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Weighted dominating set based routing for ad hoc communications in

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Weighted dominating set based routing for
ad hoc communications in emergency and
rescue scenarios

R. Ramalakshmi & S. Radhakrishnan

Wireless Networks
The Journal of Mobile Communication,
Computation and Information

ISSN 1022-0038
Volume 21
Number 2

Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499-512

DOI 10.1007/s11276-014-0800-4

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512
DOI 10.1007/s11276-014-0800-4
Weighted dominating set based routing for ad hoc
communications in emergency and rescue scenarios
R. Ramalakshmi • S. Radhakrishnan
Published online: 4 September 2014
 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Abstract Disasters create emergency situations and the
services provided must be coordinated quickly via a com-
munication network. Mobile adhoc networks (MANETs)
are suited for ubiquitous communication during emergency
rescue operations, since they do not rely on infrastructure.
The route discovery process of on-demand routing proto-
cols consumes too much bandwidth due to high routing
overhead. Frequent route changes also results in frequent
route computation process. Energy efficiency, quick
response time, and scalability are equally important for
routing in emergency MANETs. In this paper, we propose
an energy efficient reactive protocol named Weighted-
CDSR for routing in such situations. This protocol selects a
subset of network nodes named Maximum Weighted
Minimum Connected Dominating Set (MWMCDS) based
on weight, which consists of link stability, mobility and
energy. The MWMCDS provides the overall network con-
trol and data forwarding support. In this protocol, for every
two nodes u and v in the network there exists a path
between u and v such that all intermediate nodes belong to
MWMCDS. Incorporating route stability into routing
reduces the frequency of route failures and sustains net-
work operations over an extended period of time. With
fewer nodes providing overall network control and data
forwarding support, the proposed protocol creates less
interference and consumes less energy. The simulation
results show that the proposed protocol is superior to other
R. Ramalakshmi (&)  S. Radhakrishnan
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Kalasalingam University, Srivilliputhur, India
e-mail: ramalakshmir@yahoo.com; rama@klu.ac.in
S. Radhakrishnan
e-mail: srk@klu.ac.in
protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, control message
overhead, transmission delay and energy consumption.
Keywords Connected dominating set  Routing  Energy
efficient  Mobile ad hoc networks  Emergency rescue
scenarios
1 Introduction
As a consequence of disasters, emergency rescue team can
deploy and wireless mobile ad hoc network (MANET) can
be used for emergency communications. Ad hoc networks
are the collection of wireless mobile nodes such as PDA,
Notebook, mobile phone or hand-held devices etc, com-
municating among them through wireless channels. The
important characteristics of these networks are battery
power, low bandwidth and dynamic topology. MANETs
can provide an instant and distributed peer-to-peer ad hoc
communication solution for the rescue workers [1]. In
emergency scenarios, it is assumed that it is not possible to
recharge the battery powered devices. We can name a
MANET deployed in such emergency rescue operations as
emergency MANET. Two nodes can communicate directly
with each other if they are within each other’s transmission
range, otherwise intermediate nodes have to route the
messages for them. Energy efficiency, quick response time
and stability are equally important for routing in emer-
gency MANETs, since mobile nodes have homogeneous
lifetimes. The presence of dynamic and adaptive routing
protocols will enable ad hoc networks to be formed
quickly, and then it ensures efficient communications
during the rescue operations.
A routing protocol for MANET uses a broadcasting
scheme to discover a route. It commonly uses route
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discovery approach. The flooding of route request (RREQ)
leads to congestion and also consumes more battery power.
Frequent route changes also result in frequent route com-
putation process. Therefore, it is crucial that MANET
routing protocols must include information on mobility and
residual energy into the algorithm design to adapt the
network and node changes. The stability of path is an
important design criterion to be considered while devel-
oping multi-hop ad hoc communication protocols.
1.1 Network modeling and related definitions
An ad hoc network is modeled as a graph G ¼ ðV; EÞ,
where V represents the set of nodes in the network and the
edge set E represents all the links in the network. A
homogeneous network deployed in 2D plane, where nodes
have same transmission range is assumed. An edge exists
between the two nodes if they are within the transmission
range of each other.
Dominating Set (DS): Given a graph G ¼ ðV; EÞ, a
Dominating Set (DS) is a subset D  V, such that for every
vertex v 2 V, either v 2 D, or v has a neighbor in D.
Connected Dominating Set (CDS): Given a graph
G ¼ ðV; EÞ, a Connected Dominating Set (CDS) is a subset
D  V which satisfies the following two conditions.
– D is a DS
– For every two nodes u and v in D there exists a path
between u and v such that all intermediate nodes belong
to D.
Maximum Weighted Minimum CDS (MWMCDS): Given a
graph G ¼ ðV; EÞ with node weight function W : V ! Rþ ,
MWMCDS problem is to find a minimum size CDS of G
such that its total weight is maximum.
1.2 Connected dominating set in wireless networks
A possible method to reduce the energy consumption in ad
hoc network, is to find a set of nodes (dominating set) that
take on additional responsibility to help with routing. Any
dominating node can send a message to another node by
forwarding the message to a neighboring dominating node.
The dominating set based approach brings several benefits to
network routing and management. The search space of the
routing path can be restricted to the set of dominating nodes.
It can also alleviate broadcast storm problem. The network
can react quickly to topology changes. A dominating set is
