / l J
N W = SQRT(WNS(J)
2E TA= D A M P / ( 2+ W N )
WRITE ( 6 , 58) G A I N , T I , T Z , Z E T A , WN
58 FORMAT ( 1 H O t / / I I Z X 4 H G A I N I 17X 2HTI , 18X 2HT2 , 18X ,
1 4 H 7 E T 9 t 1 7 X t 2HWN I / / 1PSE20.4 / / )
RETURN
END
SUBROIJTINE RESP(KODE,*,+)
C O f l M 0 f . l A , A , C, E , G I H , A M P
WRITE(6,l)
1 FORMAT(1~~@,~3X,9~FREQUENCY~3lX,~~~AMPLITUD~,Z3X,5HPHASE//9X,lOH
lES/SEC,11X,~1iRADS/SEC,I2X,6HABSVAL~I7X,ZHDB,lSX,7HDEGREES // 1
R E A D ( 5 , 2 4 1 O M G F S T r OCIGLST, O M G I N C
2 4 FORMAT (3E10.31)
OClEGA OFIFFST
26 nI,IGSQ = OMEGfi*OfMEGA
DENT)r.l(?= ~ C ~ C * O M G S Q ~ + + Z + ~ E + O M E G A I B + O M E G A * O M E G A * O M G S Q ~ * ~ Z
TREAL = AMP+(W+(G~C*OMGSQ)+A*~E*~MGSQ*+2~)~/DENOM2
TIblAG = A ~ l P + ( A * O ~ E G A * ( G ~ C * O M G S ~ ~ ~ H * O M E G A * ( E ~ B ~ O M G S Q ~ ) / ~ E ~ O ~ Z
AOSVAL = SORT(TREAL**Z+TIMAGE**?)
DR = ?O*ALOGlO(ABSVAL)
PHI\SE = A T A N 2 ( T I M A G , T R E A L ) * S 7 . 2 9 5 7 8
CYCLES = OWtGA/(3.142*2)
3 5 F OR14 A T ( 5 E 2 0 5 ) .
N R I T E (6,35) C Y C L E S , O M E G A , A B S V A L , D B , P H A S E
O M E G A =) O M E G A + O M G I N C
I F (OMEGA-OMGLST) 26,26,38
38 RETURN 'KODE
E N0
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972

Vol 186 55,72

T H E DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM I1 1
m I s the orime
Steady state conditions of test 7:
Load torque, T,
Load speed, Q,
Pump swash, X ,
= 33-4Nm (24.6lbf ft)
= 61.0 rad/s
= 4-42"
I
Motor swash, X , = 7.42"
Determine low Assume constant Supply line pressure, P,I = 87-0bar (1280lbf/in2)
frequency output speed prime mover
speed attenuation Return line pressure, P, = 13.6 bar (200lbf/in2)
using signal flow n,=constant
Additional information required to evaluate system dynamic
performance
be represented
by viscous and Dead volume in pump (ex-
i n e r t i a l terms
posed to supply line) = 86.2 cm3 (5.27in3)
Dead volume in motor (ex-
Consider load to be Determine load posed to supply line) = 86.2 cm3 (5.27in3)
a f i r s t order lead locus
7,
Supply pipe length = 1.76 m (5.75 ft)
TL - f +J s (P) Supply pipe internal dia-
q - L L
meter = 2.54 cm (1.00in)
Supply pipe volume = 924.0cm3 (56.5in3)
Total supply line volume,
V = 1096.4 cm3 (67.04in3)
I Consider all load

