Ac Ramesh PDF

COURSE FILE
ANALOG COMMUNICATION
R13
II B Tech – II SEMESTER
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
VIGNAN’S INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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TABLE OF CONTENT
S.NO. Content Page No.
1 Course Objectives & Outcomes 3
2 Syllabus 4
3 Lecture Plan 5
4 Unit wise course Material(As per given format)
8
Unit-I: < AMPLITUDE MODULATION>
43
Unit-II: < DSB & SSB MODULATION>
70
Unit-III: < ANGLE MODULATION>
98
Unit-IV: < NOISE>
119
Unit-V: < TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS>
153
Unit-VI: < PULSE MODULATION >
177
5 Reference text books/web material etc.,
178
6 Mid Question Paper + Schemes of Evaluation.
184
7 Fast track material for Back-Log students.
193
8 Sample Question Papers with solutions
253
9 Virtual Labs if required
254
10 Mapping of Assignments / Question Papers with course objective learning outcomes.
257
11 Bloom’s Taxonomy checklist
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1. Course Objectives & Outcomes
1.1. Course Objectives
1. To introduce the concepts of analogue communication systems

2. To equip students with various issues related to analogue communication such
as modulation, demodulation, transmitters and receivers and noise performance.
3. To prepare mathematical background for communication signal analysis
4. To introduce the concepts of pulse modulation techniques.
1.2. Course Outcomes
After studying this course:
1. Express the basic concepts of analog modulation schemes and Evaluate analog
modulated waveform in time /frequency domain.
2. Differentiate modulation and demodulation techniques of Amplitude and Angle

modulation.
3. Evaluate the performance of analog communications in the presence of noise.
4. Analyze and allocate performance objectives to components of transmitters and

receivers and classify the different types of pulse modulation
2. Syllabus
3
UNIT I AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Introduction to communication system, Need for modulation, Frequency Division Multiplexing , Amplitude
Modulation, Definition, Time domain and frequency domain description, single tone modulation, power
relations in AM waves, Generation of AM waves, square law Modulator, Switching modulator, Detection of
AM Waves; Square law detector, Envelope detector.
UNIT II DSB & SSB MODULATION
Double side band suppressed carrier modulators, time domain and frequency domain description, Generation
ofDSBSC Waves, Balanced Modulators, Ring Modulator, Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves,
COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain description, Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM
SSBModulated Wave, Time domain description, Phase discrimination method for generating AM SSB
Modulated waves. Demodulation of SSB Waves, Vestigial side band modulation: Frequency description,
Generation of VSB Modulated wave, Time domain description, Envelope detection of a VSB Wave pulse
Carrier, Comparison of AM Techniques, Applications of different AM Systems.
UNIT III ANGLE MODULATION
Basic concepts, Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation, Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal
FM Wave, Narrow band FM, Wide band FM, Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave -
Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM, Detection of FM Waves: Balanced Frequency discriminator, Zero
Crossing detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM & AM.
UNIT IV NOISE
Noise in Analog communication System, Noise in DSB & SSB System, Noise in AM System, Noise in Angle
Modulation System, Threshold effect in Angle Modulation System, Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.
UNIT V TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS
Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter, AM Transmitter, Effect of feedback on performance of AM

Transmitter, FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type and phase modulated FM Transmitter, frequency
stability in FM Transmitter. Radio Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned radio frequency receiver,
Superhetrodyne receiver, RF section and Characteristics - Frequency changing and tracking, Intermediate
frequency, AGC, FM Receiver, Comparison with AM Receiver, Amplitude limiting.
UNIT VI PULSE MODULATION
Time Division Multiplexing, Types of Pulse modulation, PAM (Single polarity, double polarity) PWM:
Generation & demodulation of PWM, PPM, Generation and demodulation of PPM, TDM Vs FDM.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Principles of Communication Systems – H Taub& D. Schilling, GautamSahe, TMH, 2007 3rd Edition.
2. Communication Systems – B.P. Lathi, BS Publication, 2006.
REFERENCES:
1. Principles of Communication Systems - Simon Haykin, John Wiley, 2nd Ed.
2. Electronics & Communication System – George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, TMH 2004.
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3. Communication Systems– R.P. Singh, SP Sapre, Second Edition TMH, 2007.
4. Fundamentals of Communication Systems - John G. Proakis, Masond, Salehi PEA, 2006.
3. Lecture Plan
Lecture no. Unit

Number
01 UNIT- I Introduction to communication system
02 Need for modulation

03 Frequency Division Multiplexing
04 Amplitude Modulation, Definition,
05 Time domain and frequency domain description
06 single tone modulation
07 power relations in AM waves
08 Generation of AM waves, square law Modulator,
09 Switching modulator,
10 Detection of AM Waves; Square law detector,.
11 Envelope detector
12 UNIT- II Double side band suppressed carrier modulators, time domain and frequency
domain description
13 Generation of DSBSC Waves, Balanced Modulators
14 Ring Modulator
15 Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves
16 COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain description,
17 Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM SSB Modulated Wave
18 Phase discrimination method for generating AM SSB Modulated waves.
19 Demodulation of SSB Waves,
20 Vestigial side band modulation: Frequency description, Generation of VSB

Modulated wave, Time domain description
21 Envelope detection of a VSB Wave pulse Carrier
22 Comparison of AM Techniques, Applications of different AM Systems.
23 UNIT- Basic concepts, Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation

III
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24 Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave
25 Narrow band FM
26 Wide band FM
27 Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave
28 Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM,
29 Detection of FM Waves: Balanced Frequency discriminator,
30 Balanced Frequency discriminator,
31 Zero crossing detector
32 Phase locked loop
33 Comparison of FM & AM.
34 UNIT- IV Noise in Analog communication System
35 Noise in DSB & SSB System
36 Noise in SSB system
37 Noise in AM System
38 Noise in Angle Modulation System,
39 Threshold effect in Angle Modulation System,
40 Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.
41 UNIT- V Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter
42 AM Transmitter
43 Effect of feedback on performance of AM Transmitter
44 FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type
45 phase modulated FM Transmitter
46 frequency stability in FM Transmitter
47 Radio Receiver -Receiver Types
48 Tuned radio frequency receiver
49 Superhetrodyne receiver,
50 RF section and Characteristics
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51 Frequency changing and tracking,
52 Intermediate frequency
53 AGC
54 FM Receiver
55 Comparison with AM Receiver
56 Amplitude limiting.
57 UNIT- VI Time Division Multiplexing
58 Types of Pulse modulation
59 PAM (Single polarity, double polarity)
60 PWM: Generation
61 Demodulation of PWM
62 Generation of PPM
63 demodulation of PPM
64 TDM vs FDM
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4. Unit-wise course material
4.1. Unit – I
AMPLITUDE MODULATION : Introduction to communication system, Need for modulation,

Frequency Division Multiplexing , Amplitude Modulation, Definition, Time domain and
frequency domain description, single tone modulation, power relations in AM waves,
Generation of AM waves, square law Modulator, Switching modulator, Detection of AM Waves;
Square law detector, Envelope detector.
4.2.1. Unit Objectives:
After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand:
1. To introduce the concepts of analogue communication systems

2. To equip students with various issues related to analogue communication such as modulation,
demodulation.
3. To bring out different types of Amplitude modulation techniques
4.2.2. Unit Outcomes:
1. The students will have the knowledge of components of analogue communication system.
2. The students able to understand need of modulation and demodulation in communication system
3. Students should be able to differentiate amplitude modulation techniques
4.2.3. Unit Lecture Plan
Lecture Topic Methodology Quick reference

No.
1 Introduction to communication Chalk & Board T2,C1,1
system
2 Need for modulation Chalk & Board T2,C1,19
3 Frequency Division Chalk & Board T1,C3,160
Multiplexing
4 Amplitude Modulation, Chalk & Board T2,C3,114
Definition
5 Time domain and frequency Chalk & Board T2,C3,152
domain description
6 single tone modulation Chalk & Board T2,C3,163
7 power relations in AM waves Chalk & Board T1,C3,165
8 Generation of AM waves, Chalk & Board T1,C3,119
square law Modulator,
9 Switching modulator Chalk & Board T2,C3,175
10 Detection of AM Waves; Chalk & Board T2,C3,184
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Square law detector
11 Envelope detector. Chalk & Board T2,C3,185
4.2.4. Teaching Material / Teaching Aids as per above lecture plan.
4.2.4.1. Lecture-1:Introduction to communication system
Communication System
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange. (OR)Communication is simply the basic process of exchanging
information.
The electronics equipment’s which are used for communication purpose, are called
communication equipment’s. Different communication equipment’s when assembled together
form a communication system.Typical example of communication system are line telephony
and line telegraphy, radio telephony and radio telegraphy, radio broadcasting, point-to-point
communication and mobile communication, computer communication, radar communication,
television broadcasting, radio telemetry, radio aids to navigation, radio aids to aircraft landing
etc.
The Communication Process
In the most fundamental sense, communication involves the transmission of information from
one point to another through a succession of process as listed below :
1. The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator.

2. The description of that image, with a certain measure of precision, by a set of oral visual
symbols.
3. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a physical
medium of interest.
4. The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination.
5. The decoding and reproduction of the original symbols.
6. The recreation of the original thought pattern or image, with a definable degradation in
quality, in the mind of recipient.
Block Diagram of Communication System
Fig.1 shows the block diagram of a general communication system, in which the different
functional elements are represented by blocks.
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The essential components of a communication system are information source, input transducer,
transmitter, communication channel, receiver and destination.
Now, we shall discuss the functioning of these blocks.
(i) Information Source
As we know, a communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This

information originates in the information source.
In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words, code, symbols,
sound signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and
communicated.
Therefore, we can say that the function of information source is to produce required message
which has to be transmitted.
(ii) Input Transducer
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
The message from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when
the message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is
used to convert it into a time-varying electrical signal.
For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage

which is in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.
(iii) Transmitter
The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.
For example in radio broadcasting the electrical signal obtained from sound signal, is processed
to restrict its range of audio frequencies (up to 5 kHz in amplitude modulation radio broadcast )
and is often amplified.
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In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio communication,
signal amplification is necessary before modulation.
Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal. In short, we can say that inside the
transmitter, signal processing such as restriction of range of audio frequencies, amplification and
modulation of are achieved. All these processing of the message signal are done just to ease the
transmission of the signal through the channel.
(iv) The Channel and The Noise
The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to
the receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the channel is to provide a physical
connection between the transmitter and the receiver.
There are two types of channels, namely point-to-point channels and broadcast
channels.Example of point-to-point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical
fibres. Wire-lines operate by guided electromagnetic waves and they are used for local telephone
transmission.
In case of microwave links, the transmitted signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave in free
space. Microwave links are used in long distance telephone transmission.An optical fiber is a
low-loss, well-controlled, guided optical medium. Optical fibers are used in optical
communications.
Although these three channels operate differently, they all provide a physical medium for the
transmission of signals from one point to another point. Therefore, for these channels, the term
point-to-point is used.
On the other hand, the broadcast channel provides a capability where several receiving stations
can be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter. An example of a broadcast channel is a
satellite in geostationary orbit, which covers about one third of the earth’s surface. During the
process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in the
system.
Noise is an unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise signal is
always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication
system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.
(v) Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation
carried out in transmitter.
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(vi) Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its
original form.
For example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer
i.e. converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.
4.2.4.2. Lecture 2:Need for modulation
1. Frequency Translation:
It means translation of the signal in the frequency domain, from one region to another
region. For example, the band limited signal in the range from f1 to f2 can be translated
to the range . The new signal in the range bears the same
information as that in the signal from f1 to f2.
2. Frequency multiplexing:
Suppose several different signals are required to transmit along a single communication
channel. All these signals need to be separately recoverable and distinguishable from
each other at the receiving end. The single channel may be a single pair of wires or the
free space that separates one radio antenna from another. Such multiple transmission i.e.,
multiplexing may be achieved by translating each one of the original signals to a different
frequency range.
3. Practicability of antennas:
When free space is the communication channel, antennas radiate and receive the signals.
In such case antennas operate effectively only when their dimensions are of the order of
magnitude of the wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
For eg. A signal of frequency 1KHz (an audio tone) corresponds to a wavelength of
300,000mtrs by relation . Since an antenna of 300,000mtrs is impractical, it
can be reduced by translating the audio tone to a higher frequency.
4. Narrow banding :
Suppose the audio range extends from, say 50hz to 10KHz. In such case the ratio of the
highest audio frequency to the lowest is 200. Therefore, an antenna suitable for use at one
end of the range would be entirely too short or too long for the other end. Suppose if it is
translated so that it occupies the range from to .

In this case the ratio of highest to lowest frequency would be only 1.01. Thus with the
process of frequency translation, wideband signal can be changed to narrowband signal
which is more conveniently processed.
5. Common Processing:
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When number of different signals occupying different spectral ranges is there for
transmission, it is necessary to adjust the frequency range of processing apparatus.
So the processing apparatus is made elaborate to operate in same fixed frequency range
instead to translate the frequency range of each signal.
6. Reduction of Noise and Interference:
The effect of noise and interference cannot be completely eliminated in communication
system. However it is possible to minimize their effects by using certain types of
modulation schemes. These schemes generally require a transmission bandwidth much
larger than the bandwidth of the message signal. Here bandwidth is traded for noise
reduction.
Frequency Translation:
A signal may be translated to a new spectral range by multiplying the signal with an
Where Am is the Constant amplitude and

fm Is the frequency.
The two sided spectral pattern is shown in fig. below, which consists of two lines each
with amplitude
consider the auxiliary sinusoidal signal
In which Ac is the constant amplitude and

fc is the frequency.
Multiplying the two signals, the result is
The new spectral amplitude pattern is shown also
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It is very clear that original spectral lines have been translated, both in the positive
frequency direction by amount fc and also in the negative-frequency direction by the
same amount. With this, four spectral components are resulted in two sinusoidal
waveforms, one at fc+fm and the other at fc-fm , with spectral component of each of
amplitude Consider the superposition of four sinusoidal signals, the highest in

the frequency having the frequency fm. Before translation by multiplication, the two
sided spectral pattern displays eight components centered around zero frequency. After
multiplication, the spectral pattern translated both in positive and negative-frequency
directions. The resultant contains 16 spectral components which are due to 8 sinusoidal
waveforms as shown in fig. below
Consider the number of sinusoidal components defined at sharply frequencies

which are non-periodic, finite energy signal is represented in the frequency domain in
terms of its Fourier transforms. The spectral density of such non-periodic, finite energy
signal is represented in the frequency domain in terms of its Fourier transforms. If the
modulating signal m(t) be band limited to the frequency range 0 to fH, its Fourier
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transform is . After multiplication with ,the spectral density
is given by
and is shown in the figure below.
The operation of multiplying a signal with an auxiliary sinusoidal signal is called mixing
or heterodyning. In the translated signal, the part of the signal which consists of spectral
components above the auxiliary signal in the range fc to fc+fm is called upper sideband
signal. The other part in the range fc-fm to fc is called the lower sideband signal.
4.2.4.3. Lecture 3:Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are

combined for transmission on a single communications line or channel.It is analog
technique. Each signal is assigned a different frequency (sub channel) within the main channel.
FDM requires that the bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths of
the various signals to be transmitted. Thus each signal having different frequency forms a
particular logical channel on the link and follows this channel only. These channels are then
separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called guard bands. These multiplexing and De-
multiplexing signals are shown in below figures
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16
In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be analog signals. Thus digital signals need to be
converted to analog form, if they are to use FDM.
Twisted-pair lines are common in households and small businesses. But major telephone cables,
operating between large businesses, government agencies, and municipalities, are capable of
much larger bandwidths.
Advantages of FDM:
1. A large number of signals (channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
2. FDM does not need synchronization between its transmitter and receiver for proper operation.
3. Demodulation of FDM is easy.
4. Due to slow narrow band fading only a single channel gets affected.
Disadvantages of FDM:
1. The communication channel must have a very large bandwidth.
2. Intermodulation distortion takes place.
3. Large number of modulators and filters are required.
4. FDM suffers from the problem of crosstalk.
5. All the FDM channels get affected due to wideband fading.
Applications of FDM :
1. FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting. Each AM and FM radio station uses a
different carrier frequency. In AM broadcasting, these frequencies use a special band from 530 to
1700 KHz. All these signals/frequencies are multiplexed and are transmitted in air. A receiver
receives all these signals but tunes only one which is required. Similarly FM broadcasting uses a
bandwidth of 88 to 108 MHz
2. FDM is used in television broadcasting.
3. First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.
4.2.4.4. Lecture 4:Amplitude Modulation, Definition
AM Wave:
17
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of thecarrier wave
c(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t).Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t)
given by
C(t) = Accoswct
Where Ac is the carrier amplitude and
Fc is the carrier frequency.
Also assume that phase of the carrier is zero.
Let the m(t) be the message or base band signal.
Thus the standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is given by
whereKa is a constant, called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

Consider the standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is
where Ka is constant called amplitude sensitivity of themodulator.