suitable for the routing task, as long as it is connected.
1.2.1 CDS construction in ad hoc networks
Guha et al. [2] have proposed two greedy algorithms for
CDS construction. The first algorithm is centralized and it
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constructs a CDS from one node with maximum degree.
Each node has to know the degree of all the nodes in the
graph. The second algorithm is decentralized, which first
computes a dominating set and then selects additional
nodes to connect the set to form CDS. This greedy algo-
rithm iteratively adds the nodes with maximum degree to
the dominating set. Wu et al. [3] have proposed a method
with two phases: marking and reduction. In the marking
phase, every node with two unconnected neighbors is
marked as a dominating node to form an initial CDS. In the
reduction phase, a node unmarked itself if it has either a
neighbor with larger ID which dominates all its neighbors
or two adjacent neighbors with larger IDs which together
dominates all its neighbors. Stojmenovic et al. [4, 5] have
improved the proposed algorithm [3] by using the key
consisting of node degree and ID to produce a backbone
quickly with short routes, low overhead, and less energy
consumption [6].
Literatures [7–14] take energy issue into consideration.
Wu et al. have also proposed two rules based on node
degree and node’s energy level to construct power aware
CDS in [7, 8]. An energy efficient dominating tree con-
struction algorithm is proposed by Yu et al. [9] to construct
a dominating tree that serves as a communication backbone
in wireless infrastructures. Their algorithm uses k-hop
neighbor’s information, k 2 ½1; DG , where DG is the
diameter of the graph G. It consists of two phases, marking
phase and connecting phase. The marking phase constructs
a Maximal Independent Set (MIS) whereas the connecting
phase connects the forest to a single spanning tree. Rai
et al. [10] have proposed an algorithm for power aware
CDS construction in sensor networks. A timer based
energy aware connected dominating set construction pro-
tocol is proposed by Kim et al. [11]. Their work extends the
MAC-layer timer based CDS so that the energy level at
each node is taken into account while constructing the
CDS. A Multi Point Relay(MPR) based CDS construction
algorithm is proposed by Ramalakshmi et al. [12] for stable
energy aware backbone construction. Shukla et al. [13]
have proposed a weighted CDS construction based on
energy, degree and ID. A CDS based topology control
algorithm is proposed by Yu et al. [14] for wireless sensor
network. El-Hajj et al. [15] have proposed a distributed
CDS construction algorithm for routing in MANET. Their
algorithm assigns weight to the nodes based on received
signal strength and selects nodes with maximum weight.
A two-phase algorithm called maximal independent set
with multiple initiators is proposed by Wang et al. [16]. In
their work, a forest consisting of multiple dominating trees
rooted at multiple initiators is constructed parallely. In the
second phase, overlapping branches in the dominating trees
are interconnected to form a complete virtual backbone.
Nodes are ranked with \stability; degree; ID [ . An
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Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512
algorithm to calculate a stable dominating set based on link
stability is proposed by Sheu et al. [17]. In their work, a
link is said to be weak if the strength of the beacon signals
received on the link is below a threshold. The nodes are
considered in the decreasing order of the non-weak links
associated with that node. A CDS construction algorithm
based on the received signal strength is proposed by Leu
et al. [18] for both static and dynamic environments. The
Mobility Adaptive Clustering Algorithm (MACA) by Ba-
sagni [19], has formed Weakly-CDS with slow moving
nodes using clustering process. A Weakly-CDS induces a
weakly connected subgraph, which is the graph induced by
the dominating nodes and its neighbors. A cluster-head is a
node that acts as a coordinator for the associated neighbors.
When nodes move randomly, a fast moving cluster-head is
likely to encounter another cluster-head sooner than a slow
moving one. The open neighbor sets of fast moving nodes
will exhibit more change than those of slow moving nodes.
Therefore, their algorithm has selected slow moving nodes,
which are more likely to have stable links. A mobility
based clustering by An et al. [20] considers nodal move-
ment in the creation of a CDS. In this protocol, nodes
periodically exchange their position and velocity infor-
mation with their neighbors. A node calculates the relative
velocity and the relative mobility among its neighbors.
Wang et al. [21] have proposed a weight based route
strategy to select a stable route. They have considered the
weight of the route with three factors—the route expiration
time, the error count and the hop count.
A novel mobility handling algorithm is proposed by
Sakai et al. [22], to shorten the recovery time of CDS in the
mobile environment. A distributed topology management
algorithm is proposed by Bao et al. [23] to construct and
maintain the minimal dominating set of the network. The
algorithm works with the 2-hop neighboring information.
A simple, fixed and scalable virtual wireless backbone
construction is proposed by Al-Karaki et al. [24], to
address the issue of topology control in homogeneous and
heterogeneous networks. The fixed backbone called Virtual
Grid Architecture (VGA) is created through a novel and
simple zoning scheme and is used as the underlying
backbone for efficient routing. A MPR based broadcasting
is proposed by Yen et al. [25] to limit the flooding of
RREQ packet. The MPR nodes will rebroadcast the RREQ
packet. All nodes which are not in the set will receive and
process the packet but it will not rebroadcast. The authors
have optimized the route to adapt to the network changes.
A broadcasting protocol based on MPR is proposed by
Moulahi et al. [26]. A survey on connected dominating set
in ad hoc and sensor network is given by Yu et al. [27].
The main objective of this work is to propose an energy
efficient routing protocol, to use a stable path for routing.
This protocol forms MWMCDS to do the broadcast and
501
data transmission. The rest of the paper is organized as
follows: the background about state-of-art and energy
efficient routing protocols are presented in Sect. 2. Section
3 explains the weighted connected dominating set
(Weighted-CDSR) based routing protocol. The simulation
results of the proposed work are presented in Sect. 4. The
conclusion of the work is arrived at Sect. 5.
2 Background
In this section, we provide the background on the overview
of ad hoc and the stable, energy efficient routing protocols.
2.1 Overview of on-demand routing protocols
in ad hoc networks
Routing in MANET is classified into proactive, reactive
and hybrid. In proactive routing, each node maintains
routing table with complete paths to every destination from
that node. The route setup time is less in this routing as
routes are already available. In reactive routing protocol
[28–30], a route is created when it is needed. The source
node initiates the route discovery when it has no route to
the destination and it needs to send the data packet [31].
The key feature of Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) [28]
is the use of source routing. The sender knows the complete
hop-by-hop route to the destination. These routes are stored
in a route cache. The data packets carry the source route in
the packet header. When a node in the network attempts to
send a data packet to a destination, when it does not know
the route, it uses route discovery process to dynamically
determine a route. The route discovery process works by
flooding the network with RREQ packets. Each node
receiving a RREQ rebroadcasts it, unless it is the destina-
tion or it has route to the destination in its route cache.
Such a node replies to the RREQ with a Route Reply
(RREP) packet that is routed back to the original source.
RREQ and RREP packets are also source routed. The route
carried back by the RREP packet is cached at the source for
future use. If any link on a source route is broken, the
source node is notified using a Route Error (RERR) packet.
The source removes any route using this link from its cache
and a new route discovery process is initiated if this route is
still needed.
Ad hoc On-Demand Vector (AODV) [29] also discovers
routes on demand, using a similar route discovery process
like DSR. However, AODV adopts a very different
mechanism to maintain routing information. It uses routing
tables with one entry per destination. It relies on routing
table entries to propagate a RREP back to the source and to
route data packets to the destination. It uses sequence
numbers at each destination to determine freshness of
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routing information and to prevent routing loops. These
sequence numbers are carried by all routing packets. Upon
receiving the RREQ packet, each intermediate node checks
whether it has a valid route to the requested destination. If
the sequence number of the stored route is greater than the
sequence number in the RREQ packet, it notifies the source
about the valid route by sending RREP. If the intermediate
node does not have a valid route to the destination, it
checks whether it has already forwarded a RREQ packet
with the same sequence number. If not, an intermediate
node records its receipt of the RREQ packet and broadcasts
the packet to its neighbors. The destination node, upon
receiving the RREQ packets, chooses the desired route and
notifies the selected route through a RREP packet to the
source. An important feature of AODV is the maintenance
of timer-based states in each node regarding utilization of
individual routing table entries. A routing table entry
expires if it is not used recently. A set of predecessor nodes
is maintained for each routing table entry, indicating the set
of neighboring nodes that uses the entry to route data
packets. These nodes are notified with RERR packets when
the next hop link breaks.
Dynamic MANET On-demand (DYMO) [30] uses the
same route discovery mechanism used in AODV to con-
struct the routing tables. However, it provides new features
such as path accumulation. Path accumulation is done
during the process of transmitting the RREQ packets
through the network. In DYMO, when an intermediate
node receives a RREQ, it stores the routes to all nodes
through which the RREQ previously passed rather than just
the originator of the RREQ.
2.2 Stable, energy efficient protocols for emergency
communication
An energy efficient and scalable routing protocol is pro-
posed by Ramrekha et al. [32] for emergency ad hoc
communications. They select the route based on the route
length and the residual energy of nodes and this mechanism
is applied to AODV and OLSR protocols. A proactive
routing protocol called MQ-Routing, suitable for disaster
scenarios, is proposed by Macone et al. [33] to select
routing path based on time-varying discount factor. Three
different metrics are reported, taking into account the link
availability prediction, the residual energy of the nodes and
the node mobility. These metrics are combined together to
yield the time-varying discount factor. The route stability
based QoS routing is proposed by Sarma et al. [34]. They
calculate the link stability based on the received signal
strength between the nodes. The route discovery procedure
selects the path with high energy and stability, to support
throughput and delay requirements of QoS routing.
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The three-hop horizon pruning algorithm is proposed by
Spohn et al. [35] to compute two-hop connected domi-
nating set (TCDS), which is a set of nodes. Every node in
the network is within two hops from some node in the
TCDS. They have applied a virtual radio range which is
shorter than the physical radio range and consider the
nodes within virtual range as one-hop neighbors. They
have conducted simulation to see the route discovery pro-
cess of AODV over TCDS. Sivakumar et al. [37], have
proposed an approach based on (1) overlaying a virtual
infrastructure on an ad hoc network and (2) operating
routing protocols over the infrastructure. The route dis-
covery process uses sequence of unicast transmission of
RREQ. Their work achieves the efficiency through a tree
based forwarding mechanism. A QoS routing protocol
CEDAR is proposed by Sinha et al. [38, 39]. A minimum
dominating set of the ad hoc network is named as core.
Nodes in the core establishes a unicast virtual link with
peer core nodes that are at most three hops away. Link state
information, corresponding to stable high bandwidth links,
are propagated across the core.
3 Weighted connected dominating set based routing
protocol
From the discussions above, it is observed that the major
design objective of the CDS approach is the construction of
virtual backbone with minimum number of nodes. The
quality of the node to act as a dominating member is not at all
considered. There is a need for a generic protocol which is
stable, scalable and power efficient. So, in this paper, we
introduce a novel approach that integrates multiple factors
like link stability, mobility and energy into a single metric for
Maximum Weight Minimum CDS (MWMCDS) formation.
Table 1 Notations
Notation Description
N1 ðuÞ fv j ðu; vÞ 2 Eg
N2 ðuÞ fw j v 2 N1 ðuÞ ^ w 62 N1 ðuÞ ^ ðv; wÞ 2 Eg
N1t ðuÞ N1 ðuÞ at time t
cEN
in ðuÞ Initial energy of a node u
cEN
rm ðuÞ Remaining energy of a node u
cMOB Minimum mobility factor with value 0.01
min
Ruv Received Signal Strength (RSS) between node u and v
DRuv Variation of RSS between node u and v
cLS
u
Link stability metric of a node u with its neighbors
cMOB
u
Mobility metric of a node u
cEN Energy metric of a Node u
u
WT u Weight of a node u
 Author's personal copy
Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512
We also developed an energy efficient reactive routing
protocol named Weighted-CDSR that takes advantage of
the MWMCDS. This protocol works in two stages,
MWMCDS formation and Routing. The notations used in
the algorithm are listed in Table 1. In this protocol, a node
can play one of two roles as a non-dominating or a dom-
inating node. A non-dominating node just receives the
packet, while a dominating node rebroadcasts or relays the
messages that it receives.
3.1 Weight calculation
The proposed weight WTu for a node u consists of three
metrics, taking into account the link stability (cLS
u ), energy
of the node (cEN u ) and the node mobility (c MOB
u ). A link
stability metric is used to compute the stability of the
communication with its neighbors. The energy metric is to
choose the one with more energy among the stable nodes.
The mobility metric (which follows the idea proposed in
[36]) predicts the speed of a node. A minimum mobility
factor cMOB
min is assumed and is assigned with value 0.01.
The WTu calculation includes cMOBmin if the mobility metric
MOB
cu is 0. The weight of a node u is defined as,
8 LS EN
>
> cu :cu MOB
>
< cMOB ; ifcu [ 0
u Initially all nodes are marked in WHITE color. After
WTu ¼ ð1Þ
> cLS EN
>
> u :cu
: MOB ; Otherwise
cmin
To compute the weight in Eq. (1), Eqs. (2–3) of the fol-
lowing definitions are used:
Definition 1 (Link Stability) The link stability is calcu-
lated based on the Received Signal Strength (RSS).
Assume DRuv is the variation of the RSS between nodes u
ðRtþ1 Rt Þ
and v with DRuv ¼ uv t uv . The distance between the two
nodes is unchanged, when DRuv ¼ 0. When DRuv [ 0, it
means that the distance between the two nodes is closing.
When DRuv \0, it means that distance between the two
nodes is increasing. The link stability between nodes u and
1
v is defined as luv ¼ ð1DR uv Þ
and the stability of a node u is,
X X 1 The main idea of Algorithm 1 is as follows: At first,
cLS
u ¼ luv ¼
8v2N1 ðuÞ 8v2N1 ðuÞ
ð1  DRuv Þ
Definition 2 (Mobility) The mobility of nodes can be
considered in terms of neighbor sets. Let AnB denote the
symmetric difference between two sets A and B. Let A [ B
denote the union of these sets. The mobility factor is then
calculated as the percentage of neighbors which remains the
same between the sending of two consecutive Hello packets:
jN1tþ1 ðuÞnN1t ðuÞj
cMOB
u ¼
jN1tþ1 ðuÞ [ N1t ðuÞj
503
The main importance of this metric is to let the algorithm
prefer more stable nodes which are not likely to change
their neighbor sets rapidly.
Definition 3 (Energy) The energy metric of a node is
calculated as
cEN
rm ðuÞ
cEN
u ¼ ð4Þ
cEN
in ðuÞ
where cENu gives the ratio of energy currently available at u
to its initial energy. It is necessary to balance the traffic
through the network nodes in order to increase the mini-
mum lifetime of the nodes. By using this metric, the most
energy-rich nodes are selected.
3.2 MWMCDS formation
Each node has a two-hop neighbor table for keeping the
topology information about the nodes that are at one-hop
and two hops away. This local topology information is used
in selecting the dominating nodes. Every mobile node
transmits a hello message to its neighbors. The hello
message of node u includes \WTu ; N1 ðuÞ [ . When a node
receives a hello message from one of its neighbor, it
updates the two-hop neighbor table.
hello message transmission, a node marks itself as a domi-
nating node in BLACK color, according to the marking
procedure as described in Algorithm 1. A node is an inter-
mediate node if it has two unconnected neighbors. A node u
is covered by another node v, when each neighbor of u is also
neighbor of v, and WTu  WTv . An intermediate node
becomes an intergateway node if it is not covered by any
neighbor. An intergateway node not covered by any pair of
connected neighboring nodes becomes a gateway node. A
gateway or intergateway node is marked in BLACK color.
All nodes marked in BLACK forms the MWMCDS of the
network. This process needs only two messages. The first
message allows the node to collect information about their
two-hop neighbors and the second is used by the node to
inform its neighbors about its final decision.
ð2Þ node ( u in the algorithm) enters an intermediate state when
it has two unconnected neighbors (described in lines 2
through 6). If u is intermediate node, then it becomes an
intergateway node when u has the highest weight among its
one-hop neighbors and its neighbors are not covered by any
of its neighbor (v in the algorithm) of u (described in lines
7 through 13). Then, u becomes gateway when its weight is
the largest among one-hop neighbors and not covered by
any two of its neighbors (described in lines 14 through 23).
ð3Þ Finally, u is marked in BLACK if u is gateway or inter-
gateway, (described in lines 24 through 26).
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504 Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512

Data: Marking of node u

Result: u is marked with BLACK or WHITE

1. intermediate(u) = intergateway(u) = gateway(u) = f alse

2. foreach v, w ∈ N1 (u) do

3. if v = w && w ∈
/ N1 (v) then

4. intermediate(u) = true

5. end

6. end

7. if intermediate(u) then

8. intergateway(u) = true

9. foreach v ∈ N1 (u) do

10. if N1 (u) ⊆ N1 (v) && W Tu ≤ W Tv then

11. intergateway(u) = f alse

12. end

13. end

14. if intergateway(u) then

15. gateway(u) = true

16. foreach v, w ∈ N1 (u) do

17. if v = w && v ∈ N1 (w) && N1 (u) ⊆ N1 (v) ∪ N1 (w) then

18. if W Tu ≤ W Tv && W Tu ≤ W Tw then

19. gateway(u) = f alse

20. end

21. end

22. end

23. end

24. if gateway(u) intergateway(u) then

25. Color(u) ← BLACK

26. end

27. end

Algorithm 1: Marking Phase

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Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512
Theorem 1 Let S be the set of BLACK nodes and S is a
Connected Dominating Set.
Proof The algorithm marks gateway and intergateway
nodes in BLACK color. It suffices to prove the property
for gateway node since gateway node is also an inter-
gateway node. Suppose that, on the contrary, the cre-
ated set S is not a CDS. Then, there exist some nodes
which are not in S, and which have no neighbors with
nodes in S. Among such nodes, let x be the node with
the largest weight value. If all neighbors of x are non-
intermediate, the graph is a complete graph. Otherwise,
let y be an intermediate neighbor of x with the largest
weight value. Since, y is not a gateway node, it is
covered by one (u) or two (u and w) of its neighbors
and has the lowest weight among them. Note that, if the
cover set contains two nodes and one of them w is non-
intermediate, then u alone covers y and is an interme-
diate node. Node x must be neighbor of u by the
coverage condition. However, WTy \WTu contradicts
the choice of y. Therefore, the set of nodes not in S and
not neighbors of any nodes from S is empty. Hence S is
CDS. h network. It also updates the routing table for forward
3.3 Route discovery and maintenance in
Weighted-CDSR
The proposed protocol uses three control messages
namely Weighted-RREQ, Weighted-RREP and Weigh-
ted-RERR for the route discovery. The Weighted-RREQ
is a broadcast message originated by the source node to
find a path to the destination. The Weighted-RREP is a
unicast message, originated by the destination to notify
the route to the source node. The nodes are notified
through the Weighted-RERR message when the next
hop link breaks. The formats of these packets are in
Table 2.
The Weighted-RREQ packet includes address,
sequence number of the source and the destination
nodes. It also includes the broadcast id and the hop
505
count. When a node wants to transmit a packet to a
destination, it first checks its two-hop table. If the
destination node is in the two-hop table, then it is
forwarded directly.
The destination node replies with Weighted-RREP
which follows the return path to the source host. A
mobile host broadcasts the Weighted-RREQ when it has
to find a route to a destination. This happens when the
destination node is not in the two-hop table. When a
dominating node receives this request packet, it also
checks its two-hop table. It directly sends the packet to
the destination if the destination is in the two-hop table.
If the destination is not in the two-hop table, it first
creates or updates a route to the previous hop without a
valid sequence number. It checks to determine whether
it has received this packet with the same source address
and request id. If so, it discards the packet. It creates a
Weighted-RREP packet, when the destination sequence
number in its routing table entry is greater than or
equal to the destination sequence number in Weighted-
RREQ. Otherwise, it increases the hop_cnt value in the
Weighted-RREQ by one and rebroadcasts RREQ to the
route entry with last hop address from which it has
received the request packet. This packet is dropped by a
non-dominating node. This process is repeated until it
finds the destination node.
Every node, after receiving a Weighted-RREQ, pro-
cesses the packet as explained in Algorithm 2. The idea
behind the algorithm is as follows: If a node (n in the
algorithm) is the destination it prepares the reply
(described in lines 1 and 2). Otherwise, n (dominating
node) searches its two-hop table for the destination
(described in lines 4 through 6). Then, n searches the
routing table to compare the freshness of the route and
prepares the reply (described in lines 8 through 12).
The packet is forwarded to the next hop ( described in
lines 14 through 17). The packet is dropped when n is
not a dominating node (described in line 20).
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506 Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512

Input: Node n receives a Weighted-RREQ packet p

Output: Forwarding of Weighted-RREQ or Sending of Weighted-RREP packet

1. if n == p.dest addr then

2. sendReply(W eighted − RREP )

3. else

4. if isDominatingN ode(n) then

5. if nextHop = twoHopT able.lookU p(p.dest addr) = 0 then

6. send(p, nextHop) ;

7. else

8. if rt.lookU p(p.dest addr) then

9. seqNum = rt.getSeqN um(p.dest addr)

10. if seqNum ≥ p.dest seq# then

11. sendReply(W eighted − RREP )

12. end

13. else

14. rt.addEntry(p.src addr)

15. p.hop cnt + +

16. f orward(p)

17. end

18. end

19. else

20. drop(p)

21. end

22. end

Algorithm 2: Weighted-RREQ Packet Processing

The destination prepares the Weighted-RREP packet. The
src_addr is the destination node address and dest_addr is the
source node address which initiates the route discovery. The
destination node copies these details from the Weighted-RREQ
packet. When a node receives a Weighted-RREP packet, it
searches for a route to the previous hop. If needed, a route is
created for the previous hop, without a valid sequence number.
The node increases the hop count value in the Weighted-RREP
packet by one, in order to account the new hop through the
intermediate node. The forward route for this destination is
created if it does not already exist. The hop_cnt field is incre-
mented by one when it is forwarded by the dominating nodes in
the established path. The originator node knows the distance to
the destination from this hop_cnt field. The life_time denotes
how long the route is valid. The Weighted-RERR message is
sent whenever a link break causes one or more destinations to
become unreachable from some of the node’s neighbors.
Every node after receiving a Weighted-RREP, processes
the packet as explained in Algorithm 3. The idea behind
Algorithm 3 is as follows: Node (u in the algorithm) frees
the packet if it is the target node (described in lines 2 and
3). Otherwise, it creates a forward route entry in the routing
table (described in lines 6 and 8) and forwards the packet to
the previous hop (described in lines 9 through 11).

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Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512 507

Table 3 Simulation parameters

Input: node n receives EAR-RREP packet q
Parameter Value
1. // If reply is for me, discard it
Area size 1,000  1,000 m2
2. if n == q.dest addr then Simulation time 900 s
Traffic type Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
3. f ree(q) Packet size 512 bytes
MAC protocol IEEE 802.11
4. else
Propagation model Two-way ground
5. // forward route entry Transmission range 250 m
Bandwidth 2 Mbps
6. if rt.lookU p(q.src addr) == 0 then Queue size 50 packets
Mobility model Random waypoint
7. rt.addEntry(q.src addr)
Transmitting power 0.667 W
8. end Receiving power 0.365 W
Idle power 0.1 W
9. nextHop = rt.lookU p(q.dest addr) No. of nodes 60,70,80,90,100,110,120
(default:75)
10. q.hop cnt + +
No. of connections 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 20 (4 pkts/s)
(default:10)
11. send(q, nextHop)
Maximum speed (m/s) 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 (default:20)
12. end

Algorithm 3: Weighted-RREP Packet Processing
Table 2 Route discovery packet formats
Packet name
Weighted- Type
RREQ
bcast_id: Broadcast ID
dest_addr: Destination node ID
dest_seq#: Destination sequence
number
src_addr: Source node ID
src_seq#: Source sequence number
Weighted- Type
RREP dest_addr: Destination node ID
dest_seq#: Destination sequence
number
src_addr: Source node ID
life_time: Life time
Weighted- Type
RERR dest_addr: Unreachable destination
node ID
dest_seq#: Unreachable destination
seq#
4 Simulation study
In this section, we evaluate the proposed routing protocol
Weighted-CDSR through simulation, using the network
simulator NS-2.34 [40]. We use a MANET with N mobile
nodes moving in the simulation area. The simulation
parameters are listed in Table 3. Experiments are repeated
for 30 trials with different network sizes, load conditions and
mobility. We compared the simulation results to the well-
known on-demand routing protocols : DSR [28], AODV
Fields [29] and DYMO [30]. The reason for choosing these pro-
tocols for comparison is that they have been adopted by
Hop_Count
IETF and a lot of existing ad hoc routing protocols use these
protocols as their measuring yardstick. To verify the per-
formance of the proposed protocol, we have applied the
routing process over the degree-based CDS proposed by Wu
et al. [8], named Wu(Degree)-CDSR.
To see the performance of MWMCDS construction
algorithm, the following metrics have been used.
Hop_Count
• Average CDS Size: the fraction of the network nodes in
the CDS.
• Average Route Length: the average number of hops in
the established path between each source-destination
pair.
Dest_Count
In rescue scenarios, the communication protocol must be
energy efficient with fast response time. It should also be
scalable and reachable as more nodes are added during
these scenarios. To measure these requirements, the fol-
lowing performance metrics have been used.
• Routing Overhead: (measure energy efficiency) the
total number of routing packets transmitted during the
simulation time.
• End-to-End Delay: (measure response time) the aver-
age time for a data packet to reach the destination from
the source.

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• Packet Delivery Ratio: (measure scalability and reach- 4

Wu(Degree)-CDS
Weighted-CDS
ability) the ratio of data packets received at the 3.75
destination to the total packets transmitted.
• Energy Consumption: (measure energy efficiency) the 3.5

Average Route Length

total energy consumed for sending and receiving the 3.25
packets.
3

2.75
4.1 Average CDS size
2.5
Figure 1 shows the average CDS size with varying network
2.25
sizes. A degree-based CDS is considered as an optimum
size since it gives preference to the nodes that have larger 2
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
number of uncovered neighbors. The CDS constructed No.of Nodes
based on degree is unstable, because it includes nodes with
lowest energy or highest speed. The weight calculation in Fig. 2 Average route length
the proposed work combines multiple metrics such as link
stability, node mobility and energy for forming a Stable 135
AODV
CDS, which can work for a longer time than degree-CDS. DSR
DYMO
120 Weighted-CDSR
So, the CDS size in Weighted-CDS is larger than Wu(de-

Routing Overhead x 10 (packets)

Wu(Degree)-CDSR

gree)-CDS. 105

90
3

4.2 Average route length

75

This metric gives a measure of how well a routing protocol 60

can perform over CDS. As expected, the higher the CDS 45

size, the shorter the routes. This is presented in Fig. 2. As
30
the Weighted-CDS results in larger size CDS than
Wu(Degree)-CDS, the routes are shorter than the routes 15

obtained in Wu(Degree)-CDS. The graph induced by 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Wu(Degree)-CDS is sparse, this results in longer routes. maximum speed (meters/sec)

4.3 Effects of node mobility Fig. 3 Routing overhead versus mobility

The results in Fig. 3 show the generated routing overhead protocols increases with the increased maximum node
against node mobility. The overhead of the all routing speed. This is because when node mobility increases,
existing path may be broken and more RREQ packets fail
35
to reach their destinations. As a consequence, more RREQ
Wu(Degree)-CDS
Weighted-CDS packets are generated and transmitted. The reduction in the
30 routing overhead is achieved in Weighted-CDSR as it
constructs the most stable routes with the longest duration
25
in contrast with AODV, DSR and DYMO. Weighted-
Average CDS Size

20
CDSR reduces the rate of route reconstruction due to link
breakage. Clearly the reduction in route reconstruction rate
15 in Weighted-CDSR reduces the rate of extra control mes-
sages. Although Wu(Degree)-CDS results in minimum size
10 CDS, it does not guarantee an optimal network perfor-
mance because the routing path is broken frequently due to
5
mobility of the nodes. Thus the routing overhead of
0 Wu(Degree)-CDSR is higher than Weighted-CDSR.
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Figure 4 plots the packet delivery ratio of the routing
No.of Nodes
protocols against the maximum node speed. The results
Fig. 1 CDS size show that the delivery ratio decreases with the increased

123
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Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512 509

100 consumption of Wu(Degree)-CDSR is minimum among all

the protocols when the maximum speed is less than 5 m/s.
90 This is due to less number of nodes participate in routing
Packet Delivery Ratio (%)

and the mobility does not affect the routing path frequently.
When the speed is greater than 5 m/s, the frequent route
80
breakage in Wu(Degree)-CDSR leads to high energy con-
sumption than Weighted-CDSR.
70

4.4 Effects of network density

60
AODV
DSR
DYMO
Weighted-CDSR
Wu(Degree)-CDSR
50
0 5
Fig. 4 PDR versus mobility
node mobility. This is due to the fact that the routes are
highly prone to breakage as the host speed increases. The
weight based CDS construction algorithms use a mobility
metric to let the algorithm prefer more stable nodes which
are not likely to change their neighbor sets rapidly. Com-
paring the obtained results, Weighted-CDSR has the
highest delivery ratio as it establishes routes with stable
nodes. The packet delivery ratio of Wu(Degree)-CDSR is
close to Weighted-CDS when the maximum speed is less
than 5 m/s. The performance of Wu(Degree)-CDSR
degrades when the speed is more than 5 m/s. This is due to
the loss of connection with the neighbors as only nodes
with more neighbors are added in Wu(Degree)-CDSR.
Figure 5 depicts the average energy consumption of the
nodes against node mobility. The energy consumption of
the protocols increases with the increased node speed.
More energy is consumed due to the frequent route
reconstruction process resulting from link breakage. The
Weighted-CDSR consumes less energy compared to others
because of the reduction in routing overhead. The energy
50
AODV
DSR
DYMO
Average Energy Consumed x 10 (J)
Figure 6 shows the performance of the protocols in terms
of routing overhead versus network density. As shown in
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 the figure, the routing overhead generated by each of the
maximum speed (meters/sec) protocols increases as the network density increases. At
high density with more than 100 nodes, the overhead
generated by DSR and Weighted-CDSR is reduced. The
route cache mechanism of DSR reduces the number of
RREQ transmissions. In the case of Weighted-CDSR, the
transmission of RREQ is restricted only to the CDS nodes.
As a consequence, the routing overhead is reduced. When
the network is sparse with less than 40 nodes, Wu(Degree)-
CDSR incurs more routing overhead as mobility of the
nodes affect the routing path. Since the CDS size grows
with the increasing network size, the routing overhead of
Wu(Degree)-CDSR is the least compared to AODV,
DYMO and DSR.
Figure 7 demonstrates the performance of all the protocols
in terms of end-to-end delay. When the network density
increases, the transmitted RREQ packets fail to reach the
destinations due to high collisions and channel contention that
have been caused by excessive redundant transmissions.
Therefore, the waiting time of data packets is increased. The
figure also reveals that, in sparse network with 30 or 40 nodes,
especially when the network is poorly connected, the end-to-
end delay is higher in AODV, DSR and Weighted-CDSR. The
end-to-end delay gets reduced when the network connectivity
increases with the increasing network density. But, in dense
130
AODV
DSR
120

DYMO
Weighted-CDSR
Routing Overhead x 10 (packets)

Weighted-CDSR
45 Wu(Degree)-CDSR 110 Wu(Degree)-CDSR
2

100

40 90
3

80
70
35
60
50
30
40
30
25 20
10
20 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
maximum speed (meters/sec) Number of nodes

Fig. 5 Energy consumed versus mobility Fig. 6 Routing overhead versus no. of nodes

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510 Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512

0.5 100
AODV
DSR
0.45 DYMO
Weighted-CDSR
Wu(Degree)-CDSR
0.4 90

Packet Delivery Ratio (%)

End-to-End Delay (sec)

0.35

0.3 80

0.25

0.2 70

0.15

0.1 60
AODV
DSR
0.05 DYMO
Weighted-CDSR
Wu(Degree)-CDSR
0 50
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Number of nodes Number of nodes

Fig. 7 End-to-end delay versus no. of nodes Fig. 8 PDR versus no. of nodes

network with more than 80 nodes, the complexity of the net-
work increases and hence the end-to-end delay increases. DSR
needs to put the route information in the data packets which
creates longer delay as the network density increases. The path
accumulation of DYMO stores the routes to all nodes while
processing RREQ packets. Thus the delay is always less in
DYMO. The number of nodes in CDS increases when the
network density increases. The denser CDS provides shorter
routes. Thus delay in Weighted-CDSR is less than AODV and
DSR, when the network density is high with more than 50
nodes. The end-to-end delay in Wu(Degree)-CDSR is
the highest among DYMO, AODV and Weighted-CDSR, as
minimum number of nodes experience heavy load.
Figure 8 depicts the packet delivery ratio of all the
protocols against network density. When the network
density is low, the network connectivity is poor. The per-
formance of AODV, DSR, DYMO and Weighted-CDSR
drops when the network density is set to low with 30 or 40
nodes. However, when the network density is increased,
the performances of AODV and Weighted-CDSR are good.
In DSR, both the route-reply cycle and data packet trans-
missions carry the source route information. As a conse-
Weighted-CDSR. As a consequence, the energy consump-
tion is minimum in Weighted-CDSR compared to others.
The energy consumption of Wu(Degree)-CDSR is the least
among DYMO, DSR and AODV when the network is dense
with more than 60 nodes. This is due to least number of
nodes involved in routing. As explained earlier, the routing
overhead of Wu(Degree)-CDSR is high when the network is
sparse leads to highest energy consumption.
4.5 Effects of offered traffic load
The results in Fig. 10 show the achieved packet delivery ratio
for all the protocols. When the number of flows increases, the
number of nodes initiating route discovery operation also
increases. As a consequence, more RREQ packets are gen-
erated and transmitted which lead to a high consumption of the
communication bandwidth. This leads to the delivery of fewer
data packets at the destinations, thereby degrading the deliv-
ery ratio. At offered load of 20 flows, the high delivery ratio is
achieved by Weighted-CDSR with more stable nodes, when
65
AODV
DSR
60 DYMO
Average Energy Consumed x 10 (J)

quence, long delay is experienced by the packets when the Weighted-CDSR

Wu(Degree)-CDSR
2

55
network density increases. Due to the long delay, the per-
50
formance of DSR drops with high network density. The
45
path accumulation policy in DYMO shows increased per-
40
formance at low network density. The packet delivery ratio
of Wu(Degree)-CDSR is least among DSR, AODV and 35

Weighted-CDSR due to heavy load on less number of 30

nodes. Also, the nodes in Wu(Degree)-CDSR experience 25

frequent route breakage due to mobility and energy. This 20

leads to more packet dropping. 15

Figure 9 shows the average energy consumption of all the 10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
protocols with increasing node density. The route discovery Number of nodes
operation works with less number of nodes in the forwarding
of the RREQ packets and the route re-computation is less in Fig. 9 Energy consumed versus no. of nodes

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Wireless Netw (2015) 21:499–512
100
90
Packet Delivery Ratio (%)
80
70
60
AODV
DSR
DYMO
Weighted-CDSR
Wu(Degree)-CDSR
50
1 3 5 7
Number of connections (4 pkts/sec)
Fig. 10 PDR versus no. of flows
compared with others. The is due to the reduction of the
number of nodes involved in the dissemination of RREQ
packets which leads to the reduction of routing overhead and
packet collisions. As a consequence more communication
bandwidth is freed for data transmission. When the offered
load is minimum with 1pkt/sec, Wu(Degree)-CDSR provides
the highest packet delivery ratio. The heavy load on CDS
nodes in Wu(Degree)-CDSR is leading to energy depletion.
Thus the performance of Wu(Degree)-CDSR decreases when
the offered load increases.
5 Conclusion
This paper proposes a stable, scalable and energy efficient,
reactive routing protocol named Weighted-CDSR, suitable
for MANETs. A novel approach is introduced that inte-
grates multiple factors like link stability, mobility and
energy into a single metric for MWMCDS formation. Our
protocol uses MWMCDS for the broadcast and data
transmission. The CDS selection based on combined met-
rics increases the path availability for a longer period. The
performance of the proposed work is compared to degree-
based and well known reactive routing protocols with
increased mobility, network density and number of con-
nections. Simulation results show that the number of con-
trol packet transmission is reduced because only the
dominating nodes act as routers to route the messages of
other nodes. The energy consumption is also less due to the
reduction in route re-computation. With stable backbones,
Weighted-CDSR gives high packet delivery ratio in all the
cases. As the network congestion is reduced, more band-
width is available for data transmission in Weighted-
CDSR, it performs well when the number of flows
increases. As more nodes are added to the backbone when
the network density is high, the end-to-end delay is
Author's personal copy
511
minimum in Weighted-CDSR. Based on the increased
packet delivery ratio, improved energy efficiency, lesser
routing overhead and lesser end-to-end delay, the proposed
protocol Weighted-CDSR, is well suited for the require-
ments of emergency and rescue scenarios.
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33. Macone, D., Oddi, G., & Pietrabissa, A. (2012). MQ-routing:
and Computer Technology (WIEECT), Mumbai during 1992–1996.
Mobility-, GPS- and energy-aware routing protocol in MANETs
From 1997, he is working in the Kalasalingam University (Previously
for disaster relief scenarios. Ad Hoc Networks. doi:10.1016/j.
known as Arulmigu Kalasalingam College of Engineering) as Senior
adhoc.2012.09.008.
Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering.
34. Sarma, N., & Nandi, S. (2010). Route stability based QoS routing
His fields of interest are Computer Networks, Bio-inspired computing
in mobile ad hoc networks. Wireless Personal Communications,
and Computer Applications in Medicine. He has published more than
54, 203–224.
100 publications in various International journals and International
35. Spohn, M. A., & Garcia-Luna-Aceves, J. J. (2006). Improving route
Conferences.
discovery in on-demand routing protocols using tow-hop connected
dominating sets. Pervasive and Mobile Computing, 4, 509–531.

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