driven by supply line
oressure variations
C a r r y out iterative process
I1 ) Estimate response up to
40 per cent higher than with
constant return line pressure
12) Evaluate r e t u r n line
Pump and motor loss coefficients at operating conditions :
Pump slip, K p = 2.23~ l/s bar
(3.72x lo-' ft3/s lbf/ft2)
pressure variations a t
Has load
different frequencies and add Motor slip, K , = 2.33x l/s bar
reoresented vectorially to differential
pressure variations to
(3.90x lo-' ft3/s lbf/ft2)
determine supply line pressurc Pump viscous torque loss
Evaluate
variations
(3) Evaluate system response coefficient, f p = 1.53x lo-, Nm/rad s
response from response b y
second order vector
using vector analysis (1.13~ lbf ft/rad s)
(4) Compare with initial
transfer
function
analysis
assumption and iterate Motor viscous torque loss
coefficient,fM = 1.53x Nm/rad s
Fig. 17. Design procedure for determining overall
(1.13~ lbf ftirad s)
transmission response Pump pressure dependent
small for units con-
torque coefficient, K,,
sidered, and therefore
Motor pressure dependent
APPENDIX 2 coefficient, KfM
DESIGN P R O C E D U R E Effective compressibility of oil at operating conditions at
It may be useful at this stage to outline a suggested analyti- 87.0 bar (1280lbf/in2) and 50°Cfor Shell Tellus 27 (IS):
cal procedure to determine the dynamic characteristics of isentropic tangent bulk
any transmission. A block diagram has been drawn up to modulus lo3 bar
= 16.5~
outline the design scheme and is shown in Fig. 17. The (240000 lbf/in2)
exact criteria for the design decisions have not been speci-
fied, as to a large extent these will depend upon the Using equation (l),
application.
1-
_ 1
- -+- 1
The typical case of test 7 is presented in detail to illus-
trate the design procedure. Be Bo BP
gives for steel pipes of wall thickness 0.413cm (0.1625 in)
Basic information an effective bulk modulus for the oil in the pipe Be of
Prime mover speed, Q, = 125.5 rad/s 15.3 x lo3 bar (222000 lbf/in2).
Maximum pump capacity,
DP = 5.34~ l/rev
(3.25in3/rev) Design decisions
Pump swash plate or tilt Before commencing the design process as laid out in Fig.
movement, X , (zero 17, it is necessary to ensure the validity of lumped para-
to full stroke) = 15.0' meter analyses by considering the delay time for pressure
Maximum motor capacity, signals to travel down the pipeline. Also, the significance
DM = 5.34x l/rev of oil inertia effects in the pipeline should be checked.
(3.25in3/rev) (1) Is the prime mover droop significant ?
Motor swash plate or tilt
movement, X Mmax if Prime mover droop, K E = 14 per cent no load to full load
variable (zero to full = 0.160rad/sec/Nm
stroke) = 15.0" (0.217rad/sec/lbf ft)

7 72 D. E. BOWNS AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
If the load were removed completely, this would only (g) Compressed flow loss
2
give a prime mover speed increase of 4 per cent, so it can

A
be considered as constant speed. _ - -1w.

40 -
-
Ph
w2 Be w2
I n order to have carried out the signal flow analysis, it
14clw2l (l/s)/(fev/min)x 10’ 0.835 6.19
would be necessary to determine the driving inertia of the
prime mover plus pump, .I1. /gc/w2 Degrees + 141.8 + 164
(2) Can the load be represented by a viscous and inertial
load ? (h) Total flow loss
_. -~ -.
Type of load: positive displacement pump and associated -
- -+-
4c 4 s
loading valves. w2 w2 w2
1qL/w21 (l/s)/(rev/min)x 10’ 0-947 6.270

It was considered prudent to use the load locus, in this /qr,/wz Degrees + 113.4 + 154.6
case, t L / w 2 ( j w ) see
, Fig. 13.
T o represent the load by a first order lead, it would be (i) Flow continuity in supply line
necessary to evaluate the driven inertia, J2, and the load A 2 -
damping coefficient, fL. - - 4-+-

9 P- M 41
w2 w2 w2
(3) Is the return line pressure constant ?
A large boost pump and flat characteristic relief valve where qm/w2 = D2X,
had been used, and the return line pressure was therefore 14p/w21 (l/s>/(rev/min)x lo4 4.07 645
considered constant. /q*/wz Degrees + 12 +115.5
T o carry out the suggested iteration it would be neces-
sary to determine the boost pump and relief valve charac- ( j ) Relating pump flow to swash plate angle gives:
>
teristics as shown in Fig. 6a. 2-
(4) As the load has been represented by a locus, the - -4P

w2 - -.- w2
overall response is to be evaluated using the vector XP 4P

XP
analysis technique. Iw2/xpl (rev/min)/degrees swash 174.0 115.0

w z / x pDegrees
/- - 12.0 -115.5
Calculations This is the overall response vector.
Sample calculations are shown for two frequencies, 2.0 Hz
and 6.5 Hz, which were evaluated for Fig. 5.
2.0 HZ 6.5 Hz APPENDIX 3
( a ) From the load locus REFERENCES

NEWTON, GEORGE C., jun. ‘Hydraulic variable speed trans-
I t L / w 2I Nm/(rev/min) 0.0285 0.0589 missions as servomotors’,3. Franklin Znst. 1947 (June), 243
& Degrees +40*6 +65-6 (No. 6), 439-469.
SHEARER, J. L. Fluid power control 1960 (M.I.T. Press,
(6) Torque to accelerate motor Cambridge, Mass.).
I t,/w2 I Nm/(rev/min) 0.0089 0.0289 LEWIS,E. and STERN,H. Design of hydraulic control systems
/t,/wz Degrees +90 + 90
1962 (McGraw-Hill, New York).
THOMA, JEAN. Hydrostatic power transmission 1964 (Trade
& Technical Press, London).
(c) Motor viscous torque coefficient
GILLE,J. C. Feedback conrrol systems 1956 (McGraw-Hill,
l f m l Nm/(rev/min> 0.00 16 0.0016 New York).
I& I N PHASE I N PHASE HAYWARD, A. T. J. ‘Research on lubricants and hydraulic
fluids at the National Engineering Laboratory’, N.E.L.
( d ) Effective load torque Report No. 75, 1963 (Jan.).
A
t2 tm
-*
22
- HAYWARD, A. T. J. ‘Compressibility measurements on hy-
- = -+-+fm draulic fluids’, N.E.L. Report No. 173 (Pt I), 1964 (Dec.).
w2 w2 w2 HARSEN,J. T. ‘How to use readily available specification
I tz/w21 Nm/(rev/min) 0.0350 0.0869 data to predict dynamic properties of hydraulic motors’,
/ t 2 / w 2 Degrees +51.8 + 74
Machine design, Jan. 1961 33 (No. 2), 132-136.
LAMBERT, T. H. and DAVIES, R. M. ‘Investigation of the re-
sponse of hydraulic servomechanisms with inertial load’, 3.
(e) Supply line pressure variation mech. Engng Sci. 1963 5 (No. 3), 281.
RENNER, H. ‘Fluid motors’, Design Engineering Conf. 1965,
A.S.M.E. Paper 65-MD-28, 1966 (March).
HEALEY, A. J. and STRINGER, J. D. ‘Dynamic characteristics
1PhiW2 I bar/(rev/min) 0.099 0.226 of an oil hydraulic constant speed drive’, Proc. Insrn mech.
lPh/WZ Degrees +514 + 74 Engrs 1968-69 183 (Pt l), 683.
KEATING,T. and MARTIN,A. R. ‘Response testing of a
(f) Slip flow loss hydraulic servomechanism with mechanical feedback’, 2nd
Fluid Power Symp., Jan. 1971, A2-25 to 44 (B.H.R.A.,
Cranfield).
WALTERS, R. ‘Hydraulic servo systems analysis and syn-
thesis’, Sperry Industrial Group, pub. I G 100/A,1964.
MASON,S. J. ‘Feedback theory. Further properties of signal
flow graphs’, Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs 1956 44, 920-926.

(15) BOWNS,D. E. ‘Signal flow diagrams as an aid to the analysis tem’, First Fluid Power Symposium, 1969 (Jan.) (B.H.R.A.,
of hydraulic systems’, University of Bath, School of Engin- Cranfield).
eering Report No. 126, 1968 (June). (IS) BOWNS,D. E. ‘The dynamic transfer characteristics of
(16)KORN, J. Hydrostatic transmission systems 1969 (Intertext reciprocating engines’, Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs 1970-71
Books, London). 185, 185-201.
(17)MCCALLION, H.,DUDLEY, B. R. and KNIGHT, G. C. ‘Analy- (19) ANON. ‘Technical data on Shell Tellus oils’, Shell Inter-
sis of a dynamically loaded hydrostatic transmission sys- national Petroleum Company Limited, 1963.

D269
Discussion
G. A. Broadhurst Wolverhampton
I note that the boost circuit is incorrectly designed for a
closed circuit, reversible flow, transmission circuit such as
this.
I n such a circuit, there is no return line as such, both
9 1
lines being interchangeable. Accordingly, when the flow is

reversed so that the so-called return line is connected to
the outlet flow from the pump by operating the swashplate
control, the motor attempts to continue rotating in the
same direction due to inertia, and the pump flow reverses;
thus both pump and motor are discharging into the same I I
line whose pressure is only controlled by the boost relief
valve.
Inevitably the pressure rises above the boost setting, in
this case 13.6 bar, and oil is discharged from the closed
loop. The loop is now deficient of oil, and when next the
swashplate is reversed, cavitation must take place, because
the boost pump cannot replace the missing oil rapidly
enough. Return filter
The remedy is to connect the boost to both pressure
lines via a pair of check valves. It is also essential to pro- Suction
strainer
vide cross line relief valves operating in both directions to Reservoir
discharge the high transient pressures which will occur at Fig. 18
the moment of reversal. I have had personal experience of
such transients of nearly 1000 bar, sufficient to destroy a In Fig. 2, the coefficient of x, the expression for tp
motor. should be DIP, rather than DIPH, unless PL is taken as
Ideally, an industrial closed circuit would also include a zero. Similarly, for the motor, the coefficient for x, in the
purging valve to remove the surplus boost flow, so that the equation for the change in TMshould be DzPD.
main loop is continually flushed with clean, cool oil. The coefficient for x, in the equation giving the change
An experimental circuit such as this, however, could in Q, should be -Q,/X,, not 1/D2Q,. The reason for the
just have a boost entry with a maintaining valve, since it negative sign is obvious from physical considerations.
will not normally be run for long periods. Fig. 18 shows If the normal expression for motor flow is used, then the
what I feel is the correct circuit for this application. constant KMis positive and it becomes necessary to intro-
I think that the reduction in bulk modulus due to the duce a negative sign for the coefficient ph in the equation
cavitation might have had a marked effect on the results denoting the change in motor speed. This has the ad-
obtained from this experiment, although I am not in a vantage of making the equation more easily interpreted
position to argue with the mathematics. from physical reasoning.
These modifications lead to minor changes to the signal
C. R. Burrows Member flow diagram in Fig. l b and Fig. 2.
The vector technique used to determine the overall re- There are a number of ways to represent the pump and
sponse (limited in the paper to the case where x, = 0 and motor characteristics; I would like the authors to discuss
K F M = 0) is very interesting. Using a measured-load locus their choice, since alternative representations seem more
rather than a theoretical-load locus would be expected to helpful in determining the operating point under steady-
produce an improved agreement between the theoretical state conditions.
and experimental results, since it amounts to removing
one area of uncertainty, that is, a more refined model is A. 6. Goodwin Fellow
used. However, the marked improvement in correlation is I would like to draw the authors’ attention to four points
significant, in that it shows how useful a linearized analysis of minor detail:
is for predicting the performances of a pump-motor com-
bination. (1) I n Fig. 1:
Concerning Fig. lb, the last term in the denominator (a) The branch J,s between nodes te and wl should
should be KFpnot KE. have one arrow only, pointing towards t,.

D270 DISCUSSION ON D. E. BOWNS AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
(b) The branch 1/(DzXm- KFM)entering node Ph

should have an arrow at the node ph end.
(c) A branch of unity should be indicated from
It is to be noticed that this value of 5 corresponds to the
node wz to the true output node w,.
values at which:
12) In Section 2.3:
SQ,/SY, (= D1Ql)is the change in flow/unit change
(KP +KnJ2
in swash angle, it should read SQp/SXp, etc. (KP+Km)(fLM+fL)+(DZXm)a
(3) I n Fig. 2:
Pump-flow relationship should read:
i.e. the components of the damping ratio due to leakage
8 QP and viscous friction are equal. Away from this value of 5,
AQp = --AP,+ etc.
SPH there can be two values of BeJz/ V for each value of 5, one
(4) In section 1.1, Notation : with increased J , (say) and the other with decreased .J2
(say). I would be interested to know if the authors pur-
s is the Laplace complex variable. sued this line of argument at all during their work.
The various system equations established and the signal
flow diagram derived from these appear to be based on the C. Martin Dresden
assumption that :
Determination of the dynamic characteristics of hydro-
(a) tp = XPD~PH+(D~XP+KFP)P~ static systems can generally be reached from two view-
points :
(1) from the transmission behaviour due to a disturb-
(c) there is no pressure loss in the transmission lines. ing quantity arising from a temporary but exact change
in the working conditions as well as random input dis-
I would be inclined to assume that the pressure terms in turbance when regard is had to the damping charac-
(a) and (b) should in fact be the line differential pressure teristic compared with an external disturbing vibration.
PD and pa since with a constant value of PH any change of (2) from the behaviour due to parametric excitation
PLY as datum or even incremental change, should in- from the driving chain.
fluence the torque parameters at both pump and motor.
I would like the authors' comments on (c), as I appre- The analysis of parametric hydrostatic control systems,
ciate that establishing an expression for such losses in especially hydraulic motors and pumps, involves one of
pipes, fittings and valves might be difficult and wonder if rotor position dependent variables and the authors' case
any consideration was given to this. with fluctuations in cell connections. Principal parametric
Referring to equation (4) it may be deduced that there is functions are given in the diagram as functions of the dis-
a minimum value of 5 (> 0) at which value placement volume and leakage oil.
As a result of periodical stepped changes there is irre-
gularity in angular speed at output, in circuit pressure and
with it in the return moment M,, which leads to:
Fig. 19. Significance of the periodic variability parameter by determination of the dynamic
characteristics of hydrostatic systems

THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM D271
(1) reduction in performance, and consequently result in widely differing lags at the
(2) energization in adjoining systems with the driving frequency w,,.
chain indicated, and thereby, Whereas such behaviour is not unusual in this kind of
(3) inherent noise whilst under hydrostatic control. system, this suggests that there are too many unknowns for
This appears remarkable when most operating conditions making any accurate deductions concerning values of bulk
are static. modulus-in this connection the assumption that the stiff-
Considering the periodical parametric variability in ness contribution of the fluid is solely provided by one
connection with the determination of dynamical behaviour hydraulic line appears to be invalidated by the results
we employ the linearized equation of motion-a differen- shown in Fig. 14, where peak values of return line pressure
tial equation with variable coefficients of the Hills type, reach about 600 lb/in2, which is a high proportion of the
which are solvable only in special cases. For the dynamic transmission line pressure. This leads one to the conclu-
sion that the return line must play a significant part in the
model, in order to describe the parametric vibrations in
hydrostatic equipment we borrow control engineering stiffness of the system, meaning that the effective value of
methods in the calculation of a scanning system based on B, is no longer 240 000 lb/in2, but is somewhere between
formal impulses and so employ 2-transforms to obtain a 120 000 and 240 000 lb/in2.
good approximate solution. This relates to the diagram, The N.E.L.report (7) is really concerned with condi-
tions of pressure in excess of 5000 lb/in2 and where care
and the necessary modification in the drive of the dynamic
has been taken to ensure the total absence of free air. Since
model. On this model the magnitude of the noise level can
it is known that transmissions such as the one used are
be calculated, the likelihood of achievement of designed
subjected to cavitation locally at the ‘kidney’ ports and at
displacement seen, and the steps necessary for improve-
other discontinuities, it is very likely that some of the air
ment made.
dissolved comes out of solution: since it takes a finite time
BIBLIOGRAPHY
for it to be re-dissolved into the liquid, I suggest that one
MARTIN,C. ‘Der Einfluss drehwinkelabhhgiger Motorpara- is concerned not only with lower pressures than those of
meter auf das stationare Betriebs-Verhaltenvon Hydromotoren’,
Muschinenbautechnik 1972 21 (Heft 5), 224-232. (7), but also with free air being present, and consequently
MARTIN,C. ‘The effect of motor parameter as function of angle it may be more appropriate to consider the system as being
of rotation on steady state performance of hydromotors’, double-acting and to allow for the free air in the manner
Hydruul. Pneum. Pwr 1972 18 (No.212), 356 and (No.213), 400. suggested by Rendel and Allen (zo), where they show that
with a 10 per cent free-air content at 500 lb/in2, the com-
G . Orloff Fellow bined bulk modulus has a value of 50 per cent of the
Referring to section 6.3, the accuracy requirements of nominal value of B,.
performance prediction can vary in industry, depending on This certainly seems to be valid for normal modes of
the purpose of the calculations. For tendering, the simple operation of positioning systems, and it would also seem
equation (2)leads to rapid results of sufficient accuracy for desirable to use similar assumptions in the case of velocity
wn and errs in the direction of safety with respect to 5, and transmissions like the one under discussion, particularly if
this is usually corrected for from experience-conse- they are intended to behave normally when occasionally
quently the formula serves a very useful purpose. filled with a fluid containing a high proportion of air, as
I n the case of the more detailed design work which may sometimes happens in industry.
follow, perturbation theory gives adequately good accuracy
REFERENCE
in most conditions, and even in the absence of computers,
an experienced performance analyst will choose perturbed (20) RENDEL, D and ALLEN,G. R. ‘Air in hydraulic transmis-
sions’, Aircr. Engng 1951 23, 337-338.
coefficients sufficiently well to give confidence in the hard-
ware manufactured. I n the presence of gross load non-
linearities it can be more desirable to avail oneself of a A. H. Richards Member
digital computer for dealing with a multiplicity of coeffi- With regard to the evaluation of bulk modulus, which
cients derived from an empirical load curve, replacing the remains the only unknown in the theoretical treatment, I
more simple speed-dependent relationship in Fig. 2-it is should like to ask the authors whether they have con-
not clear to me, however, why changing methods to ‘vector sidered the effect of rate of change of pressure, d(dP,)/dt.
locus’ should result in greater accuracy. As a frequency response test proceeds from low to high
Signal-flow techniques are understood to be suited frequencies, the acceleration of the load will be directly
particularly for handling the perturbed equations of multi- proportional to the product of signal frequency and half
variable systems and others of high complexity-what is amplitude. The increasing acceleration will entail greater
the justification for doing so in the present case which is pressure oscillation amplitude, and hence greater rate of
relatively simple ? change of pressure.
It would have been interesting to know the contents of It is usually assumed that the isothermal bulk modulus
the significant parameters in equation (5) and to compare is associated with slow changes of pressure and the isen-
them with equations (3) and (4). tropic value with rapid changes. I n consequence, I am
It would have been interesting also to see a set of Bode interested to know if a trend in the bulk modulus could be
curves for tests 5-8 permitting a comparison with Fig. 11, detected over the test, and was any attempt made to fit
particularly since values of fL taken as tangents to the rele- equation ( 5 ) to the measured results over the whole range
vant curve in Fig. 9 lead one to suspect the presence of of one test ?
large-amplitude cyclic non-linearities. Alternatively, for a particular system configuration, did
Some non-linear behaviour is already apparent in the bulk modulus as derived from the vector locus method
Fig. 11, where the phase curves intersect at about -50” show any trend as the input amplitude was varied?

D272 DISCUSSION O N D. E. BOWNS AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
J. Thoma Fellow Fig. lb, it is still more easily interpreted. Furthermore it

This paper contains a very clear and detailed small-signal gives, due to the positive power indication, information on
analysis, where Fig. 2 with the derivations of the various the signs and it is not limited to small signals. The repre-
gains is a great help to understanding. To put this informa- sentation of pump and motor as modulated transformers is
tion together for the transmission system of Fig. la, a well in accord with accepted ideas of the action of hydro-
comparatively new technique, the Bondgraph, can make static variable displacement machines.
the transition to a signal flow graph much easier, both for I do in no way wish to indicate that the Bondgraphs re-
original analysis and for communication to outsiders. place the signal flow graph, Fig. lb, or the subsequent
Bondgraphs (21)(22) have been set up from the energy analysis. Rather I feel that they are a systematic means of
interchanges between various components of a system as deriving such flow graphs and to select their causality.
for instance Fig. la or an equivalent circuit such as used They would therefore be most suitable for more complex
frequently in electronics. Energy flux or power is the pro- systems, for instance to include pressure drop in the main
duct of an effort variable (torque, pressure, voltage) and a conduit. This could be done simply by coupling a resistor
flow variable (rotational frequency, volume flow, electric to the main conduit by an s-junction. The various resist-
current). Simple Bondgraphs are acausal, that is without a ance elements do not need to be linear, they only have to
definite direction of action between variables. Causality is indicate a definite (for instance, a quadratic) relation
then added observing a few rules but otherwise at the dis- between flow and effort.
cretion of the analyst, and indicated by a short cross stroke. Finally it should be pointed out that there exists in the
Furthermore, the direction of positive power can be U.S.A. a so-called ENPORT computer programme (23)
assigned at will and is usually represented by a half arrow. written in FORTRAN, that allows to set up a simulation
Fig. 20 shows an acausal Bondgraph where engine and directly from a simple Bondgraph with indicated positive
load are given in words and the variable displacement energy flows. This includes selection of causality in a
pump and motor as modulated transformers, mTF, con- dialogue between the user and the computer. My own pre-
trolled by X,, and X , over activated bonds. Both input and ference, however, is the use of Bondgraphs for representing
output shafts are supplied over a series junction (equal comparatively complex systems in mechanical engineering,
rotational frequency, addition of torque) with inertia, re- fluid power and electronics on paper. It allows to include
sistive elements and effort sources, the latter showing a causality and signs without losing the engineering feel of
torque loss proportional to pressure independent of rota- what happens in real machines.
tional frequency. REFERENCES
The power line (hydraulic conduit) between pump and
(21) KARNOPP,D. and ROSENBERG, R. Analysis and design of
motor is connected over a parallel junction (equal pressure, multiporr systems 1968 (MIT Press, Cambridge, Ma.).
addition of flows) with a capacitance representing fluid (22) THOMA, JEAN 'Bondgraphs for flow control valves and other
compressibility and two resistances showing the leakage of hydrostatic components', Hydraul. Pneum. Pwr 1972 18,
both pump and motor. 165.
Whilst Fig. 20 shows the various effects included in a (23) A users guide to ENPORT 4 1972 (Michigan State University,
transparent way, Fig. 21 also shows positive energy flows East Lansing, Mich. 48 823, U.S.A.).
and selected causalities, and the values of the various ele-
ments are given behind double points using the same I. Watts Whetstone
symbols as in the paper. The engine is replaced by a flow There is an increasing use of hydrostatic transmissions for
(rotational frequency) source in parallel with a resistance both vehicular and non-vehicular applications, not least in
element (alternatively it could be a torque source with a the field of servos, where in some instances efficiency can
series resistor) and the load by a simple resistor element. have a higher priority than servo bandwidth and any ex-
Whilst Fig. 21 contains essentially the same information as tension of our knowledge of the subject is to be welcomed.
I would like to ask the authors if they would enlarge
upon their reasons for employing the vector analysis
technique. Whilst accepting that it is a useful method for
obtaining the frequency response, I am not wholly con-
Enalne- s -mTF -p -mTF -s -Load vinced of the need for it. The load can be expressed mathe-
matically in three ways, either in purely linear or non-
linear terms or a combination of the two. If the load is so
complex as to defy even an approximate analysis, then it is
likely that the measured load frequency response would
Fig. 20 also be difficult to obtain without recourse to such tech-
niques as describing function analysis. It is unlikely in my
experience that the load frequency response would be
known, and if it is available it is usually only valid for one
amplitude of input.
My second enquiry refers to the relief valve characteris-
tic and the possible excursions of replenishment flow.
Normally in the type of reversible transmission described
in the paper, the replenishment flow source is connected
to both of the fluid transmission lines via check valves,
since the role of either fluid line is reversed when the
direction of rotation of the motor is reversed. This would

THE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM D273
prevent negative replenishment flow, as shown in Fig. 6 4 for this. For several of the tests reported in the paper, an
and, as a consequence, cavitation could exist for larger artificially large boost system was used to keep return-line
portions of the pressure oscillation. The high-pressure pressure variations to a minimum, but for tests 18-21 a
peaks would normally only be limited by the pressure- restricted boost system was used and the effective value of
limiting valves connected across the motor ports. bulk modulus which allowed prediction of the experi-
It follows, therefore, that the hydraulic stiffness of the mental dynamic response using the vector locus approach
return line would be more dependent on the oil charac- was still 240 000 lbf/in2 within 4 per cent. Indeed, one of
teristics than the impedance of the relief valve, and could the most important points of the paper is to show that there
result in worthwhile increase in natural frequency. Could are not too many unknowns in a hydrostatic transmission
the authors comment on this aspect ? system. An accurate assessment of natural frequency and
Finally, could the authors give their views on employing damping ratio can be made without too much difficulty.
much higher boost pressures with a view to stiffening the I t might be opportune to point out that the transmission
system and preventing cavitation ? tested contained a relatively small oil volume and had a
load of low inertia. Predictions would be more accurate
D. E. Bowns Member and J. Worton-Griffiths still with larger volumes and high inertias.
(Graduate) (Authors) The effect of air on transmission performance has in-
G. Orloff discusses the use of equation (2) and we agree terested the authors and G. Orloff is referred to (25). Air in
with him that, as a rapid check on natural frequency, it is the fluid is not the bogey it has hitherto been thought and
extremely valuable. However, it gives consistently high re- work on the transmission dynamics with air present has
sults if the correct value of bulk modulus is used and substantiated the methods of analysis used in the present
therefore is of dubious value for tendering purposes, par- paper.
ticularly as customers become more aware of the necessity I n reply to A. H. Richards, the effect of the rate of
for dynamic specification of performance. If the load is change of pressure has been taken into account in the
frequency dependent, as was the load in the experimental overall transmission analysis but not in considering whether
rig, no computerized method is possible which would take to use isentropic or isothermal bulk moduli.
this into account, except a completely step-by-step ap- The results obtained by analysing the experimentally
proach such as that adopted by Knight et al. (24), which determined frequency response using the vector-analysis
is considerably more complex than the methods discussed technique did not indicate any trends in the bulk modulus
here. The vector-locus technique is familiar in concept to values as the frequency or input amplitude were varied.
most control engineers and does give a rapid and accurate Values obtained for a typical test are given in Table 3.
check on the dynamic response of this type of mechanical It should be pointed out that at low frequencies where
system. It can cope with many non-linearities and does not the flow losses were small and where slip losses made up
necessitate the use of a computer. Examples of its use are the significant part of the total loss, this method for deter-
discussed below. mining the effective bulk modulus of the oil was not
The signal-flow technique assists greatly in the analysis satisfactory. This made an evaluation of bulk modulus at
of systems such as the one under discussion; the block low rates of change of pressure impossible.
diagram is complex and extremely difficult to disentangle C. R. Burrows's comments on the use of the measured
and a straightforward mathematical approach involves the load loci are very pertinent and so are his algebraic correc-
solution in the simplest case of eight simultaneous differen- tions. They have been incorporated in the corrigenda.
tial equations. The problem is, in fact, multivariable and A. B. Goodwin's points about Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are both
one advantage of the signal-flow approach is that with very correct, and we are in agreement with both him and C. R.
little additional work the relation between any other input
and output (for example, the effect of the change in load Table 3. Effective bulk modulusx l o 5 Ibf/in2
torque on motor speed) can be obtained very easily. How-
ever, in spite of all the care taken, poor correlation was Hz Tat No.
obtained between the theoretical Bode plot developed
from equation ( 5 ) and the experimentally determined 1.01 1-05 2.03
values. It was for this reason that the vector-analysis 2.0 2.70 2.33 2.45
technique was adopted. 3-0 2.28 2.23 2.29
G. Orloff's request for Bode curves for tests 5-8 is easily 4.0 2-18 2-11 2.18
4.5 2-24 2.10 2.17
fulfilled, as they are all included on Fig. 10, whilst his 5.0 2.30 2.07 2.15
worry about the intersection of the phase lag curves at 5-5 2.34 2-11 2-18
6.0 2.18 2.14 2.21
about -50" is not relevant as the transfer function of the 6.5 2.20 2.14 2.22
system is much more complex than the second order form 7-0 2.18 2.14 2.21
on which he appears to be basing his arguments. Curve 9 80 2.24 2.18 2.25
9.0 2.20 2-18 2.27
was in fact carried out with a load of different torque speed 10.0 2.26 2.19 2.27
characteristics and when the load static and dynamic 12.0 2.29 2-22 2-30
characteristics were taken into account the transmission Mtan 2.24 2.15 2.23
coefficientsobtained were in close agreement with those of
the other tests. Standard
G. Orloff goes on to state that the stiffness of the return deviation 2.5 2.3 2.2
pcr cent
line makes some contribution to the system stiffness-in-
deed it does, and one of the most important advantages (Three tests at different mean return line pressures and load
of the vector locus approach is that it can be used to account damping coefficients.)
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1972 Vol166 55/72

D274 DISCUSSION ON D. E. B O W N S AND J. WORTON-GRIFFITHS
Burrows that the line-differential pressure p D rather than I. Watts is incorrect in assuming that cavitation would
the high-pressure line variation p H should be used in the occur for longer periods with non-return valves installed
torque equations. Indeed when variations in return-line in the system. The cavitation described in Fig. 6d occurs
pressure were significant, the former value was used in the when the relevant non-return valve is fully open and the
analysis presented in the paper. boost system has too little capacity to cope with the large
With the relatively short lines used it was considered demands made on it. He is, however, correct in stating
justifiable to neglect pipe losses, but for systems where that much higher boost pressures can stiffen up the system
they are not negligible it might be better to incorporate and prevent cavitation. Unfortunately higher boost pres-
them as a deduction from the motor torque coefficient. sures would reduce the maximum pressure differential
A. B. Goodwin’s point about minimum damping has available for any given design of pump or motor unit and
academic interest. However, low damping is to be avoided also lead to increased power losses in the boost system. In
in hydrostatic transmission systems and unfortunately the a design where such considerations are unimportant, high
designer usually has no means of controlling it. boost pressures would certainly be advantageous.
In reply to I. Watts’s point about load frequency re- We thank J. Thoma for his contribution on Bondgraphs
sponse, we do not underestimate the difficulties in obtain- and consider that this method should be more widely
ing this. Indeed, determination of the load characteristics known.
is a major part of the difficulty in all hydraulic design. C. Martin’s contribution is also interesting. He suggests
However, it seems to us important to pinpoint the difficul- the use of sampled data techniques for determining the
ties, rather than attribute subsequent inaccuracy to such cyclic flow and pressure fluctuations and corresponding
effects as that of air in the transmission fluid or other un- resonances. Such methods have already been used by one
knowns. of the present authors for analysis of the dynamic be-
We agree with G. A. Broadhurst that a closed-circuit haviour of reciprocating engines (18) but during the test
reversible flow transmission system should be designed as work carried out on the transmission there was no experi-
in Fig. 18 and indeed the test system was initially arranged mental evidence of behaviour which could be attributed to
in this manner. However, the system was being used as a sampling phenomena.
speed-control circuit and the pump swash-plate angles
were never reversed. Hence the large transient pressures REFERENCES
mentioned by G. A. Broadhurst were not experienced in (24) KNIGHT,
G. C., MCCALLION,
H. and DUDLEY,
B. R. ‘Con-
the experimental system. The reason for removing the nection capacitance effects in hydrostatic transmission
check valves was to remove some of the system unknowns systems and their prediction by mathematical model’, Proc.
Instn mech. Engrs 1972 186,661-670.
and enable reasonable control of the experiments. There
(25) BOWNS,D. E., EDGE, K. and WORTON-GRIFFITHS, J. ‘The
are, however, still transient pressures as can be seen from effect of air on the operating characteristics of a hydrostatic
Fig. 16. These would not be reduced by the inclusion of transmission’, Proc. Third Int. Fluid Pwr Symp., Turin,
non-return valves as the line pressure differential is not 1973 (to be published).
reversed.
Corrigenda
P. 756, Fig. 1. Last term in denominator. For ‘KEYread ‘KFp’.

P. 757, Section 2.3. For ‘SQp/SYp’read ‘SQp/SXp’.
P. 758, Fig. 2. Pump-flow relationship should read : d Q, -’
= SQ dPH.. .etc.
SPH
P. 758, Fig. 2. Pump-torque relation. If change in low-pressure line is significant
substitute PD for PH in equations.
P. 758, Fig. 2. Motor-flow relationship should read: qm

w 2 = -+-pH--
Km Q,
x,.
D2Xm D ~ x m Xm

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The Dynamic Characteristics of A Hydrost PDF

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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

The Dynamic Characteristics of a Hydrostatic Transmission System

The online version of this article can be found at:

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

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>> Version of Record - Jun 1, 1972

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