The amplitude of the time function multiplying f t c cos 2p is called the envelope of
theAMWave S(t).
Denote this envelope by a(t),
i.e.,
Percentage modulation is defined as the maximum absolute value of Kam(t)multiplied by
100
Two cases arise here, depending on the magnitude of Kam(t) compared to unity.
Case(i): When for all t,
The term 1+Kam(t) is always nonnegative.
In this case the percentage modulation is either less than or equal to 100%.
The expression for the envelope of the AM wave is given by
For all t.
Case(ii) : When for some t,

The percentage modulation is greater than 100% and it is called over modulation.
In this case the envelope of the AM wave is evaluated from , but it

contains envelope distortion.
Conditions for good detection :

(i) The percentage modulation is less than 100% to avoid envelope distortion or over
modulation
(ii) The message bandwidth W is small compared to the carrier frequency fc.
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4.2.4.5. Lecture 5: Frequency-Domain Description of AM Wave
Consider the standard form of AM wave S(t)
Given by
Let the message signal m(t) be band limited to the interval - w £ f £ w. Now the
frequency-domain expression can be obtained by taking the Fourier Transform of S(t)
i.e., S(f).
The spectrum consists of two delta functions weighted by the factor and occurring
at +fc and two versions of the base band spectrum translated in frequency by fc with
weights
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For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of the modulated wave lying above
the carrier frequency fc is called USB whereas the symmetric position below fc is called
LSB.
For negative frequencies, the image of the upper sideband is represented by the position
of the spectrum below –fc and the image of the lower sideband by the position above –fc.
The condition fc > W ensures that the sidebands do not overlap. Otherwise modulated
wave exhibits spectral overlap resulting frequency distortion.
ii. For +ve frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM Wave is fc + w and
the lowest frequency component is fc - w. The difference between these two frequencies
defines the transmission bandwidth B for the AM wave is B = 2W.
4.2.4.6. Lecture 6 : Single Tone Modulation:
Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or frequency component, is
Where Am is the amplitude of the modulating wave and fm is the frequency. The
sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) has amplitude AC and frequency fc is
Then the AM Wave is
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where is the modulation factor or percentage modulation.
For proper modulation, m must be kept below unity.

In this diagram, for m< 1, let Amax and Amin denote the maximum and minimum values
of the envelope of the modulated wave.
Now the AM wave can be written as
The Fourier
Transform of
S(t) is given
by
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Hence in the spectrum of AM Wave, the special case of sinusoidal modulation, consists
of delta functions at ±fc, fc ± fm and –fc ± fm. In general the AM Wave S(t) is a voltage or
current wave. In either case, the average power delivered to a system of 1-W load resistance,
comprises three components.
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Variation of carrier power and sideband power with % modulation.
4.2.4.7. Lecture 7 :Power relations in the AM Wave
There are three components in AM wave, one carrier and other two sidebands as given
below
So the modulated wave is associated with all the 3 components.

If the modulated wave is passed through an antenna of resistance R, then the total power
dissipated is
Now power contained in the carrier signal is
Similarly Power Contained in the two sidebands are
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Current Calculations:
If the current passing through the antenna is It due to modulated wave and the current is
IC when there is no modulation then the power ratio becomes
Modulation by several sine waves:

Let V1, V2, V3 etc be the voltage simultaneously considered for modulation.Then the
total modulating voltage Vt is given by

Now dividing VC, we have
The total power in AM wave consists of carrier power and sideband power.
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So, if several sine waves are used simultaneously the total sidebands power is
When ® SB1 P Power of the upper and lower sidebands due 1modulating voltage.
Similar is the case for
A 400watt (400-w) carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total power
in the modulated wave.
A broad cast radio bfalk rates 10kw when modulation % is 60. How much of this is
carrier power?
4.2.4.8. Lecture 8
Generation of AM Waves:
There are two methods of for generating AM Wave.

i. Square-law modulation
ii. Switching modulation
i. Square-law modulator:
In this the sum of carrier signal and modulating signal is applied to a non-linear device.
The non-linear device may be a diode or a transistor. The non-linear device is suitably
biased and operated in the restricted portion of the characteristic curve. In general, the
transfer characteristic of diode-resistor load combination can be represented closely by a
square-law,
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Where V1 and V2 are the input and respectively and a1 and a2 are constants.
Here input voltage V1(t) consists of carrier and modulating signal.
A bandpass filter is used at the output for extracting the desired modulation products.
In general the filter may be a single tuned or double tuned which should be met the
required parameters.
Therefore by the input-output relation for the above modulator circuit, we have
This can be extracted with appropriate filter by eliminating the unwanted terms.
4.2.4.9. Lecture 9:
Switching Modulator
The carrier wave c(t) applied to the diode is assumed to be large in amplitude. So it
swings right across the characteristic curve of the diode.
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Assume that the diode is ideal which offers zero impedance in the forward bias and infinite
impedance in the reverse bias with cut in voltage zero. Consider the transfer characteristic of
the diode load resistor combination by a piecewise linear characteristic as shown above . In
such case, the diode allows the signal only when c(t)>0. Thus the diode acts as a switch in
between c(t)>0 and c(t)<0 and hence it is named as switching modulator.
Therefore, for an input voltage V1(t) given by
The load voltage V2(t) varies periodically between the values V1(t) and 0 at a rate equal
to the Carrier frequency. That means the non-linear behavior of the diode is replaced by an
approximately equivalent linear time varying operation. The equation can be mathematically
as
Where gp(t) ® a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one half and period
as shown in fig below.
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By Fourier series g(t) is given by
Substituting in V2(t), we have
By using proper bandpass filter, unwanted terms are removed leaving the desired AM
Wave with
4.2.4.10. Lecture 10:The square-law Demodulation:
Demodulation is a process of recovering the baseband signal from the modulated

signal.Base band signal can be recovered form the AM signal in two ways.
1. Square law demodulation
2. Linear envelope diode detection.
In the Square-law detection, a non-linear device sis used where the square-law
relationship exist between input and output signal. Y = kx2, where K is a constant
Because of the non-linearity of the transfer characteristic of the device, the output
response is different for positive and negative excursion of the carrier away from the
quiescent operating point 0 of the device. If averaging circuit is used at the output of the
non-linear device, the average of the carrier envelope is obtained which is in the form of
modulating signal.
Thus if the applied signal is
The output of the squaring circuit is
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By using proper filter, the dc terms as well as the terms whose spectral components
arelocated near c cw &2w can be eliminated leaving the output signal.
Here the total recovered signal is distorted version of the original modulation because of
m2(t). this distortion is small if
ii. The modulation does not depend on the non linearity being square-law. Any type of
non linearity which does not have odd-symmetry wrt initial operating point will similarly
accomplish demodulation.
iii. Demodulation will be accomplished incidentally when it is passed through an
amplifier even though we are not intended.
4.2.4.11. Lecture 11:Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is a circuit which consists of a diode D and resistor – capacitor

RCcombination. Assume that the Amplitude - modulated carrier which is applied at the
input terminals is supplied by a voltage source of zero internal impedance. Assume
further that the diode is ideal which offers zero resistance in forward direction and
infinite resistance in reverse direction. Initially assume that the input is of fixed amplitude
and that the resistor R is not present. In this case the capacitor charges to the peak
positive voltage of the carrier. The capacitor holds this peak voltage, and the diode would
not again conduct.Suppose now that the input-carrier amplitude is increased. The diode
again conducts, andthe capacitor charges to the new higher carrier peak. In order to allow
the capacitor voltage to follow the carrier peaks when the carrier amplitude is decreasing,
it is necessary to include the resistor RL through which capacitor may discharge. Thus as
shown in fig, the capacitor changes to the peak of each carrier cycle and delay slightly
between cycles.The time constant RC is selected so that the change in capacitor voltage
between thecycles is at least equal to the decrease in carrier amplitude between cycles.
(i.e. it should not be too low or high) Now the capacitor voltage follows the carrier
29
envelope and sometimes, it hassuperimposed resulting a saw-tooth waveform of carrier
frequency. This saw tooth distortion of the envelope waveform is very easily removed by
a filter.
4.2.5. Test Questions
a. Multiple Choice Questions
1. In Amplitude Demodulation, the condition which the load resistor R must satisfy to
discharge capacitor C slowly between the positive peaks of the carrier wave so that
the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of change of the
modulating wave (W is message bandwidth and ω is carrier frequency, in rad/sec) is
a. RC < 1/W
b. RC > 1/W
c. RC < 1/ω
d. RC > 1/ω
Explanation:
The discharging time constant RC must be so that it ensures the capacitor to discharge
slowly through the load resistor R between the positive peaks of the carrier wave, but not
so long that the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of change of
the modulating wave, that isRC < 1/WWhere, W is the message bandwidth. The result is
30
that the capacitor voltage or detector output is nearly the same as the envelope of the AM
wave.
2. The function of multiplexing is

a. To reduce the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted
b. To combine multiple data streams over a single data channel
c. To allow multiple data streams over multiple channels in a prescribed format
d. To match the frequencies of the signal at the transmitter as well as the receiver
Explanation:
Multiplexing is a process where multiple data streams from different sources are
combined and transmitted over a single data channel. Multiplexer or MUX is placed at
the transmitting end to combine the signals and a De multiplexer or DEMUX is placed
at the receiver that separates the received signals and sends them to their corresponding
destinations.Multiplexing techniques are classified as Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
and Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM).
3. The amount of data transmitted for a given amount of time is called
a. Bandwidth
b. Frequency
c. Noise
d. Signal power
Explanation:
Bandwidth is the amount of data that may be transmitted over a communication channel
in a specified time. It is also called transmission data rate measured in bits per second
(bps). It is the amount of information that may be carried over a channel from one point
to another point in a given time period.
4. For low level modulation, amplifier used is
a. Class A
b. Class C
c. Class A & C
d. None of the above
Explanation:
When the modulation takes place prior to the output element of the final stage of the
amplifier, it is low level modulation. Class A amplifiers are used for this purpose.
5. The antenna current of the transmitter is 10A. Find the percentage of modulation
when the antenna current increases to 10.4A.
a. 32%
b. 28.5%
c. 64%
d. 40%
31
Explanation:
It = Ic √(1+ m2/2)
10.4= 10 √(1+ m2/2)
√ (1+ m2/2) = 1.04
Therefore m = 0.285
= 28.5%
6. Advantage of using a high frequency carrier wave is

a. Signal can be transmitted over very long distances
b. Dissipates very small power
c. Antenna height of the transmitter is reduced
d. All of the above
Explanation:
The main advantage of high frequency signals is that the signal may be transmitted over
very long distances and thus dissipates very less power. The antenna height required for
transmission is reduced at higher frequencies. Thus, the audio signals must be sent with
the high frequency carrier signals for communication purpose.
7. Modulation is required for
a. Reducing noise while transmission
b. Multiplexing the signals
c. Reduction of Antenna height
d. Reduction in the complexity of circuitry
e. All of the above
Explanation:
Modulation is required as with modulation, the signal is transmitted at higher frequency
that reduces the probability of addition of noise while transmission and reduces the
height of antenna at the transmitter. With modulation, there is reduction in the
complexity of circuitry and more signals may be transmitted using multiplexing
technique.
8. For over modulation, the value of modulation index m is
a. m< 1
b. m = 1
c. m > 1
d. Not predetermined
Explanation:
In AM, the modulation index m is defined as the ratio of the amplitude modulation signal
to the amplitude of carrier signal. When m > 1, it is called over-modulation and it
32
generates modulation with distortions in the envelope of the modulated signal, from
which it is difficult to recover the information.
For Under modulation m < 1
For Critical modulation m = 1
For Over modulation m > 1

9. Demodulation is:
a. Detection
b. Recovering information from modulated signal
c. Both a and b
Explanation:
Demodulation is the process of recovering the original information from a modulated
carrier wave. Systems are designed to be used as demodulators that detect the
information signal from the carrier. The envelope detector and product detector are few
of the AM detectors.
10. Analog communication indicates:
a. Continuous signal with varying amplitude or phase

b. No numerical coding
c. AM or FM signal
d. All of the above
Explanation:
Analog communication means that the information is transmitted in the form of a
continuous signal, such as a sound wave. The signal has varying amplitude or phase or
frequency. Coding is not applied to the signal as in case of digital data. Amplitude
modulated signal and frequency modulated signals are the examples of analog
communication.
11. The minimum antenna height required for transmission in reference to wavelength
λ is
a. λ
b. λ/4
c. λ/2
d. 4 λ
Explanation:
For effective transmission of signal by the transmitter, the antenna height should be at
33
least quarter length of the signal wavelength i.e., λ/4
L= λ/4= c/4f
Required antenna height decreases with increase in frequency of the signal so
modulation is done. With modulation, the low frequency signals are shifted to high
frequency signals.
b. True false question
1. Communication is the process of exchanging information.True/False
2. All electronic communication systems have a transmitter, a communication channel or

medium, and an antenna.True/False
3. A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the

transmitted message from the channel and converts it to a form understandable to
humans.True/False
4. Examples of transceivers include televisions, fax machines, cellular telephones, and

computer modems.True/False
5. Simplex communication refers to a one-way transmission type system.True/False
6. A digital signal is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current. True/False
7. Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the

medium.True/False
8. Demodulation is the process of having a baseband voice, video, or digital signal modify
another, higher-frequency signal, the carrier. True/False
9. A modem can be used to translate data from digital to analog only. True/False
C. Fill in the blanks
1. In terms of signal frequency (fs) and intermediate frequency (fi), the image frequency is
given byfs + 2fi.
2. The standard value for Intermediate frequency (IF) in AM receivers is455 KHz.
3. the maximum transmission efficiency of an AM signal33.33%
4. The process of recovering information signal from received carrier is known asDetection
5. Bandwidth (B) of an AM signal is given byB = 2 ωm.
6. AM wave may be represented as E(t) cosωct where E(t) isEnvelope of the AM wave
7. Radio waves travel throughElectromagnetic waves
8. If a receiver has poor capacity of blocking adjacent channel interference then the receiver
hasPoor selectivity
34
9. Calculate the depth of modulation when a transmitter radiates a signal of 9.8KW after
modulation and 8KW without modulation of the signal. 67%
4.2.6. Review Questions
a. Objective type questions

1. Define TDM
2. Define FDM
3. Define AM
4. What is the need for Modulation?
5. Give the expression for Modulation Index.
.
b. AnalyticalQuestions:
1. State the techniques of demodulation?
2. Which type of modulation is used in TV transmission?
3. What is the difference between detector and demodulator?
4. What is depth of modulation?
5. What is the difference between coherent and non-coherent demodulation?
c. Essay Questions
1. Describe an expression for AM wave and sketch its frequency spectrum.

2. Explain the square law detection of AM signals.
3. Explain the generation of AM wave using square law modulator.
4. A tone modulated AM-signal with a modulation index of “m” and base
band signalFrequency of _m is detected using envelope detector, whose
time constant is RC, forEffective demodulation, show that (1/RC) _ [m
_m/(_1-m2)].
5. What is modulation? Why is modulation used in communication system?
6. What do you understand of modulation index? What is its significance?
8. Explain the square law detection of AM signals.
d. Problems:
1. What is the carrier frequency in an AM wave when its highest frequency

component is 850Hz and the bandwidth of the signal is 50Hz?
Upper frequency = 850Hz

Bandwidth = 50Hz
Therefore lower Frequency = 850 - 50= 800 Hz
Carrier Frequency = (850-800)/2= 825 Hz
35
2. What is the effect on the transmitted power of AM signal when the
modulation index changes from 0.8 to 1?
The total power in an AM is given by

Pt = Pc (1 + m2/2) Where Pc is the carrier power and m is
the modulation index.
Therefore,Pt1 = Pc (1 + 0.82/2) = 1.32 Pc
Pt2 = Pc( 1 + 12/2) = 1.5 Pc
Increase in power = (1.5 Pc - 1.32 Pc)/ 1.32 Pc= 0.1364
3. Calculate the modulation index when the un modulated carrier power is

15KW, and after modulation, carrier power is 17KW.
The total power in an AM is given by
Pt = Pc ( 1 + m2/2)
17 = 15(1 + m2/2)
m2/2 = 0.134
m = 0.5163
= 51.63%
4. What is the change in the value of transmitted power when the

modulation index changes from 0 to 1?
Pt = Pc( 1 + m2/2)
Pt= Pc ( 1 + 02/2) = Pc ..(1)
New total power Pt1= Pc ( 1 + 12/2)
= Pc *3/2 ..(2)
(2) / (1),
We get , Pt1/ Pt= 3/2= 1.5
Pt1= 1.5 Pt
i.e. there is increase in total power by 50%
5. Calculate the power saved in an Amplitude Modulated wave when it is

transmitted with 45% modulation
- Without carrier
- Without carrier and a sideband
The total power in an AM is given by Pt = Pc(1 + m2/2)

given: m = 0.45
Therefore Pt = Pc(1 + 0.452/2)
Pt= Pc *1.10125
Pc/ Pt = 1/1.10125= 0.908= 90%
This shows that the carrier occupies 90% of total power. So
36
90% of total power may be saved if carrier is suppressed in
the AM signal.
(ii) If one of the sidebands is also suppressed, half of the
remaining power will be saved
i.e., 10/2 = 5 %. So a total of 95% (90% + 5% ) will be
saved when carrier and a side band are suppressed.
e. Case Studies:
NA
4.2.7. Skill Building Exercises/ Assignments
1. An AM signal is detected using an envelope detector. The carrier frequency and

modulation signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 KHz respectively. What will be tha
appropriate value for the time constant of the envelope detector.
2. Consider sinusoidal modulation in an AM systems. Assuming no over modulation
,Find the modulation index (μ) when the maximum and minimum values of the
envelope, respectively, are 3V and 1V.
3. What is the carrier frequency in an AM wave when its highest frequency component
is 850Hz and the bandwidth of the signal is 50Hz?
4. An AM transmitter has an antenna current changing from 5 A un modulated to 5.8 A.

What is the percentage of modulation?
5. The antenna current of the transmitter is 10A. Find the percentage of modulation
when the antenna current increases to 10.4A.
4.2.8. Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned Unit)
1. Explain the generation of AM wave using square law modulator.

2. A tone modulated AM-signal with a modulation index of “m” and base band signal
Frequency of _m is detected using envelope detector, whose time constant is RC, for
Effective demodulation, show that (1/RC) _ [m _m/(_1-m2)].
3. What is modulation? Why is modulation used in communication system?
4. What do you understand of modulation index? What is its significance?
4.2.9. Gate Questions (Where relevant)
1. In commercial TV transmission in India, picture and speech signals are modulated

respectively
37
(Picture) (Speech)
(a) VSB and VSB
(b) VSB and SSB
(c) VSB and FM
(d) FM and VSB [GATE 1990: 2 Marks]
Soln. Note that VSB modulation is the clever compromise between SSB and DSB. Since
TV bandwidth is large so VSB is used for picture transmission. Also, FM is the best
option for speech because of better noise immunity
Option (c)
2. The maximum power efficiency of an AM modulator is

(a) 25%
(b) 50%
(c) 33%
(d) 100% [GATE 1992: 2 Marks]
3. Which of the following analog modulation scheme requires the minimum
transmitted power and minimum channel band-width?
(a) VSB
(b) DSB-SC
(c) SSB
(d) AM [GATE: 2005 1 Mark]
Soln.Modulation type BW Power
Conventional AM 2 fm Maximum powers
DSB SC 2 fm (Less power)
VSB fm + vestige
SSB fm Less & power
4. Suppose that the modulating signal is ( )=2cos(2 ) and the carrier signal is
( )= cos(2 ).Which one of the following is a conventional AM signal without
over-modulation?
(a) ( )= ( )cos(2 )
(b) ( )= [1+ ( )]cos(2 )
(c) ( )= cos(2 )+ 4 ( )cos(2 )
(d) ( )= cos(2 )cos(2 )+ sin(2 )sin(2 )
(e) [GATE 2010: 1 Mark]
Soln. Given Modulation signal( )= ( )
Carrier signal ( )= ( )
38
Note that conventional AM is DSB – FC (DSB full carrier)
Standard Expression is given by( )= [ + ( )]
Or ( )= [ + ] −−−−−( )
Option (b) is ( )= [ + ( )]
Comparing this expression with the standard one given equation (I)
We get μ = 2 i.e. conventional AM with over modulation Option (c)
( )= + ( )
= [ + . ( ) ]
= [ + ( )]
Here = ⁄ So, this represents conventional AM without over modulation.
Option (d) is non standard expression.
5. A 1 MHz sinusoidal carrier is amplitude modulated by a symmetrical square wave

of period 100 μsec. Which of the following frequencies will not be present in the
modulated signal?
(a) 990 kHz
(b) 1010 kHz
(c) 1020 kHz
(d) 1030 kHz [GATE 2002: 1 Mark]
Soln. Frequency of carrier signal is =
Modulation signal is square wave of period 100 μS. Frequency
= × − =
Since modulation signal is symmetrical square wave it will contain only odd
harmonics i.e. 10 KHz, 30 KHz, 50 KHz -----etc. Thus the modulated signal has
± =( ± )= & ± =( ± )=
&
So, 1020 KHz will not be present in modulated signal
6. A message signal given by ( )=(12)cos 1 −(12)sin 2 is amplitude modulated with
a carrier of frequency ωc to generate ( )=[1+ ( )]cos . What is the power
efficiency achieved by this modulation scheme?
(a) 8.33%
(b) 11.11%
(c) 20%
(d) 25% [GATE 2009: 2 Marks]
Soln.Given ( )= − ( )=[ + ( )]
Note that the modulation frequency are i.e. multitone modulation
Net modulation index is =√ + +−−
39
Here, =√( ) +( ) = √ = + × %
=( /√ ) ( /√ ) +× %= %
7. Consider the amplitude modulated (AM) signal cos +2cos cos . For
demodulating the signal using envelope detector, the minimum value of AC should be
(a) 2
(b) 1
(c) 0.5
(d) 0 [GATE 2008: 1 Mark]
Soln. Modulated signal is given as ( )= + .
( )=[ + ] Note that for envelope detection the modulation
should not go beyond full modulation i.e. = ,so amplitude of baseband signal has
to be less than the carrier amplitude (Ac) | ( )| ≤ i.e.
| | = ≤ or ≥
8. Which of the following demodulator (s) can be used for demodulating the signal
( )=5(1+2cos200 )20000
(a) Envelope demodulator
(b) Square-law demodulator
(c) Synchronous demodulator
(d) None of the above [GATE 1993: 2 Marks]
Soln. The modulated signal given is ( )= ( + ).
The standard equation for AM is ( )= ( + )
If we compare the two equation we find = . The modulation index is more than 1
here, so it is the case of over modulation. When modulation index is more than 1
(over modulation) then detection is possible only with, Synchronous modulation,
such signal can not be detected with envelope detector.
9. An AM signal is detected using an envelope detector. The carrier frequency and
modulation signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 KHz respectively. An appropriate value for
the time constant of the envelope detector is
(a) 500 μsec
(b) 20 μsec
(c) 0.2 μsec
(d) 1 μsec [GATE 2004: 1 Mark]
Soln. Note that the time constant RC should satisfy the following condition
< <
× < < ×
Or < < .
40
4.2.10. Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round-Placements)
1. What is a Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)?

2. What is known as Bandwidth?
3. What is Harmonics?
4. What is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting?
5. Range of frequency in AM baseband?
6. What is baseband?
4.2.11. Real-Word (Live) Examples/Case studies wherever applicable
A baby monitor is about as simple as radio technology gets. There is a transmitter that sits
in the baby's room and a receiver that the parents use to listen to the baby. Here are some
of the important characteristics of a typical baby monitor:
Modulation: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency range: 49 MHz
Number of frequencies: 1 or 2
Transmitter power: 0.25 watts
4.2.12. Suggested “Expert Guest Lectures” (both from in and outside of the campus)
1. Guest lecture by P. Dilleswrarao, Asst. Professor, VIIT,Duvvada
4.2.13. Literature references of Relevant NPTEL Videos/Web/You Tube videos etc.

41
 http://nptel.ac.in/courses/117102059/1
4.2.14. Any Lab requirements; if so link it to Lab Lesson Plan.
Not Applicable
4.2.15. Reference Text Books / with Journals Chapters etc.

4.2. Unit – 2
42
DSB & SSB MODULATION:Double side band suppressed carrier modulators, time domain
and frequency domain description, Generation of DSBSC Waves, Balanced Modulators,
Ring Modulator, Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves, COSTAS Loop.
Frequency domain description, Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM SSB
Modulated Wave, Time domain description, Phase discrimination method for generating
AM SSB Modulated waves. Demodulation of SSB Waves, Vestigial side band modulation:
Frequency description, Generation of VSB Modulated wave, Time domain description,
Envelope detection of a VSB Wave pulse Carrier, Comparison of AM Techniques,
Applications of different AM Systems.
1. To introduce the different modulators and demodulatorsfor DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals.
2. To discuss problems in the demodulation sections
3. To compare and study the applications of different amplitude modulation techniques.
1. Able to understand parameters of the DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals

2. Mathematical equations are used for the justification of problems in the demodulator section
3. Able to distinguish the characteristics of different signals

No.
12 Double side band suppressed carrier Chalk & Board T1,C3,125
modulators, time domain and
frequency domain description
13 Generation of DSBSC Waves, Chalk & Board T1,C3,127
Balanced Modulators
14 Ring Modulator Chalk & Board T2,C3,200
15 Coherent detection of DSB-SC Chalk & Board T1,C3,130
Modulated waves
16 COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain Chalk & Board T1,C3,132

description
17 Frequency discrimination method for Chalk & Board T1,C3,141
generation of AM SSB Modulated
Wave
18 Phase discrimination method for Chalk & Board T1,C3,143
generating AM SSB Modulated
43
waves.
19 Demodulation of SSB Waves, Chalk & Board T1,C3,146

20 Vestigial side band modulation: Chalk & Board T1,C3,149
Frequency description, Generation of
VSB Modulated wave, Time domain
description
21 Envelope detection of a VSB Wave Chalk & Board T1,C3,155

pulse Carrier
22 Comparison of AM Techniques, Chalk & Board T2,C3,227

Applications of different AM T1,C3,156
Systems.
4.2.4.1. Lecture-12: Double side band suppressed carrier modulators, time domain and
frequency domain description
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Modulation:
The standard amplitude modulation
the carrier is completely independent of the message signal m(t).

Most of the power is associated with the carrier signal which represents a waste of
power.Hence more power can be saved if the carrier signal is suppressed without loss
ofinformation.This suppression of carrier signal in the standard AM Wave is called
Double SidebandSuppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation.
Time-Domain Description:
44
The DSB-SC modulated wave S(t) is described by
This wave undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message signal m(t) crosseszero.
Frequency - Domain Description :

DSB-SC is represented by
It can be explained in the frequency domain by taking Fourier Transform.

Then
Where S(t) and M(t) are the Fourier Transforms of the S(t) and m(t) respectively.
45
Here the message signal m(t) is band limited to the internal - w £ f £ w and themodulation
process simply translates the spectrum of the baseband signal by plus orminus fc without
fc.
4.2.4.2. Lecture – 13: Generation of DSBSC Waves, Balanced Modulators

Generation of DSB-SC Waves:
There are two forms of product modulators

i Balanced modulator and ii. Ring modulator
Balanced Modulator:
Here two physical multipliers are used as amplitude modulators. Hence the product of the
two signals as well as the original inputs arrived at the output. The carrier as well as
46
modulating signals are of reverse polarity is applied to the two modulators. The
modulated outputs are added in the adder circuit to suppress the modulating signal as well
as carrier signal. Subsequently, the product wave form is a DSB-SC signal. Since the two
product terms of the two modulators reinforce, the arrangement is called Balanced
Modulator.
4.2.4.3. Lecture – 14: Ring Modulator
Ring Modulator has four diodes are arranged in the form of a ring in which they all point
in the same way. The diodes are controlled by a square wave carrier c(t) of frequency fc,
which isapplied by means of two centre-tapped transformers. Assume that diodes are
ideal i.e., offers zero impedance in the forward bias and infinite resistance in the reverse
bias with cut in voltage zero and the transformers are perfectly balanced.When carrier
supply is positive, the other diodes are switched ON, presenting zeroimpedance, whereas
the inner diodes are switched off. Presenting infiniteimpedance as shown in fig.(b).In this
case the modulator multiplies the message signal m(t) by +1.When the carrier supply is
negative, the outer diodes are switched ON as shownfig.(c).In this case, the modulator
multiplies the message signal by -1.Thus the Ring Modulator, in its ideal form, is a
product modulator for a squarewave carrier and the message signal as shown in figure
below.The square wave carrier c(t) can be represented by a Fourier Series as
4.2.4.4. Lecture –15:Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves
Principle :
47
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSBSC wave S(t) by firstmultiplying S(t)
with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering theproduct.
The locally oscillator carrier in the detection should exactly be coherent or

synchronizedwith the carrier C(t) that used in the DSB-SC transmission.Because of this,
the demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronousdetection.
Consider the local oscillator carrier signal has an arbitrary phase difference w.r.t
thecarrier used in the production of DSB-SC.
Assume amplitude be unity for convenience.
Now the output of the product modulator is given by
Weighted message signal unwanted term

The low pass filter at the output removes the unwanted carrier term and the output is
given by
That means the demodulated signal V0(t) is therefore proportional to m(t) if the
phase error f is a constant.
The amplitude of the demodulated signal is maximum when f = 0 and minimum (is 0)
when
The zero demodulated signal for
represents the Quadrature Null effect of thecoherent detector.
48
As long as the phase error f is constant, the detector output provides an
undistortedversion of the original message signal m(t).But in nature, the phase error f also
varies randomly with time because of the randomvariations in the communication
channel.Due to this, the detector output also varies randomly with time by the
multiplying factorCosf.This is undesirable.Therefore, effective current system must be
provided at the receiver to maintain the localoscillator in perfect synchronism, in both
frequency and phase, with carrier wave used inthe generation of DSBSC at the
transmitter.This increases the receiver complexity and price.
4.2.4.5. Lecture 16:COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain description
Costa’s Loop
This receiver consists of two coherent detectors supplied with the same input signal in
theDSBSC modulated wave A m t f t C c( ) cos 2p .Two individual local oscillator signals
are used which are in phase Quadrature to eachother.
The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as the carrier frequency fc,
because of the PLL arrangement. The detector in the upper path is referred to as in phase
coherent detector or I-channel and that in the lower path is referred to as Quadrature phase
coherent detector or Q-Channel. These two detectors are coupled to form a negative feedback
system in such away as to maintain the local oscillator carrier signal in synchronous with the
carrier wave. Suppose the local oscillator signal is of the same phase as that of the carrier
wave used atDSB-SC transmitter. Under these conditions, the I-Channel output contains the
desired demodulated signal m(t) where as the quadrature (Φ) channel output is zero due to
the Quadrature Null effect.
49
Consider the local oscillator carrier wave has a phase error Φ.
Here I-channel output remains unchanged, but the f-channel output has some signal
proportional to .
Now the f-channel output will have the same polarity as the I-channel output for
onedirection of local oscillator phase error and opposite polarity for the opposite direction
oflocal oscillator phase error.The I&Φ - channel outputs are combined in the phase
discriminator.A dc control signal proportional to the phase error f is obtained at the
discriminatoroutput.Hence the receiver automatically corrects for local oscillator phase
errors.
Single-Sideband Modulation:
In the AM and DSB-SC, the transmission bandwidth is equal to twice the messagebandwidth,
and hence there is a wastage.Since the upper sideband or lower sideband contains the same
information, the messagesignal can be recovered from any one sideband at the receiver
without loss of generality.In such case the channel needs to provide only the same bandwidth
as the message signal.Such a transmission, which uses a single sideband is referred to as
Single SidebandModulation.
Frequency Domain Description :
50
Spectral response of an SSB modulated wave depends on which sideband is transmitted.
Consider the message signal m(t) with a Spectrum M(t) limited to the band - w £ f £ w.The
spectrums of message signal m(t), DSB-SC, SSB with upper sideband and lower sidebands
are shown in fig a, b, c and d respectively.
4.2.4.6. Lecture-17:Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM SSB

Modulated Wave
The message signal m(t) has little or no low-frequency content; that is the message
spectrum M(f) has “holes” at zero frequency.
ii. The highest frequency w of the message signal m(t) is much less than the
carrierfrequency fc.
Under these conditions, the desired sideband will appear in a non-overlapping interval in
the spectrum in such away that it may be selected by an appropriate filter. Here in the
generation of SSB modulated wave, in principle, balanced modulator and an appropriate
band pass filter are used, based on the sideband requirement as in fig.
51
The band pass filter used above must have two basic requirements.
(i) the pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the spectrum ofthe
desired SSB modulated wave.
(ii) The width of the guard band of the filter (separating the pass band from the stopband
where unwanted sideband of the filter input lies) is twice the lowestfrequency component
of the message signal.
This kind of frequency discrimination can be achieved by using highly selective
filterslike f with 1000 or 2000.When it is necessary to generate an SSB modulated wave
occupying a frequency bandthat is much higher than that of the message signal, it
becomes very difficult to designfilter with sharp cut off frequencies.This can be achieved
by the multiple modulation process in the following arrangementshown
Here two stages of modulation are involved.

The SSB modulated wave at the first filter output is used as the modulating wave for
thesecond product modulator. Now the DSB-SC modulated wave produced in the second
stage is symmetrically spaced about the second carrier frequency f2. The frequency
Separation between the sidebands of this DSB-SC modulated wave is effectively twice
the first carrier frequency f1,Now the unwanted sideband can be removed by passing
through the second filter.
Time - Domain Description:
Single-tone Modulation:
Consider again the sinusoidal modulating wave
The Hilbert transform of this signal is obtained by passing it through a - 900 phase
shifter,
Now the upper side frequency is defined by
52
Now the lower side frequency is defined by
Consider the SSB Modulated wave Su(t) in which only upper sideband is retained as
shown below.
53
This is generated by passing a DSBSC modulated wave through a band pass-filter
oftransfer function Hu(f).
The DSBSC modulated wave is defined by
This is a band pass signal with an in phase component only.The low pass complex
envelope of DSBSC modulated wave is given by
The SSB modulated wave Su(t) is also a band pass signal. But it has a Quadrature as
wellas in-phase component.
Let the low pass signal denote the complex conjugate of Su(t)
Determination of :
The band pass filter of transfer function Hu(f) is replaced by an equivalent low pass
filterof transfer function Hu(f), as shown in figure above..
Where sgn(f) is the signum function.

The DSBSC modulated wave is replaced by its complex envelope, as shown fig(c)
The desired complex envelope is determined by evaluating the inverse

Fouriertransform of the product
As per the Fourier transform pair m(t) « M(f), the Hilbert transform of m(t) is
Hence inverse Fourier transform of

54
Now from
The above equation represents the SSB modulated wave containing only upper sideband
has an in-phase component equal to the message signal m(t) and quadrature component
equal to mˆ (t).
4.2.4.7. Lecture 18:Phase discrimination method for generating AM SSB Modulated

waves.
55
The system uses two product modulators, I and Q, supplied with Carrier Waves in
Quadrature to each other. The incoming base band signal m(t) is applied to product
modulator I, which produces DSBSC modulated wave. This wave contains reference
phase sidebands symmetrically spaced about carrier frequency fc.The Hilbert transform
mˆ (t) of m(t) is applied to product modulator Q, produces anotherDSBSC modulated
wave. This produces sidebands with equal amplitudes as that of I channel.The phase
terms of the Q-Channel ace in such a way the vector addition or subtraction oftwo
modulator outputs results in cancellation of one set of sidebands. The use of +sign at the
summing junction produces are SSB wave with lower sideband.
4.2.4.8. Lecture 19:Demodulation of SSB waves

The base band signal m(t) IS RECOVERED from the SSB wave s(t), equal tosu(t) or
s1(t), we have to shift the spectrum in Fig.7.17c or d by the amounts ±fc so as toconvert
the transmitted sideband back into the base band signal. This can beaccomplished using
coherent detection, which involves applying the SSB wave s(t),together with a locally
generated carrier cos(2πfct), assumed to the of unit amplitude forconvenience, to a
product modulator and then low-pass filtering the modulator output, asin fig.7.21. thus,
using Eq.7.47 or 7.48, we find that the product modulator output isgiven by
56
The first term in Eq.7.53 is the desired message signal. The combination of the remaining
terms represents an SSB modulated wave with a carrier frequency of 2fc; as such, it
represents an unwanted component in the product modulator output that is removed by
low-pass filtering.The detection of SSB modulated waves, just presented, assumes ideal
conditions, namely, perfect synchronization between the local carrier and that in the
transmitter both in frequency and phase. The effect of a phase error f in the locally
generated carrier wave is to modify the detector output as follows.
Where the plus sign applies to an incoming SSB modulated wave containing only the
upper sideband (i.e., the modulated wave of Eq.7.47), and the minus sign applies to one
containing only the lower sideband (i.e., the modulated wave of Eq.7.48). Owing to the
phase error f, the detector output v0(t) contains not only the message signal m(t) but also
its Hilbert transform m(t). Consequently, the detector output suffers from phase
distortion. This phase distortion is usually not serious with voice communications
because the human ear is relatively insensitive to phase distortion. The presence of phase
distortion gives rise to what is called the Donald duck voice effect. In the transmission of
music and video signals, on the other hand, phase distortion in the form of a constant
phase difference in all components can be intolerable.
4.2.4.9. Lecture 20: Vestigial side band modulation: Frequency description, Generation
of VSB Modulated wave, Time domain description
57
Generation of VSB modulated wave:
VSB modulated wave can be generated by passing a DSBSC modulated wave through a
sideband filter as shown in fig. below.
The exact design of this sideband shaping filter depends on the desired spectrum of the
VSB modulated wave. The relation among the filter, VSB modulated wave and message
signal is given by
Here, first of all the filter transfer function H(f) should be determined to define S(f) of the
VSB wave S(t).This can be established by passing S(t) through a coherent detector and
thendetermining the necessary condition for the detector output to provide anundistorted
version of the original message signal m(t).Multiplying S(t) by a locally generated sine
wave cos2pfct which synchronous within the carrier wave ACcos2pfct in both phase and
frequency as shown in thediagram below.
58
The second harmonic carrier frequency 2fc can be removed by the low-pass filteras
shown in fig.c to produce an output V0(t).
The spectrum of V0(t) is given by
If the V0(f) is a scaled version of M(f), then the output of the coherent detector is
a distortion less original base band signal m(t). Therefore the transfer function H(f) must
satisfy the condition
The above equation is satisfied by using a filter with frequency response H(f) asshown
below for +ve frequencies.
59
In this H(f) falls to one half at the carrier frequency.The cut off position of this response
around fc exhibits odd symmetry is inside the transition interval defined by
The sum of the value of H(f) at any two frequencies equally
displaced above and below fc is unity. To preserve the base band spectrum, the phase
response of the sideband shaping filter must exhibit odd symmetry about fc.Specifically it
must be linear over the frequency interval and its value at the frequency
fc ahs to equal zero or anintegral multiple of 2p radians.
Frequency-Domain Description (VSB):
Consider the message signal m(t) and VSB modulated wave S(t) whose spectrums are
shown above. Here lower sideband is assumed to be modified into the vestigial
sideband.The transmitted Vestige of the lower sideband compensates for the amount
removed fromthe upper sideband. Now the transmission bandwidth of the VSB
modulated wave is given byB =W + fvWhere W is the message bandwidth and fv is the
width of the vestigial sideband.Thus the bandwidth is conserved in VSB modulation as
efficiently as SSB modulation, retaining the low frequency base band characteristics of
DSBSC.
4.2.4.10. Lecture 21:Envelope Detection of a VSB Wave plus Carrier
Consider the VSB modulated wave
60
As the above wave can not be demodulated by an envelop detector in the receiver, a
sizeable carrier is added to the above equation. Now this becomes
Now the envelope detector output is a(t) given by
Here the distortion is introduced by the square root term that too mainly due to ma(t).
However this distortion can be reduced by methods:
i. Reducing the % modulation by reducing Ka and
ii. Increasing the width of the vestigial sideband to reduce mQ(t).
Both methods are employed in commercial television broadcasting
4.2.4.11. Lecture 22:Comparison of AM Techniques, Applications of different AM

Systems.
S.NO. Parameter DSBFC(Standard DSBSC SSB VSB

of AM)
comparison
1 Carrier N.A. Fully Fully N.A.
suppression
2 Side band N.A N.A One S.B. One S.B.
suppression Completely suppressed
partially
3 Band width 2fm 2fm fm fm<BW<2fm
4 Transmission
Minimum Moderate Maximum Moderate
efficiency
5 No. of
modulating 1 1 1 2
inputs
61
6 Application Radio broad Radio Point to point T.V.
casting broad mobile
casting communication
4.2.5. Test Questions:
1. Calculate the power in one of the side band in SSBSC modulation when the
carrier power is 124W and there is 80% modulation depth in the amplitude
modulated signal.
89.33 W
b. 64.85 W
c.79.36 W
d. 102 W
Explanation:
Modulation Index = 0.8
Pc = 124W
Power in sidebands may be
calculated as = m2 Pc/4
= (0.8)2 * 124/4
= 79.36 W
2. The costas receiver is used for
FM signal
b.DSB-SC signal
c. PCM signal
d. DM signal
Explanation:
Costas receiver is a synchronous receiver system used for demodulating DSB-SC waves.
The incoming modulated carrier is applied at two inputs of the coherent detectors of the
receiver. The locally generated carrier applied to the two inputs is however in phase
quadrature with each other. The frequencies of the local carriers are adjusted as same as
the carrier frequency of the received signal.
3. Vestigial side band signals are detected by

62
a.Filters
b.Synchronous detection
c. Balanced modulator
Explanation:
Vestigial side band signals are detected by Synchronous detection or coherent detection
technique. The distortions in a VSB signal may be reduced by reducing the modulation
index and increasing the width of VSB
4. Phase shift method is
a.Includes two balanced modulators

b. Two phase shifting networks
c. Avoids the use of filters
d.All of the above
Explanation:
Phase shift method is one of the methods used for the generation of SSB-SC signals. This
method includes two balanced modulators and two phase shifting networks and avoids
the use of filters. Both the balanced modulators produce side band as an output. The
SSB-SC signals are generated using multiple tone modulating signals as if done with
single tone modulating signal, they do not carry any useful information.
5. Limitations of Frequency discrimination method are:
a.Cannot be used for video signals

b. Designing of band pass filter is difficult
c.Both a and b
Explanation:
Limitations of Frequency discrimination method are that as the base band signal must
be appropriately related to the carrier signal frequency, the designing of band pass
filter is difficult if the carrier frequency is quite higher than the bandwidth of the
baseband signal. The system is not useful for video communication purpose.
6. Generation of SSB SC signal is done by
a.Phase discrimination method

b. Frequency discrimination method
c. Product modulator
d. Both a and b
Explanation:
63
SSB-SC signals are the signals where only one of the sidebands is transmitted in an AM
wave. The carrier is also suppressed while transmitting the AM signal. SSBSC signal may
be generated by two methods:
i) Frequency discrimination method or filter method
ii) Phase discrimination method or phase shift method
7. Pilot carrier is
a.Used with DSB-SC signal

b. A small carrier transmitted with modulated signal
c. Used for synchronization with local carrier at the receiver
d.All of the above
Explanation:
Pilot carrier is a small carrier transmitted with modulated signal from the transmitter. It
is separated at the receiver and used to phase lock the locally generated carrier signal
generated at the receiver. It provides synchronization at the receiver. As a weak carrier
is transmitted with the DSB signal, it is also referred to as partially suppressed carrier
system, as the carrier is not totally suppressed. So it is a case of over modulation.
8. Disadvantage of using a DSB or SSB signal modulation is
a. Difficult to recover information at the receiver
b. Carrier has to be locally generated at receiver
c. Both a and b are correct
Explanation:
Disadvantage of using a DSB or SSB signal modulation is that it is difficult to recover
information at the receiver. Demodulation depends upon the carrier present in the
received signal at the receiver. If the carrier is not present, carrier has to be regenerated
at the receiver so a complex circuitry is required.
b. Fill in the Blanks
1. Change in instantaneous phase of the carrier with change in amplitude of the

modulating signal generates Indirect FM
2. Phase-locked loop can be used asFM demodulator
3. Carson's rule is used to calculate Bandwidth of FM signal.
4. The ratio of maximum peak frequency deviation and the maximum signal frequency
is termed asDeviation ratio
5. The increase or decrease in the frequency around the carrier frequency is termed as
Frequency deviation.
6. Guard bands are provided in FM signal to Prevent interference from adjacent
channels.
64
7. Maximum frequency deviation and the maximum bandwidth allowed for
commercial FM broadcast is 75KHz, 200Khz
8. The amount of frequency deviation in FM signal depends on Amplitude of the
modulating signal
9. Armstrong method is used for the generation of Indirect FM
10. Pre emphasis is done BeforeModulation
c. True/ False Questions
1. For envelope detection of DSB-TC AM, the modulation index must be greater than 0
and less than or equal to 1. TRUE
2. If the message signal has a bandwidth of 5 kHz, and the carrier frequency is 1 MHz,
the bandwidth of VSB-AM is between 5 and 10 kHz. TRUE
3. The Hilbert Transform of m(t) = sin 100 t is mh(t) = cos 100 t. FALSE
4. The bandwidth of SSB-TC signal is equal to twice the bandwidth of the modulation
signal. FALSE
5. When envelope detection is possible, the power efficiency of SSB-TC scheme is

better than that of DSB-TC. FALSE
a. Objective type Questions:

1. Define VSB.
2. Define HT, Pre envelope and Complex envelope?
3. What is Hilbert Transform?

4. Explain the properties of HT?
5. Draw Ring Modulator
6. Draw Balanced Modulator
7. Describe VSB modulation and give its applications
b. AnalyticalQuestions:
1. For a rectangular pulse evaluate its Hilbert Transform?
2. Define HT, Pre envelope and Complex envelope?
3. An SSB is demodulated using synchronous demodulator, but locally
generated carrier has phase error.
4. Determine the effect of error on demodulation of SSBSC?
5. Differences between Ring Modulator & Balanced Modulator
c. Essay Answer Questions:
65
1.Explain the scheme for generation & demodulation of VSB waves with relevant block
diagram ?
2.Explain FDM technique?
3.Explain with neat diagram Super heterodyne receiver?
4.Explain Frequency TRANSLATION
5.Explain envelope detection of VSBwave+carrier?
6.With a neat block diagram explain how SSB wave is generated using phase shift
method?
7.Derive the time domain representation of SSB signal for transmission of USB only
d. Problems:
1. Calculate the side band power in an SSBSC signal when there is 50% modulationand the
carrier power is 50W.
Explanation:
The side band power is given by
Pc m2/2
= 50 * (0.5) 2/2
= 6.25W
2. A 3 GHz carrier is DSB SC modulated by a signal with maximum
frequency of 2 MHz. The minimum sampling frequency required for the
signal so that the signal is ideally sampled is
Explanation:
According to Nyquist sampling criteria, a bandlimited signal should be
sampled equal to greater than twice the maximum frequency of the
signal. Here, the spectrum obtained after the conversion has a
maximum frequency of 3000MHz + 2MHz = 3002MHz. So the sampling
frequency required to prevent aliasing is 6004MHz i.e., 6.004GHz.
3. Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a DSB signal when the modulating
frequency lies in the range from 100 Hz to 10KHz.
Explanation:
Here the fm = 100Hz to 10 KHz = 10000 - 100 = 9900 Hz
Therefore, Bandwidth = 2 fm = 2 * 9900 = 19.8KHz
e. Case Studies:
NA
4.2.7. Skill Building Exercises/Assignments
1. Prove that the balanced modulator produces an output consisting of sidebands only
with the carrier removed.
66
2. Explain the generation of double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulator.
Write the necessary equations,
3. Discuss the effect of frequency and phase error in demodulation of DSB-SC wave
using synchronous detector.
4. Explain the difference between DSB & SSB system.
5. Discuss Quadrture null effect of DSB-SC and SSB-SC
4.2.8. Previous Paper Questions:
1. Prove that the balanced modulator produces an output consisting of sidebands only
with the carrier removed.
2. Explain the principle of coherent detector of DSB-SC modulated more with a neat
block diagram.
3. Explain the concept of frequency translation using the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
4. In an AM-SC system, modulating signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal
4cos2_103,which Modulates carrier signal 6cos2_106t. Write the equation of the
modulated wave. Plot the two Sided spectrum of the modulated wave. Calculate the
amount of power transmitted.
5. With a neat block diagram explain the demodulation process of DSB-SC signal.
4.2.9. Gate Questions:
1. For a message signal ( )=cos(2 ) and carrier of frequency . Which ofthe

following represents a single side-band (SSB) signal?
(a) cos(2 )cos(2 )
(b) cos(2 )
(c) cos[2 ( + )]
(d) [1+cos(2 )].cos(2 ) [GATE 2009: 1 Mark]
2. A DSB-SC signal is generated using the carrier cos( + ) and modulating signal
x(t). The envelop of the DSB-SC signal is
(a) ( )
(b) | ( )|
(c) Only positive portion of x(t)
(d) ( )cos [GATE 1998: 1 Mark]
3. A 4 GHz carrier is DSB-SC modulated by a low-pass message signal with maximum

frequency of 2 MHz. The resultant signal is to be ideally sampled. The minimum
frequency of the sampling impulse train should be
67
(a) 4 MHz
(b) 8 MHz
(c) 8 GHz
(d) 8.004 GHz [GATE: 1990 2 Mark]
4. A DSB-SC signal is to be generated with a carrier frequency =1 using a non-

linear device with the input-output characteristic 0= 0 + 1 3 Where a0 and a1 are
constants. The output of the non-linear device can be filtered by an appropriate band-pass
filter. Let = cos(2 )+ ( ) where m(t) is the message signal. Then the value of
(in MHz) is
(a) 1.0
(b) 0.333
(c) 0.5
(d) 3.0 [GATE 2003: 2 Marks]
5. The image channel selectivity of superheterodyne receiver depends upon
(a) IF amplifiers only
(b) RF and IF amplifiers only
(c) Pre selector, RF and IF amplifiers
(d) Pre selector and RF amplifiers [GATE 1998: 1 Marks]
6. A message signal ( )=cos2000 +4cos4000 modulates the carriers ( )=cos2

where =1 to produce an AM signal. For demodulating the generated AM
signal using an envelope detector, the time constant RC of the detector circuit should
satisfy
(a) 0.5 ms< RC < 1 ms
(b) 1 μs<< RC < 0.5 ms
(c) RC<< 1 μs
(d) RC >> 0.5 ms [GATE 2011: 2 Marks]
4.2.10. Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round - Placements)
1. What is the Frequency Range of DSBSC SIGNAL?
2. Differences Between SSB & VSB.

68
3. How VSB used in TV Transmission
4.2.11. Real-Word (Live) Examples / Case studies wherever applicable
 Analog TV
1. Guest lecture by M.Hemathkumar,VIIT, Duvvada
 Principles of Communication Systems – H Taub& D. Schilling, GautamSahe,

TMH, 2007 3rd Edition.
69
4.3. Unit-3
ANGLE MODULATION:Basic concepts, Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation,

Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave, Narrow band FM, Wide band FM, Constant Average Power,
Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave - Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM, Detection of FM Waves:
Balanced Frequency discriminator, Zero Crossing detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM & AM.
.
……
4.3.1. Unit objectives:
1. To introduce phase modulation and frequency modulation

2. To describe the relationship between PM and FM
3. To explain the methods for generation and demodulation methods for NBFM and WBFM
4. To compare AM and FM
1. Students able to understand the difference between phase and frequency modulation
2. Students able to distinguish different FM types
4.3.3. Lecture Plan:

No.
Basic concepts, Frequency Chalk & Board T1,C4,180
23 Modulation: Single tone
frequency modulation
Spectrum Analysis of Chalk & Board T2,C4,270
24
Sinusoidal FM Wave
25 Narrow band FM, Chalk & Board T1,C4,185
26 Wide band FM Chalk & Board T1,C4,187
Constant Average Power, Chalk & Board T1,C4,190
Transmission bandwidth of
27
FM Wave
Generation of FM Waves, Chalk & Board T1,C4,197

28
Direct FM,
Detection of FM Waves: Chalk & Board T1,C4,202
29 Balanced Frequency
discriminator
30 Balanced Frequency Chalk & Board T1,C4,202
70
discriminator
31 Zero crossing detector Chalk & Board T2,C4,302
32 Phase locked loop Chalk & Board T1,C4,207
33 Comparison of FM & AM Chalk & Board T2,C4,287
4.3.4.1. Lecture-23 : Basic concepts, Frequency Modulation: Single tone

frequency modulation
Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave defined by
The instantaneous frequency of the FM wave is
Frequency deviation Df is defined as the maximum departure of the instantaneous

frequency of the FM wave from the carrier frequency fc. As per the characteristic of an FM wave is that the
frequency deviation Df is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating wave and independent of the
modulating frequency.
The ratio of frequency deviation Df to the modulating frequency fm is called modulation index (b) of the
FM wave.
71
Represents the phase deviation of the FM wave.
In equation (5) complex envelope is a periodic function with time, with fundamental frequency equal to the
modulation frequency.
Frequency Modulation :
Frequency modulation is that form of angle modulation in linearly with the message signal m(t).
where fc represents unmodulated carrier frequency and Kf is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator.
Consider as the instantaneous frequency.

Integrating wrt time,
So the frequency modulated wave can be expressed in time domain form as
This can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then passed through a phase modulator
along with a carrier signal Similarly a Phase modulated (PM) wave can be generated by
first differentiating m(t) and then passing through a frequency modulator along with a
carrier shown below.
Angle Modulation:
72
Angle Modulation is one in which either the phase or frequency of the Carrier
wave is varied according to the message signal.
Here amplitude of the Carrier is constant.
Angle modulated wave can be represented as
For a complete cycle

If A(t) increases monotonically with time, during the interval from t to t+A, the average
frequency is given by
The instantaneous frequency of the angle-modulated wave S(t) is given by
In the case of unmodulated carrier, the angle A(t) is given by
Phase Modulation:
Phase Modulation is that form of angle modulation in which the angular argument A(t) is varied linearly
with the message signal m(t).
Where f t c
Kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator
4.3.4.2. Lecture-24 : Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM Wave
The FM Wave for sinusoidal modulation is given by
Expending, we have
73
Here, the impulse and Quadrature components of an FM wave can be taken as
The complex envelope of the FM wave equals to
This has the complete information about the modulation process. FM wave S(t) can also be obtained in terms of the
complex envelope ( )
Now using complex Fourier series,
The above integral represents the nth order Bessel function of the first kind with b as
argument. This is represented by symbol Jn(b),
74
The complex envelope of the FM wave is
Substituting (13) in (6), we have
This is the Fourier series representation of singletone FM wave S(t) for arbitrary b.
The discrete spectrum of S(t) is obtained by Fourier Transform
.
The plots of Bessel function Jn(b) versus modulation index b for n= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are
Shown. In these for fixed n, Jn(b) alternates between positive and negative values for increasing b and that Jn(b )
approaches zero as b approaches infinity.
4.3.4.3. Lecture-25 :Narrow Band FM
In this first consider the generation of a narrow-band FM Wave.
Consider the expression for FM Wave
Where f1 is the carrier frequency and

A1 is the carrier amplitude.
Now the argument f1(t) is given by
Where K1 is the frequency sensitivity of the modulator and f1(t) is assumed to small for all t.
The FM wave equation (1) becomes
75
The above narrow band FM wave can be generated as shown in figure below.
The above expression shows difference with standard form in two ways:
i. the envelope contains a residual amplitude modulation which varies with time and
ii. for a sinusoidal modulating wave, the phase of the FM wave contains harmonic distortion in the form of 3rd &
higher order harmonics of modulation frequency fm.
The above two can be reduced by maintaining the modulation index b £ 0.3.
Equation for NBFM can be written as
This is similar to the corresponding one defining an AM signal which is as follows:
In the case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal and a
narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the narrowband
FM is reversed. A narrowband FM signal requires the same transmission bandwidth (i.e., 2fm) as
the AM signal.
We can represent the narrowband FM signal with a phasor diagram as shown in Figure a,
Compared to corresponding AM phasor diagram it is seen to have the assembly of vectors at tip
of carrier rotated by 90 degrees.
76
4.3.4.4. Lecture-26 :Wide Band FM
Now the narrow band fm wave can be made wideband fm by passing through a frequency
multiplier. The frequency multiplier consists of a non-linear device and a bandpass filter as shown in fig. below.
In this the memory less non-linear device has input-output relation
Where a1, a2 ……… an are constant coefficients.

Substituting (5) in (6), the expression S2(t) has a dc component and in frequency modulated waves with carrier
frequencies f1, 2f2……nf, and frequency deviations Df1, 2Df2……nDf1 respectively. Here Df1 can be determined
by frequency sensitivity K1 of narrow-band frequency modulator and maximum amplitude of the modulating wave
m(t)
The band-pass filter is used in 2 respects.
i. to pass the fm wave centered at the carrier frequency nf1 with frequency
deviation nDf1
ii. to suppress all other FM spectra.
Now the narrow-band frequency modulator and frequency multiplier are connected to produce a wideband
frequency modulated wave S(t) with carrier frequency nf1 and frequency deviation Df= nDf1 as shown in fig.
below.
77
Now the frequency sensitivity of wideband modulator Kf is n times that of a narrow-band modulator.
Crystal oscillator is used for more stability at high frequencies.
4.3.4.5. Lecture-27:Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of

FM Wave
Wideband FM
For large values of the modulation index b compared to one radian, the FM wave contains a carrier and an infinite
number of side frequency components located symmetrically around the carrier.
Narrow-band FM :
For small values of the modulation index b compared to one radian, the FM wave assumes a narrow-band form
consisting essentially of a carrier, an upper side-frequency component and a lower side-frequency component. i.e.,
for small values of b,
Constant average power:

The envelope of an FM wave is constant, so that the average power of such a wave
dissipated in a 1-ohm resistor is also constant.
78
Transmission Bandwidth :
An FM contains an infinite number of side frequencies so that the bandwidth required to
transmit such a signal is similarly infinite. But it must be limited to a finite number of significant side frequencies
compatible with specified amount of distortion.
For Single tone modulation:
The side frequencies that are separated from the carrier frequency fc by an amount greater than the frequency
deviation Df decreases rapidly toward zero. For larger values of modulation index b, the bandwidth approaches 2Df.
For small values of modulation index b, the bandwidth approaches 2fm since the spectrum contains carrier
frequency fc and one pair of side frequencies at fc ± fm. Finally the (Transmission)bandwidth can be approximated
for singletone modulation as
4.3.4.6. Lecture-28:Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM

Direct Method of FM:
In the following simple circuit diagram, Assume capacitive component of frequency determining network consists
of a fixed capacitor simulated by a voltage variable capacitor. The resultant capacitance is represented by c(t) as
shown in diagram.
79
A voltage Variable capacitance commonly called voltacap or varicap whose capacitance is varied according to the
applied voltage is used. Here, the variable capacitance is obtained by passing the signal through varactor diode in the
reverse direction. The larger the reverse voltage applied, the smaller the transition capacitance.
\Frequency of oscillation of the Hartley oscillator is given by
C(t) is the total capacitance of combination of fixed and variable capacitors and L1 and L2 are the inductances in the
frequency determining circuits. Now C(t) is given by
Where C0 is the total capacitance under unmodulated condition and KC is the variable capacitor’s sensitivity to
voltage change.
4.3.4.7. Lecture-29:Demodulation of FM Waves

There are two method. i. Direct Method and ii. Indirect Method.
Balanced Frequency Discriminator:
Consider an ideal slope circuit which is characterized by a purely imaginary transfer function, varying linearly with
frequency function, varying linearly with frequency in the prescribed interval.
80
Consider the following transfer function as per the diagram fig a)
When a is constant
Consider the fmS(t) with carrier frequency fc and transmission Bandwidth B. Now output S1(t) of slope circuit is to
be determined,
Now replace the slope circuit by an equivalent low-pass filter as shown in fig. to which the complex envelope of FM
input S(t) is applied. Let the complex transfer function of the slope circuit be as shown in fig(a).
81
The incoming fm wave S(t) is given by
The complex envelope of this fm wave is
Now let be the complex envelope of the response of the slope circuit.
Fourier transform of this is
i.e., from this multiplication of a Fourier transform of a signal by a factor j2pf is equivalent to differentiating the
signal in the time domain.
82
The above signal S1(t) is a hybrid-modulated wave in which both the amplitude and frequency of the carrier wave
vary with the message signal m(t).
4.3.4.8. Lecture-30:Balanced frequency discriminator

Now an envelope detector can be used to recover the amplitude variations in turn original message signal. Hence
envelope detector output is
In the above, bias term pBaAC is proportional to the slope a of the transfer function of the slope circuit. This bias
term can be removed by subtracting the envelope detector output from the second envelope detector output preceded
by the complementary slope current with transfer function H2(f). In such case complex transfer function of the
complementary slope circuit is given by
The difference between the two envelopes is
The above procedure can be explained in following scheme which is called back-to-back frequency detector.
83
The above scheme can be realized by the following
Here the upper and lower resonant filter sections are tuned to frequencies above and below the unmodulated carrier
frequency fc. The amplitude responses of the two tuned filters separately and the total response can be observed in
the fig(c).
Disadvantages :
i. The spectrum of the input fm wave S(t) is not exactly zero for outside the range i.e.,
ii. the tuned filter outputs are not strictly band limited so some distortion is introduced by the low pass RC filters in
the envelope detector.
iii. The tuned filter characteristics are not linear over the whole frequency band of the input fm wave.
By proper design, the distortion can be maintained in the tolerable limits.
84
4.3.4.9. Lecture-31:Zero crossing detector
The detector exploits the property that the instantaneous frequency of an FM wave is
Approximately
whereDt is the time difference between adjacent zero crossings of the FM wave as shown in figure below.
Consider an interval T which satisfies the following two conditions.
i. The interval T is small compared to the reciprocal of the message bandwidth.
ii. The interval T is large compared to the reciprocal of the Carrier frequency fc of the FM wave.
The first condition indicates that the message signal m(t) is essentially constant inside the interval T. The second
condition indicates that a reasonable number of zero crossings of the fm wave occurs inside the interval T. Let no
denote the number of zero crossings inside the interval T. Then the Dt between adjacent zero crossings is By
definition, the instantaneous frequency is linearly related to the message signal m(t). Therefore m(t) can be
recovered from fasdklj by the way of following scheme.
Here, the limiter produces a squarewave version of the input fm wave. The pulse generation produces short pulses at
the positive going as well as negative going edges of the limiter output. Finally, the integrator performs the
averaging over the interval T. Thus the original message signal m(t) at its output is reproduced.
4.3.4.10. Lecture-32:Phase locked loop
Phase locked loop (PLL) is a negative feedback system that consists of three major components: a multiplier, a loop
filter and a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) as shown in fig. below.
85
The voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is a sine wave generator and its frequency is determined by a voltage
applied to it. When control voltage is zero initially, assume VCO satisfies two following conditions.
i. the frequency of the VCO is precisely set at the unmodulated carrier frequency fc and
ii. the VCO output has a 900 phase shift wrt the unmodulated carrier wave.
Consider the fm input signal applied to the PLL
Now on applying an fm wave S(t) and VCO output r(t) to the multiplier, two components
are produced.
In the above expression, the first term is a high frequency component and it is eliminated
by passing it through lowpass filter. Therefore the input to the loop filter is given by
86
The loop filter operates on its input e(t) to produce
Where h(t) is the impulse response of the filter.

Now from (5), (6) and (7), we have, with differentiation,
where multiplier and VCO are replaced by subtractor with non linearity and integrator respectively. When the phase
error fe(t) is zero, the PLL is said to be in phase lock.
Consider all the times, fe(t) is small compared to one radian, so that
Therefore with above approximation, it can be drawn to linearized model, as shown

Below
87
Where H(f) is the transfer function of the loop filter. And L(f) is called open-loop transfer function of the PLL.
Consider for all values of f, L(f) is very large compared to unity. Then fe(f) becomes zero
That means the phase of VCO asymptotically equal to the phase of the incoming wave and the same is said to phase
locked.
88
Now time-domain relation is obtained by taking inverse Fourier transform,
Thus if L(f) is very large for all frequencies, PLL may eb modeled as a differentiator with output scaling factor
as shown in the following diagram.
So, when the input signal is an FM wave, the phase related to the modulating wave m(t),
from equation (2), we have
Thus the output of the phase locked loop is approximately same, except the scaling factor
Kf/Kv, as the original message signal m(t) and the frequency demodulation is accomplished.
89
4.3.4.11. Lecture-33:Comparison of FM & AM
1. The major advantage of FM over AM is …………..
1. Reception is less noisy

2. Higher carrier frequency
3. Smaller bandwidth
4. Small frequency deviation
2. When the modulating signal controls the frequency of the carrier, we get……….
1. Phase modulation
2. Amplitude modulation
3. Frequency modulation
4. May be any one of the above
3. The letters AVC stand for …………..
1. Audio voltage control

2. Abrupt voltage control
3. Automatic volume control
90
4. Automatic voltage control
4. Most of the amplification in a superhetrodyne receiver occurs at ………. stage
1. IF
2. RF amplifier
3. Audio amplifier
4. Detector
5.If level of modulation is increased ……………. power is increased
1. Carrier
2. Sideband
3. Carrier as well as sideband
4. None of the above
b. True/ False
1. A square wave carrier can be modulated by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase
shift. True/ False
2. In FM, the carrier amplitude is changed by the modulating signal and the carrier
frequency remains constant. True/ False
3. The frequency of the carrier signal determines the frequency deviation rate. True/ False
4. Frequency-shift keying is widely used in the transmission of binary data in digital cell
phones. True/ False
5. When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in accordance

with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a frequency modulation signal.
True/ False
6. The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs when the
modulating signal is changing at its quickest rate. True/ False
c. Fill in the Blanks
1. The FM produced by a phase modulator is called indirect FM.
2. When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are
produced.
3. To make PM compatible with FM, the intelligence signal is passed through a low-pass
RC Network
91
4. A modulation signal is ( )= ( )cos(40000 ), where the baseband signal m(t) has
frequency components less than 5 kHz only. The minimum required rate (in kHz) at
which y(t) should be sampled to recover m(t) is 10K samples/sec
5. A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 500 Hz, the maximum
frequency deviation being 50 KHz. The bandwidth required. as given by the Carson’s
rule is
a. Objective type questions:
1. Define Carrier swing

2. Define Frequency Deviation
3. Define Percent Modulation
4. Explain Narrow band FM
5. Explain Wide band FM
b. Analytical Questions:
1. Describe generation of FM carrier by Transistor reactance modulator with
necessary diagrams.
2. Compare the phasor diagram of narrow band FM signal and AM signal and
discuss about the similarities and differences of the two signals.
3. Give the procedure to determine the effective bandwidth of an signal.
4. Which method of FM signal generation is the preferred choice, when the
stability of the carrier frequency is of major concern? Discuss about the
method in detail.
5. An FM wave with modulation index β = 1 is transmitted through an ideal
band pass filter wit mid band frequency fc and bandwidth is 5fm, where fc
is the carrier frequency and fm is the frequency of the sinusoidal
modulating wave. Determine the amplitude spectrum of the filter output.
6. An angle modulated signal has the form v(t) = 100 cos (2πfct+4 sin 2000
πt) when fc =10 MHz.
i. Determine average transmitted power.
ii. Determine peak phase deviation.
iii. Determine the peak frequency deviation.
iv. Is this an FM or a PM signal? Explain.
c. Essay Questions
1. Explain Zero Crossing Detector

2. Explain PLL in detail
92
3. Define Constant Average Power
4. Explain Balanced Frequency discriminator
d. Problems
1. A signal ( )=2cos( .104 ) volts is applied to an FM modulator with the sensitivity constant of 10
KHz/volt. Then the modulation index of the FM wave is
Soln. Modulation index =
= /
Am is the amplitude of modulating signal
fm is the modulating frequency
5. A carrier cos is frequency modulated by a signal cos .The modulation index is mf. The
expression for the resulting FM signal is
Sol: The frequency modulated signal ( ) = [ + ∫ ( ) ]

Kfis the frequency sensitivity of the modulator
∫ ( ) =∫ = /
( )= [ +( / ) ]= [ + ]
where mf is the modulation index
6. The AM signal gets added to a noise with Power Spectral Density Sn(f) given in the figure below. The ratio
of average sideband power to mean noise power would be:
sol: The AM signal gets added to a noise with spectral density ( )
93
d. CaseStudies:
NA
4.3.7. Skill Building Exercises/ Assignments

1. The equation of an angle-modulated voltage v (t) = 10 sin (108t + 3 sin 104t), what form of angle
modulation is this? Calculate the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index and deviation and
power dissipated in a 100-ohm resistor.
2. A single tone modulating signal cos(10π103t) frequency modulates a carrier of10MHz and produces a
frequency deviation of 75kHz.Find
i. the modulation index and
ii. phase deviation produced in the FM wave.
iii. if another modulating signal produces a modulation index of 100 while maintaining the same
deviation, find the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal,, assuming Kf =10kHz/V.
3. Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM signal having a frequency deviation 75
KHz and an audio bandwidth of 10KHz.
4. Compare FM and AM systems
5. Differentiate between narrow band FM and wide band FM.
1. Give the phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves for sinusoidal

modulation.
2. Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM signal having a
frequency deviation of 75 kHz and an audio bandwidth of 10kHz.What will be the
change in the bandwidth, if modulating frequency is doubled? Determine the bandwidth
when modulating signal amplitude is also doubled.
3. Explain the detection of FM wave using balanced frequency discrimination.
4. Explain the difference between Narrow band FM and Wide band FM.
5. For an FM modulator with a modulating signal m(t)= Vm sin300wt, the carrier
Signal Vc(t)=8 sin(6.5×106)t and the modulator index _ = 2. Find out the significant
side frequencies and their amplitudes.
94
4.3.9. GateQuestions (Where relevant)
1. Consider an FM wave ( )=cos[2 + 1sin2 1 + 22 2 ] . The maximum deviation of the instantaneous

frequency from the carrier frequency fc is
(a) 1 1+ 2 2
(b) 1 2+ 2 1
(c) 1+ 2
(d) 1+ 2 [GATE 2014: 1 Mark]
Soln.The instantaneous value of the angular frequency

= + ( + ) + +
= + +
Frequency deviation (Δ )= +
2. Consider an angle modulation signal( )=6 [2 ×103+2sin(8000 )+4cos(8000 )] . The average power of ( )
is
(a) 10 W
(b) 18 W
(c) 20 W
(d) 28 W [GATE 2010: 1 Mark]
Soln.The average power of an angle modulated signal is / = / =18 W
3. A modulation signal is given by ( )= − cos[( +Δ ) ] ( ), where, Δ are positive constants, and

≫Δ . The complex envelope of s(t) is given by
(a) exp(− ) [ ( +Δ )] ( )
(b) exp(− )exp( Δ ) ( )
(c) ( Δ )( )
(d) [( +Δ )] [GATE 1999: 1 Mark]
Soln. ( )= − [( +Δ ) ] ( )
Complex envelope ( = ( ) − =[ − ( +Δ ) . ( )] − = − Δ ( )
4. ( )=5[cos(106 )−sin(103 )×sin(106 )] represents

(a) DSB suppressed carrier signal
(b) AM signal
(c) SSB upper sideband signal
(d) Narrow band FM signal [GATE 1994: 1 Mark]
Soln. ( )= ( − ( − ) + ( + )
Carrier and upper side band are in phase and lower side band is out of phase with carrier .The given
signal is narrow band FM signal
5. The input to a coherent detector is DSB-SC signal plus noise. The noise at the detector output is
(a) the in-phase component
(b) the quadrature-component
(c) zero
(d) the envelope [GATE 2003: 1 Mark]
95
Soln. The coherent detector rejects the quadrature component of noise therefore noise at the output has
in phase component only.
6.The List-I (lists the attributes) and the List-II (lists of the modulation systems). Match the attribute to the
modulation system that best meets it.
List-I
(A) Power efficient transmission of signals
(B) Most bandwidth efficient transmission of voice signals
(C) Simplest receiver structure
(D) Bandwidth efficient transmission of signals with significant dc component
List-II
(1) Conventional AM
(2) FM
(3) VSB
(4) SSB-SC
ABCD
(a) 4 2 1 3
(b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 3 2 1 4
(d) 2 4 3 1 [GATE 2011: 1 Mark]
Soln. FM is the most power efficient transmission of signals AM has the simplest receiver. Vestigial
sideband is bandwidth efficient transmission of signals with sufficient dc components. Single sideband,
suppressed carrier (SSB-SC) is the most bandwidth efficient transmission of voice signals.
7.An FM signal with a modulation index 9 is applied to a frequency tripler. The modulation index in the output
signal will be
(a) 0
(b) 3
(c) 9
(d) 27 [GATE 1996: 2 Marks]
Soln. The frequency modulation index β is multiplied by n in ntimes frequency multiplier. , ′= × =

27
4.3.10. Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical round - Placements)
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
96
Not Applicable

97
IV - <Noise>
UNIT SYLLABUS
NOISE:Noise in Analog communication System, Noise in DSB & SSB System, Noise in AM
System, Noise in Angle Modulation System, Threshold effect in Angle Modulation System,
Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.

1. Calculate the effect of noise in analog modulations

2. Use of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits In analog communication system

1. Describe different types of noise and predict its effect on various analog
communication systems.
2. Analyze energy and power spectral density of the signal.

Lecture no. Topic Methodology Quick reference
34 Noise in Analog Chalk & Board T1,C6,318
communication System
35 Noise in DSB System Chalk & Board T1,C6,322
36 Noise in SSB System Chalk & Board T1,C6,325
37 Noise in AM System Chalk & Board T1,C6,328
38 Noise in Angle Modulation Chalk & Board T2,C8,524
System
39 Threshold effect in Angle Chalk & Board T1,C6,341
Modulation System
98
40 Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis Chalk & Board T1,C6,348
4.4.4.1. Lecture-1
Noise is unwanted signal that affects wanted signal. Noise is random signal that exists in
communication systems
Noise
Internal
External
Internal:
 It is due to random movement of electrons in electronic circuits
 Major sources are resistors, diodes, transistors etc.
 Thermal noise or Johnson noise and shot noise are examples.
External:
 Man- made and natural resources
 Sources over which we have no control
 Examples are Motors, generators, atmospheric sources.
Noise level in system is proportional to

 Temperature and bandwidth
 Amount of current
 Gain of circuit
 Resistance of circuit
Effect of noise
 Degrades system performance (Analog and digital)
 Receiver cannot distinguish signal from noise
 Efficiency of communication system reduces
Types of noise
1. Thermal noise/white noise/Johnson noise or fluctuation noise
2. Shot noise
3. Noise temperature
4. Quantization noise
Thermal Noise: This noise is generated due to thermal motion (Brownian motion) of electrons
inside resistor. This noise is zero at absolute zero degree Kelvin and generated when temperature
rises, also called thermal noise. Also called Johnson noise who invented it.
99
Thermal noise also referred as ‘White noise’ since it has uniform spectral density across the EM
Spectrum.
PSD of thermal noise Sn(f) is
Where K is Boltzmen constant and T is temperature

KT is denoted by No then
Work of Johnson and Nyquist gave the expression for noise power
Where,
k = Boltzmann constant
T = Absolute temp. (Kelvin)
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
R = Resistance (ohms)
Where is mean noise voltage
SHOT NOISE
It is electronic noise that occurs when there are finite number of particles that carry energy such
as electrons or photons.
Due to analogy of lead shots called shot noise.
It has uniform spectral density like thermal noise.
Determination of Noise level
Signal to noise level ratio (SNR)
=
= =( / )⁄( 0/ 0)
100
Noise figure is always > 1
Noise temperature
Equivalent noise temperature is not the physical temperature of amplifier, but a theoretical
construct, that is an equivalent temperature that produces that amount of noise power
=( −1)
Noise figure of cascaded stages
FRIIS formula for calculating total noise factor of several cascaded amplifiers
1,2,−− & 1, 2, Noise figure and gains of different stages in cascade.

Note that noise figure is mainly dominated by first two stages
4.4.4.2. Lecture-2
DSB-SC: The DSB-SC systems uses synchronous detection at the receiver
Noise Power:
Now we will evaluate the noise power 0 N at the input of the synchronous detector
The noise of the input to the synchronous detector is a Band pass noise given by
Where is in-phase and is quadrature components of , with respect to the

carrier.
This signal is multiplied by in the synchronous detector. The multiplied signal
is given by
101
The noise signal is passed through a LPF and the terms
centered near ,are filtered out by the LPF
The noise power appear at the output of synchronous detector is
Since the power density spectrum is proportional to mean square value of the signal.
The power density spectrum of the noise is
Since power density spectrum of Ni is

So
Substitute equation (3) in equation (2)
102
The bandwidth of the Band pass noise at the output of the detector is
Hence, the output noise power N0 is given by
Signal Power: The modulated signal at the input of the detector is
The input signal power is mean square of
The signal voltage at the output of the detector is

Signal power at the output of the detector is
103
Figure of merit is
Thus the figure of merit is one (unity).

S/N ratios at the input and output of the detector is identical and there is no improvement in S/N
ratio
4.4.4.3. Lecture-36 Noise in SSB system
Noise-Power: The input noise power

The Noise power density spectrum at the output of the Synchronous detector is same as
given by the DSB-SC case
The power density spectrum for SSB-SC signal is equal to n / 2 explained in

previous problem
Hence
The bandwidth of the detected signal at the output of the detector is 2fm.
Both SSB-SC and DSB-SC produces identical spectra at the synchronous detector output.
In both cases, the detected output is with identical spectra.
Therefore, the noise power at the output of detector is
104
Signal Power:
The signal power at the input and output of the synchronous detector in a SSB-SC
receiver can be evaluated by observing the spectra.
The signal power is proportional to the area under the power density spectrum
(Parseval’s theorem).
The power density spectrum of the signal is proportional to the square of the
Fourier transform .
It is obvious that the area under the power density spectrum of a SSB-SC signal is same
as the area under power density spectrum F.
Hence the power of SSB-SC signal is same as the power (MS value) of the baseband
Signal .
The detector output in SSB-SC system is Hence the output of the detector has the signal
power
The figure of merit is given by
This is same as the figure of merit of the DS-SC system which means both are identical from
noise performance point of view in spite of the fact that SSB-SC has half bandwidth. This is
because, the large bandwidth in the DSB-SC system increases the signal as well as noise power.
4.4.4.4. Lecture-37: Noise in AM System
105
Envelope detection results in a simpler receiver than the coherent approach as it does not require
the circuitry to produce a synchronized carrier for demodulation. Recall that the envelope-
modulated signal is represented by
Where Ac cos 2πfct is the carrier wave, m(t) is the message signal, and Ka is the amplitude
sensitivity of the modulator. For envelope detection, the receiver model is depicted in
Fig. The front end of this receiver is identical to that of the coherent receiver. That is,
the received signal, including additive noise, is passed through a band-pass filter.
PRE-DETECTION SNR
Before discussing the remainder of the circuit, let us consider the (pre-detection) SNR of
this band-pass signal. In above equation, the average power of the carrier component is due
Ac2/2 due
to the sinusoidal nature of the carrier. The power in the modulated part of the signal is
where we assume the message signal has zero mean, E[m(t)]=0,and the message power
P is defined as in above equation. Consequently, the received signal power is .As
with the linear receiver, we assume without loss of generality that the gain of the band-pass
filter is unity, so the pre-detection signal-to-noise ratio is given by
Where BT is the noise bandwidth of the band-pass filter.
POST-DETECTION SNR
To determine the post-detection signal-to-noise ratio, we must analyze the effects of the
remainder of the circuit of Fig. 9.8—in particular, the envelope detector, which can be modeled
as shown in Fig. 9.9, and whose operation was described . As with the
linear receiver of Section 9.4, we can represent the noise in terms of its in-phase and quadrature
components, and consequently model the input to the envelope detector as and the
noise has two orthogonal phasor components
106
The object of the envelope detector is to recover the low-frequency amplitude variations
of the high-frequency signal depicted in Fig. 9.10. Conceptually, this can be represented in
aphasor diagram as shown in figure, where the signal component of the phasor is
4.4.4.5. Lecture-5: Noise in Angle Modulation System

We now turn to the detection of a frequency-modulated carrier in noise. Recall from previous
Section
that the frequency-modulated signal is given by
Where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, kf is the frequency sensitivity
factor of the modulator, and m(t) is the message signal. The received FM signal s(t) has a
carrier frequency fc and a transmission bandwidth BT, such that a negligible amount of
power lies outside the frequency band fc ± BT/2for positive frequencies, and similarly for
negative frequencies.
Like AM, noise performance of angle modulated systems is characterized by parameter γ
If it is compared with AM
Note if bandwidth ratio is increased by a factor 2,/ increases by a factor 4 .This exchange of
bandwidth and noise performance is an important feature of FM.
4.4.4.6. Lecture-39:Threshold effect in Angle Modulation System
107
The formula
, defining the post-detection SNR ratio of an FM receiver, is valid only if the

pre-detection SNR, measured at the discriminator input, is high compared to unity. If the pre-
detection SNR is lowered, the FM receiver breaks down. At first, individual clicks are heard in
the receiver output, and as the pre-detection SNR decreases further, the clicks merge to a
crackling or sputtering sound. At and below this breakdown point, Equation fails to accurately
predict the post-detection SNR. This phenomenon is known as the threshold effect.
we describe a computer experiment for simulating the detection of an FM signal in noise. The
signal and noise are both generated using complex phasor notation, but they are subsequently up-
converted to an IF, creating a band-pass signal, to apply discriminator detection. The complex
phasor of the FM signal is given by
where (for the results that follow) we have m(t)=sin(2πt) ,Kf=20 hertz per unit amplitude. This
signal was transmitted with a band-pass transmission bandwidth of BT =62.5 Hz and a baseband
detection bandwidth of W =5.5 Hz.
Similar to the AM computer experiment, we measure the pre-detection and post detection
SNRs of the signal and compare the results to the theory developed in this section.
These results are shown in Fig. 9.17 for the above set of parameters. The results show
that the theory clearly matches the measured performance at high SNR. At low SNR we
have a threshold effect as mentioned, where the post-detection SNR degrades very rapidly
as the pre-detection SNR is decreased past a value of 10 dBs
108
4.4.4.7. Lecture-40:Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis
In common narrowband two way fm communications, Pre emphasis follows a 6 dB per octave
rate. This means that as the frequency doubles, the amplitude increases 6 dB. This is usually
done between 300 - 3000 cycles. Pre emphasis is needed in FM to maintain good signal to noise
ratio. Why is it necessary? Common voice characteristics emit low frequencies higher in
amplitude than high frequencies. The limiter circuits that clip the voice to allow protection of
over deviation are usually not frequency sensitive, and are fixed in level, so they will clip or limit
the lows before the highs. This results in added distortion because of the lows overdriving the
limiter. Pre emphasis is used to shape the voice signals to create a more equal amplitude of lows
and highs before their application to the limiter. The result is that the signal received is perceived
louder due to more equal clipping or limiting of the signal, but probably more important is the
increased level of the higher frequencies being applied to the modulator results in a better
transmitted audio signal to noise ratio due to the highs being above the noise as much or more
than the lows.
109
Transmitters that employ a true FM modulator require a pre emphasis circuit before the
modulator fore the true FM modulator doesn't automatically pre emphasize the audio like a
transmitter that uses a phase modulator. A separate circuit is not necessary for pre emphasis in a
transmitter that has a phase modulator because the phase modulator applies pre emphasis to the
transmitted audio as a function of the phase modulator
The receiver De emphasis circuitry takes the unnatural sounding pre emphasized audio and turns
it back into its original response. Pre emphasized (discriminator) audio is however available
directly from the audio demodulation (discriminator) circuitry. In linking systems, many choose
to eliminate the emphasis circuitry to allow better representation of retransmitted signals. Since
the signal has already been pre emphasized (by the user that is transmitting,) and since the
receiver you are listening to takes care of the de emphasis.It doesn't need to be done over and
110
over again. Some loss of quality does exist, but quality is better maintained by a flat system. A
flat audio response system is one which has equal output deviation for the same input deviation,
no matter what the applied audio frequency is within reason. Reasonable audio frequency
response would be from 50 cycles to about 3500 to 5000 cycles in a system not filtering PL.
Audio response in a system filtering PL would be around 250 to about 3500 to 5000 cycles.
Upper cut off frequency would be determined mainly on acceptable use of available bandwidth.

a. Fill in the blanks type of questions
1. The noise produced by a resistor is proportional to

absolute temperature
2. Threshold noise power of a resistor depends on
Bandwidth
3. Threshold for detection of FM signals using discriminator is about
200 dB
4. In communication system, noise is most likely to affect the signal
in the channel
5. One of the following types of noise becomes of great importance at high frequencies
transit time noise
6. The value of a transistor creating thermal noise is doubled. The noise power generated is
double
7. A narrow band noise in time domain represents
amplitude modulated sinusoidal waveform
8. Noise figure of merit is unity for
SSB-SC
9. Noise figure of merit is 1/3 with m = 1 for
DSB with sinusoidal modulation
10. In a communication system, noise is most likely to affect the signal
in the channel
b. Multiple choice questions
1. The channel may be affected by

a) Thermal noise
b) Interference from other signals
c) Both of the mentioned
Answer: c
2. White noise has _______ power spectral density.

a) Constant
b) Variable
111
c) Both of the mentioned
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
3. The noise generated by a resistor depends upon

A. its resistance value
B. its operating temperature
C. both its resistance value and operating temperature
D. none of the above
Answer: b
4. It is known that noise phase modulates the FM wave. As the noise side band frequency
approaches the carrier frequency, the noise amplitude
A. will increase
B. will decrease
C. will remain constant
D. will reduce to negligible value
Answer: Option B
5. Transistor are free from which type of noise?

A. Resistance noise
B. Partition noise
C. Flicker noise
D. hot noise
Answer: Option B
6.In a communication system, noise is most likely to affect the signal

A. at the transmitter
B. in the channel
C. in the information source
D. at the destination
Answer: Option B
7. FM amplifier in a superhetero dyne receiver

A. increases selectivity
B. suppresses noise
C. provides improved tracking
D. improves the rejection of the image frequency
Answer: Option D
8. The noise voltage is

(A) directly proportional to bandwidth
112
(B) directly proportional to bandwidth
(C) inversely proportional to noise resistance
(D) inversely proportional to bandwidth
Answer: A
9. The power spectral density of thermal noise is given by

(A) kT watts per Hz
(B) kTB watts per Hz
(C) 2kT watts per Hz
(D) 2kTB watts per Hz
Answer: A
10. The available noise power from a resistor depends

(A) its resistance value
(B) its operating temperature
(C) its resistance value & operating temp
(D) neither its resistance and not its temp
Answer: C
11. Noise figure of a communication receiver depends largely on

(A) noise figure of last stage and its gain
(B) noise figure of first stage
(C) noise figure and the gain of the intermediate stages
(D) none of the above
Answer: B
c. True or False questions
1. Manmade noise is amplitude variations.True/False

2. The figure of merit of SSB modulation is 1True/False
3. Noise figure of merit in AM modulated signal is greater than 1True/False
4. Energy content of atmospheric noise decreases with increases in frequency True/False
5. Solar noise is the electric noise emanating from sun True/False
6. The noise generated in any resistor due to random motion of electrons is called shot
noiseTrue/False
7. Pre emphasis refers to boosting the relative amplitude of modulating voltage for higher audio
frequency True/False
8. De-emphasis circuit is a simple high pass filter True/False
9. Flicker noise is the one which appearing in transistor operating at low audio frequencies
True/False
10. Figure of merit of FM is higher than that of AM True/False
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11. A pre emphasis circuit provides extra noise immunity by amplifying the higher audio frequency.
True/False
12. The value of the resistor creating thermal noise is doubled. The noise power is unchanged.
True/False
d. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
1. What is shot noise?
A noise arises from the discrete nature of diodes and transistors.

E.g., a current pulse is generated every time an electron is emitted by the cathode.
2. What is thermal noise?

A noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor.
3. What is white noise?

A noise is white if its PSD (Power Spectral Density) equals constant for all frequencies.
4. What is signal to noise ratio?

A signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of the magnitude of the signal to that of noise
(often expressed in decibels).
5. Define white noise. State its power spectral density

Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide frequency
range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is therefore called
white noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of the operating
frequency, which is given as
Sw(ω) = N0 /2
6. Give the classification of noise.
Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise and internal noise.
External noise may be defined as that type of noise which is generated external to the
communication system. And it can be classified into
1. Atmospheric noise
2. Extraterrestrial noises
3. Man – made noises or industrial noises
Internal noise may be defined as that type of system which is generated internally or within the
communication system or receiver. it can be classified into
a) Thermal noise
b) Shot noise
c) Transit time noise
d) Miscellaneous internal noise
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7.What is threshold effect with respect to noise?
When the carrier to noise ratio reduces below certain value, the message information is lost. The
performance of the envelope detector deteriorates rapidly and it has no proportion with carrier to
noise ratio. This is called as threshold effect.
8.What is the purpose of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM?
The psd of noise at the output of FM receiver usually increases rapidly at high frequencies but
the psd of message signal falls off at higher frequencies. This means the message signal does not
utilize the frequency band in efficient manner. Such more efficient use of frequency band and
improved noise performance can be obtained with the help of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in
FM
9.What is the figure of merit of a AM system with 100 percent Modulation?
The figure of merit of an AM system with 100 percent modulation is 1/3.This means that other
factors being equal an AM system must transmit three times as much average power
as a suppressed system in order to achieve the same quality of noise performance.
10. What is meant by figure of merit of a receiver?

The ratio of output signal to noise ratio to channel signal to noise ratio
e. Analytical type questions
1. Define figure of merit.
2. Write the expression for o/p signal to noise ratio of SSB-SC signal.
3. Write the expression for o/p signal to noise ratio of DSB-SC signal.
4. Write the expression for o/p signal to noise ratio of DSB with carrier signal.
5. Write the expression for o/p signal to noise ratio of envelope detector.
f. Essay type Questions

1. Explain the working of super heterodyne receiver with its parameters.
2. Discuss the noise performance of AM system using envelope detection.
3. Compare the noise performance of AM and FM systems.
4. Calculate the noise power of a DSB-SC system using coherent detection.
5. Discuss in detail the noise performance in SSB-SC receiver.
6. Explain the significance of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM system.
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7. Derive the noise power spectral density of the FM demodulation and explain its
performance with diagram.
8. Draw the block diagram of FM demodulator and explain the effect of noise
in detail.
9. Explain the FM threshold effect and capture effect in FM.
10.4.3. Previous Questions (Asked by JNTUK from the concerned

Unit)
1. Derive necessary equations to show that the SNR will improve with pre-
emphasis circuit?
2. Calculate the figure of merit for a SSB-Sc system
3. Calculate signal to noise ratio for SSB SC. Find its figure of merit
4. Calculate the figure of merit for a DSB-SC system.
5. Prove that narrow band FM offers no improvement in SNR over AM
6. Explain about pre-emphasis and e-emphasis.
7. ExplainthenoiseperformanceofSSB-SCreceiverandproveitsS/Nratioisunity.
8. ProvethatthefigureofmeritforSSB-SCis1.
9. Discuss the threshold effect for AM with envelope detector
10. Derive an expression for the S/N ratio for an FM System.
11. Explain the difference between DSB & SSB system
10.4.4. GATE Questions (Where relevant)
Not applicable
116
10.4.5. Interview questions (which are frequently asked in a Technical
round - Placements)
1. What is noise?
2. What is white noise?
3. Define shot noise?
4. Different types of noise?
5. Define figure of merit?
6. What is the equation of figure of merit for DSB-SC ?
7. What is the equation of figure of merit for SSB-SC ?
8. Define pre –emphasis?
9. Define de-emphasis?
10. What is the equation of figure of merit in AM ?
10.4.7. Suggested “Expert Guest Lectures” (both from in and outside of

the campus)
1. Guest lecture by P.Dilleswararao, Asst. professor, VIIT,Duvvada
10.4.8. Literature references of Relevant NPTEL Videos/Web/You Tube

videos etc.
1 .https://youtu.be/yWWfKrbMRUs?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
2. https://youtu.be/WAA_W0ADkKA?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
117
3. https://youtu.be/WT1Y97riAQQ?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
4. https://youtu.be/P9QBGe-_XKY?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
5. https://youtu.be/zpRz2OeQGJQ?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
Not applicable

118
4.5. Unit – V - <TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS>
UNIT SYLLABUS
Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter, AM Transmitter, Effect of feedback on
performance of AM Transmitter, FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type and phase modulated
FM Transmitter, frequency stability in FM Transmitter. Radio Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned
radio frequency receiver, Superhetrodyne receiver, RF section and Characteristics - Frequency
changing and tracking, Intermediate frequency, AGC, FM Receiver, Comparison with AM
Receiver, Amplitude limiting

1. Demonstrate about various blocks in Transmitters and Receivers.

2. Analyze and design the Amplifiers, Mixer and Oscillators

1. Student understand the basic knowledge necessary for transmitting and receiving
information
2. Student understand different types of modulation and demodulation
3. To develop a clear insight into the relations between the input and output ac signals
in various stages of a transmitter and a receiver

Radio Transmitter – Chalk & Board T2,C10,602
41 Classification of Transmitter
42 AM Transmitter Chalk & Board T2,C10,602
Effect of feedback on Chalk & Board
43 performance of AM
Transmitter
FM Transmitter – Variable Chalk & Board T2,C10,608
44 reactance type
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phase modulated FM Chalk & Board T2,C10,611
45
Transmitter
frequency stability in FM Chalk & Board T2,C10,609
46 Transmitter
Radio Receiver - Receiver Chalk & Board T2,C9,558
47 Types -
48 Tuned radio frequency receiver Chalk & Board T2,C9,559
49 Superhetrodyne receiver Chalk & Board T2,C9,560
50 RF section and Characteristics Chalk & Board T2,C9,570
Frequency changing and Chalk & Board T2,C9,564
51
tracking
52 Intermediate frequency, Chalk & Board T2,C9,590
53 AGC Chalk & Board T2,C9,594
54 FM Receiver Chalk & Board T2,C9,595
Comparison with AM Chalk & Board T2,C9,598
55 Receiver,
56 Amplitude limiting Chalk & Board T2,C9,598

4.5.4.1. Lecture-41:Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter
Transmitters
Radio Transmitters may be classified according to the following methods.
i. Type of modulation used
ii. Type of service involved and
iii. Type of frequency range associated.
According to the type of modulation, they are classified as AM Transmitters, FM
transmitters and pulse modulation Transmitters.
AM Transmitters :
In these, modulating signal modulates the amplitude of the carrier. These areused for radio
broadcast range, TV, sound broadcast radio, TV picture broad cast on short waves.
FM Transmitter:
Here, modulating signal changes frequency of the carrier. These are used in radio broad cast at
VHF and UHF ranges, TV sound broadcast in VHF and UHF ranges, radio telephony in VHF
and UHF range over short distances.
Pulse Modulation Transmitters:

In these Transmitters, Pulse modulation techniques like pulse width modulation, pulse position
modulation, pulse amplitude modulation, pulse frequency modulation and pulse code modulation
are used. According to the service involvement, they are classified as Radio broadcast, radio
telephone, radio telegraph, television, Radar and Navigational transmitters.
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Radio Broadcast transmitters:
These are used to transmit speeches, talks, music, dramas etc for the information and recreation.
These are used for several people to receive with the help of radio receivers. Again these may be
of AM or FM type.
Radio Telephone Transmitters :

Radio Telephone transmitters are designed for transmitting telephone signals over long distances
by radio means. Here the signals are transmitted into a beam towards the receiving end through
antennas.
Radio Telegraph Transmitters :

A Radio Telegraph Transmitter transmits telegraph signals from one radio station to another
radio station. It may use either AM or FM. It is also used in point-to-point communication where
directive antennas with narrow beams are used
Television Transmitters :
TV broadcast requires two transmitters. One for transmission of picture and the other for sound.
Both operate in VHF and UHF range, but the picture is transmitted through AM-VSB
modulation and sound through FM.
Radar Transmitter :
Radar uses two types transmissions, continuous wave and pulse transmission. Pulse transmission
uses pulse modulators and continuous wave transmission uses fm.
Navigation transmitters:
These are used for sea and air navigation purposes. They are used for blindloading of aircrafts,
Surveillance of airport, etc.
According to the operating frequency they are classified as follows based on the carrier
frequency.
i. Long wave transmitters (<300KHz)
ii. Medium wave transmitters (550-1650KHz)
iii. Shortwave transmitters (3-30MHz)
iv. VHF and UHF transmitters
v. Microwave transmitters (>1000MHz)
Long wave Transmitters :

These transmitters operate on long waves is on frequencies below 300KHz these transmitters are
used for broadcasting where atmospheric disturbances on long waves are not severe. These travel
along the surface of earth and are rapidly attenuated. Therefore reasonable signal strength of
100Kw or more is necessary for this type of transmitter to cover the distant receiver aerials.
Medium Wave Transmitters:

These are also used for broadcasting in the frequency range550KHz to 1650Khz. In these, carrier
power may vary from as low as 5Kw to as high as 1000Kw.
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Short wave transmitters:
These transmitters operate on frequency range from 3 to 30MHz. Usuallyionospheric
propagation of electromagnetic waves takes place at such short waves. The attenuation of radio
waves traveling from transmitter to distant receiving aerial through ionosphere is small. Hence
carrier power for radiation is also small in the range from 1Kw to 10Kw. For overseas broadcast
the power may have range 10 to 100Kw.
VHF and UHF Transmitters:

These are used for FM broadcast, television broadcast, FM radio telephony etc.,
Microwave transmitters :
The operating frequency of these transmitters may be in the range above 1000MHz. These are
used in radar, television relay, microwave link between two adjacent countries etc.,
4.5.4.2. Lecture-42:AM Transmitter

In AM Transmitter, the energy is controlled by using Amplitude Modulation techniques
and a typical block diagram is shown below.
Master Oscillator:
Generally crystal oscillator is used as master oscillator. Crystal Oscillatorprovides high stability
at higher temperatures and voltages.
Buffer Amplifier:
This is used for good isolation between crystal oscillator and harmonic generators.In the absence
of butter amplifier, there may not be proper impedance matching betweenmaster (crystal)
oscillator and harmonic generator. Due to this there may be loadingdown problem with crystal
oscillator. Normally buffer amplifier has high input and lowoutput impedances with voltage gain
unity. Hence it simply transfers energy from masteroscillator to harmonic generators.
Harmonic Generators :
Usually master oscillator is operated at sub harmonic frequency of the harmonicgenerator.
Basically these harmonic generators are class C tuned amplifiers in which theoutput of the rf
voltage is first distorted through class C operation and then output tunedcircuit selects the desired
harmonic frequency.
Class C Amplifiers:
RF Voltage generated by the master oscillator has usually very smaller in power.Hence, in order
to raise it to the required high level, a chain of class C amplifiers are usedwith output circuit
efficiency in the order of 70%. Normally, first few stages of class Camplifiers acts as harmonic
generators.
Modulated Amplifier :
This is also class C tuned amplifier usually in push pull arrangement. Series platemodulation is
frequently used in high level modulation because of its high efficiency.Grid bias and suppressor
grid modulations are sometimes used in low level modulation.In transistorized radio transmitters,
collector modulation or base modulation or both maybe used.
122
Modulating Amplifier:
This is usually a class B push-pull amplifier and feeds audio power into themodulated amplifier.
Class B operation is used because of its high plate (collector)circuit efficiency. Class A is
sometimes used in low power transmitters.
High level Modulation :

High level modulation is one in which the transmitter output power is generateddirectly by the
modulated amplifier. That means the carrier voltage is modulated at the highest power level, and
hence there is no need to use any amplifier after modulatedamplifier.
Low level Modulation:

Low level modulation is one in which the transmitter output power generated bymodulated
amplifier is raised to the desired level. Here the carrier voltage is modulatedat the low power
level and it is amplified before it is radiated into the space throughantenna. Hence a class B tuned
power amplifier is used after modulated amplifier.
4.5.4.3. Lecture-43 :Effect of feedback on performance of AM Transmitter
Here the rectifier R generated a modulation-frequency wave that reproduces the

variations in the modulation envelope of the transmitter output.
The output of the rectifier is the superimposed on the input to the modulation-frequency
amplifier B in a such a manner as to oppose the modulation signal input ea to B.
Here the modulation-frequency wave with which the feedback is concerned is
transformed into an envelope by the modulator, and then reconverted from an envelope
back to a modulation-frequency wave by means of a rectifier.
Negative feedback here reduces the amplitude, frequency and phase distortion in the
modulation envelope generated in the path bcde. And also reduces noise and hum
modulation of the output.
The above parameters are reduced by the factor A . At the same time, the gain of
123
A
loss of amplification caused by the negative feedback.
4.5.4.4. Lecture-44:FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type
The FM transmitter has three basic sections.
1. The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and the buffer
amplifier.
2. The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency multipliers.
3. The power output section, which includes a low-
level power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the impedance matching network to
properly load the power section with the antenna impedance.
The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter may be described as follows.
1. The Exciter
 The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate
a stable sine wave signal at the rest frequency, when no modulation is applied. It
must be able to linearly change frequency when fully modulated, with no
measurable change in amplitude.
 The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high-
impedance load on the oscillator to help stabilize the oscillator frequency. The
buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
 The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator
frequency by application of the message signal. The positive peak of the message
signal generally lowers the oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest
frequency, and the negative message peak raises the oscillator frequency to a
value above the rest frequency. The greater the peak-to-peak message signal, the
larger the oscillator deviation.
124
2. Frequency Multiplier
Frequency multipliers are tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifiers in which the output

resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency. Common frequency
multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x Frequency multiplier is sometimes
seen, but its extreme low efficiency forbids widespread usage. Note that multiplication is
by whole numbers only. There can not a 1.5x multiplier, for instance.
3. Power output section
The final power section develops the carrier power, to be transmitted and often has a low-
power amplifier driven the final power amplifier. The impedance matching network is the
same as for the AM transmitter and matches the antenna impedance to the correct load on
the final over amplifier.
FM wave can be generated by varying either capacitance or inductance of an LCoscillator tank

circuit.If the variation in capacitance or inductance can be made directly proportional to the
modulating voltage, FM wave can be obtained. A number of devices are available through which
reactance can be varied by the application of (modulating) voltage.For eg. Three terminal
devices like FET, BJT and tube can also be used.The most direct way of producing an fm wave
is to alter the capacitance in the tankcircuit of an oscillator.
The block diagram of simple fc = 96MHz, ∆f = 75K FM transmitter using reactance tube
is as described below.Here modulating signal after amplified in a suitable audio amplifier is
given to thereactance tube modulator. This reactance tube modulator is connected in the tank
circuit of a master oscillator. When there is no modulating signal, the master oscillator produces
unmodulated carrier frequency fc.When modulating signal is appeared on the reactance tube it
produces reactance of eithercapacitive or inductive. This depends on the manner in which
reactance tube is operated.
In place of reactance, an FET or a transistor can be used. The principle involved in the fm
generation can be understood from the following scheme of block diagram.
The oscillator produces a carrier frequency (fc) of 3.97MHz with a frequency deviation
3.12KHz. This is passed through various multiplier circuits is 3doublers and a Tripler to raise it
to a carrier frequency of 95.4MHz and frequency deviation of 75KHz. Buffer amplifier is sued
after oscillator to provide good isolation from multiplier. Since the modulating voltage contains
less energy at its high frequency components large frequency deviation cannot be maintained in
fm wave. Hence the high frequency components are artificially boosted (emphasized) in the fm
generation, which is called pre emphasis. