Lecture: 04 (16/09/2019).

Single frequency transient:

The frequency of oscillation,

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
The frequency of range is 10 Hz ~ 10 kHz.
[Double frequency]

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The frequency and waveform rate of rise and peak value of TRV (Transient recovery voltage)
depends upon the several aspects such as,
1. Network configuration.
2. Types of fault.
3. Types of neutral earthing.

Question: Derivation of restriking voltage.

Answer:

Consider the above circuit when the current reaches zero at final arc extinction, a voltage is
suddenly impressed across the capacitor and therefore across the circuit breaker contacts. The
current “i” which would flow to the fault is not injected in the capacitor and inductor. Therefore,
𝑖 = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝐶
1 𝑑𝑒
𝑂𝑟, 𝑖 = ∫ 𝑒𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 … … … … … … … … … (1)𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Now,

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 𝑑𝑖 𝑒 𝑑𝑒 2
= + 𝐶 2 … … … … … … … … … … … (2)𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Assume at t = 0, i = 0 when the system voltage e = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Here, 𝑒 = 𝑖𝑋𝐿 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
So,
𝐸𝑚
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝐿 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐵
𝜔𝐿
Now,
𝑑𝑖 𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚
= 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 … … … … … … … … … . (3) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝐿 𝐿
At t = 0, from equation (3) we get,
𝑑𝑖 𝐸𝑚
= … … … … … … … … (4)𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Putting these value in equation (2) we get,
𝐸𝑚 𝑒 𝑑𝑒 2
= +𝐶 2
𝜔𝐿 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Now solving for e, the standard solution,
𝑡
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos ) … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
√𝐿𝐶
This is the expression of TRV or restriking voltage.

Question: Rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRPV) is maximum when its derivation is
zero.
Answer:
𝑑𝑒 𝑑 𝑡
= [𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos )]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 √𝐿𝐶
𝑑𝑒 𝐸𝑚 𝑡
𝑂𝑟, = sin
𝑑𝑡 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 2
∴ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 2 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑚 𝑡
cos ( )=0
𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶

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 𝑡 𝜋
cos ( ) = cos
√𝐿𝐶 2
𝜋
𝑂𝑟, 𝑡 = √𝐿𝐶
2
This is the time when RRRV is maximum.
𝜋
So, maximum RRRV the value at, 𝑡 = 2 √𝐿𝐶
𝜋
𝐸𝑚 𝑡 (√𝐿𝐶)𝐸𝑚 𝐸𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = sin = sin 2 =
√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
We know,
1
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑅𝑉
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
1
∴ = 2𝜋𝑓𝑛
√𝐿𝐶
Now,
𝐸𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝐸𝑚
√𝐿𝐶
∴ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉)𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑓
𝑑𝑒
Now peak restriking voltage occurs when “e” is maximum, i.e. 𝑑𝑡 = 0

𝑑 𝑡
[𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos )] = 0
𝑑𝑡 √𝐿𝐶
𝐸𝑚 𝑡
𝑂𝑟, sin =0
√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
𝑡
𝑂𝑟, sin = sin 𝜋
√𝐿𝐶
∴ 𝑡 = 𝜋√𝐿𝐶
This is the time when the RV will attain the maximum value,
So, the peak restriking voltage is equal to,

𝑡 𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos ) = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos ) = 2𝐸𝑚
√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶

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 Lecture: 05 (23/09/2019).
A 50 Hz, 3ɸ alternator with ground neutral has inductance of 1.6mH/phase and is
connected
to a bus bar through a circuit breaker. The capacitance to earth between alternator and
circuit breaker is 0.003 µF/phase. A circuit breaker opens when the r.m.s value of current
is 7500 A. Determine,
a) Frequency of oscillation.
b) The expression of TRV.
c) Maximum RRRV.
d) Time for maximum RRRV.
e) Maximum voltage across the contacts after the instant when the arc extinction
takes place.
f) Average rate of rise of voltage up to the 1st peak of oscillation.
Answer: a).

𝒃). 𝑖 = 7500 𝐴
𝒄). 𝑒 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑖2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 7500 × 2 × 3.1416 × 50 × 1.6 × 10−3 = 3769 𝑉

𝐸𝑚 = √2 × 3769 = 5330 𝑉
𝑡 𝑡
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) = 5330 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
√𝐿𝐶 √(1.6 × 10−3 ) × (0.003 × 10−6 )
𝐸𝑚 5330
𝒅). 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2422 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠/𝜇 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
√𝐿𝐶 2.2

𝜋 3.1416
𝒆). 𝑡 = √𝐿𝐶 = √(1.6 × 10−3 ) × (0.003 × 10−6 ) = 3.44 × 10−6 𝑠
2 2
𝒇). 𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 2𝐸𝑚 = 2 × 5330 = 10660 𝑉

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 𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 2𝐸𝑚
𝒈). 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑉 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝜋√𝐿𝐶
2 × 5330
= = 1.548 × 109 𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐
3.1416 × √(1.6 × 10−3 ) × (0.003 × 10−6 )

Resistance switching
TRV is a burden of circuit breaker. It must be reduced. So resistance switching is adopted to
damp out the TRV. A deliberate connection of resistance in parallel with the contact space (arc)
is called resistance switching. Its objective is to damp out the TRV. It is used in such CB which
have high post zero resistance of the contact space i.e. air blast circuit breaker, SF6 circuit
breaker. But no need to use in oil circuit breaker because arc resistance is less.

Considering the loop we get,

𝑑𝑖 1
𝑒 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝐶 𝑑𝑡 … … … … … … … … . . (1) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
But at e = 0, capacitor voltage is equal to the voltage at switching resistance,
1
𝑖𝑟 𝑟 = ∫ 𝑖𝐶 𝑑𝑡 … … … … … … … … . . (2) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶
𝑑𝑖𝑟
𝑂𝑟, 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑟𝐶 … … … … … … … … … … . (3) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐶 𝑑 2 𝑖𝑟
𝑂𝑟, = 𝑟𝐶 2 … … … … … … … … . . (4) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Again,
𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 (𝑖 + 𝑖𝑒 ) + 𝑖𝑟 𝑟 … … … … … … . . (5) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑟

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 𝑑𝑖
𝑒 = 𝑅(𝑖𝑟 + 𝑖𝑒 ) + 𝐿 (𝑖 + 𝑖𝑒 ) + 𝑖𝑟 𝑟 [∴ 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑟 + 𝑖𝑒 ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑 2 𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟
∴ 𝑒 = 𝑟𝐿𝐶 2 + (𝐿 + 𝑟𝐿𝐶) + (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝑖𝑟 … … … … … . (6) 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Let, 𝑏1 = (𝑅𝑟𝐶 + 𝐿)
𝑏2 = 𝑟𝐿𝐶
𝑏0 = 𝑅 + 𝑟
And,
𝑑𝑖𝑟
𝑚=
𝑑𝑡
So, from equation (6) the characteristics equation becomes,
(𝑏2 𝑚2 + 𝑏1 𝑚 + 𝑏0 )𝑖𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 = 0
Now, critical damping,

𝑏1 ′ = 2√𝑏2 𝑏0 = 2√𝑟𝐿𝐶(𝑅 + 𝑟)

Actual damping, 𝑏1 = (𝑅𝑟𝐶 + 𝐿)

Damping ratio,
𝑏1 𝑅𝑟𝐶 + 𝐿
𝜉= ′ =
𝑏1 2√𝑟𝐿𝐶(𝑅 + 𝑟)
Undamped natural frequency,

𝑏0 𝑅+𝑟
𝜔𝑛 = √ = √
𝑏2 𝑟𝐿𝐶

Damped natural frequency of oscillation,

𝑅+𝑟 (𝑅𝑟𝐶 + 𝐿)2

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜉 2 = √ = √1 −
𝑟𝐿𝐶 4𝑟𝐿𝐶(𝑅 + 𝑟)

1 1 𝑅 1 2
𝑂𝑟, 𝜔𝑑 = √ − ( − )
𝐿𝐶 4 𝐿 𝑟𝐶

1 1 1 𝑅 1 2
∴ 𝑓𝑑 = √ − ( − )
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4 𝐿 𝑟𝐶

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If R<<L then,

1 1 1 𝑅 1 2
𝑓𝑑 = √ − ( − )
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4 𝐿 𝑟𝐶

For damping out of TRV, 𝑓𝑑 must be zero,

𝑓𝑑 = 0

1 1 1 𝑅 1 2
𝑂𝑟, √ − ( − ) =0
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 4 𝐿 𝑟𝐶

1 𝐿
𝑂𝑟, 𝑟 = √
2 𝐶

The value of resistance “r” at which the frequency of TRV becomes zero is called critical
damping resistance. Sometimes it is called opening resistance,
The fault current,
𝐸
𝐼𝑆𝐶 =
𝜔𝐿
𝐸
∴𝐿=
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝜔
Now,

1 𝐿 1 𝐸 1
𝑟= √ = √ = 𝑘√
2 𝐶 2 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝜔 𝐼𝑆𝐶

1
∴𝑟∝√
𝐼𝑆𝐶

Lecture: 06.
Question No: 01 Prospective currents.
Answer: The current that would flow in the circuit if the circuit breaker is replaced by solid
conductor is called solid current.

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Question No: 02 Use of opening resistor in circuit breaker.
Answer: Opening resistor, also called switching resistor that are filled in parallel with the main
break “I” and in series with a resistor switch. The opening resistor comes into the circuit prior to
the opening of the main break “I” by closing the resistor switch.
During the arc interruption process in the main break the resistor switch remains closed. The
resistor switch “II” is open with a certain delay after the opening of main break “I”.

Example: 01 In a system of 132 kV the phase to ground capacitance is 0.01 µF, the
inductance is 6 H. Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of a circuit breaker if the
magnetizing current of 10 A is interrupted. Also calculate the value of resistance to be used
across the contact gap to eliminate the restriking transient voltage.
Answer: Given that, L = 6 H
C = 0.01 µF
i = 10 A
Energy stored in the inductor is equal to the energy stored in the capacitor,
1 1
∴ 𝐿𝑖 2 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2 2

𝐿 6
𝑂𝑟, 𝑉 = 𝑖 √ = 10√ = 244948.97 𝑉 = 245 𝑘𝑉
𝐶 0.01 × 10−6

Again,

1 𝐿 1 6
𝑟= √ = √ = 12247.44𝛺 = 12.25 𝑘𝛺
2 𝐶 2 0.01 × 10−6

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Example: 02 A circuit breaker is meant for the discontinuation of 220/132 kV, 250 MVA,
50 Hz power transformer during no load condition. Find out the worst condition of a over
voltage induced across the contact space of circuit breaker. The no load current of the
transformer is 1% of the full load current. The capacitance of the system is 10 nF.
Answer:
250 × 106
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝐹𝐿 = = 656.079 𝐴
√3 × 220 × 103
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝑁𝐿 = 0.01 × 656.079 = 6.56 𝐴
Net reactance of the circuit at no load,
220 × 103
𝑋0 = = 19.36 × 103 𝛺
√3 × 6.56
Inductance of the system,
𝑋0 19.36 × 103
𝐿0 = = = 61.62 𝐻
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 × 50
Assuming that the interruption occurred at peak value of the current,

𝐼𝑃 = √2 × 6.56 = 9.27 𝐴
Induced voltage across the conductor,

𝐿 61.62
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑃 √ = 9.27√ = 727680.23 𝑉 = 727.68 𝑘𝑉
𝐶 10 × 10−9

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Question No: 03 Switching of a capacitor bank.
Answer:

Question No: 04 Definition of auto recloser.

Answer: A recloser is an automatic, high-voltage electric switch. Like a circuit breaker on
household electric lines, it shuts off electric power when trouble occurs, such as a short circuit.
The recloser senses when trouble occurs and automatically shuts off the power.

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Question No: 04 Dead time of auto recloser.
Answer: The dead time between the auto-reclose scheme being energized and the operation of
the contacts, which energize the CB closing circuit. On all but instantaneous or very high speed
reclosing schemes, this time is virtually the same as the CB dead time.

Lecture: 07 (14/10/2019).
Question: 01 Switching of an unloaded transmission line.
Answer: When charging current of a line is to be interrupted the current gets interrupted. While
the trapped voltage on the line remains leaking away slowly, the same thing will happen here as
in case of capacitor bank i.e. after one cycle from the arc interruption when the voltage from the
supply side has reached positive peak the voltage across the contact of the breaker is almost
twice of the normal value. If the insulation of the breaker gap is insufficient a restrike occurs.
1
The whole energy 2 𝐶𝑉 2 is discharged through the earth. This may shelter the arc control devices
in the interrupting chamber. The over voltage is relatively less in earth neutral system. Over
voltage of 3.5 times of normal voltage can be developed on a cable.

Remedies:
I. Use of earth neutral.
II. Use of lightning arrestor.
III. Use of switching resistor.

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Question: 02 Advantages of multibreak circuit breaker.
Answer: By the use of large number of break in series per pole it is possible to increase the
aggregate arc length at a more rapid rate than would be feasible with only two breaks per pole.
Furthermore, even of the basis of equal rate of increases of total arc length an increase in number
of arc in series is advantageous possibly because of the cooling effect of added electrode.

Question: 03 Electric arc.

Answer:

Electric arc is a self sustain discharge of electricity between electrodes in gas or vapor. When a
voltage is applied between the electrodes of the order of minimum ionizing or minimum exciting
potential of gas or vapor. If the supply voltage is increased the space between the electrode is
ionized by the electric field emission and a current started to flow through the gases in the
contact space. This phenomenon is called discharging of the gas. The arc has a brightly burning
core of high temperature running from 6000ºk to 25000ºk. If the arc is cooled the temperature
increased. The cooling reduces its diameter and thereby current density increases resulting in
high temperature. The current density of arc core is several thousand ampere per cm2. The
central core is surrounded by a column of hot gases at temperature of 1000ºkdown to a low
temperature.

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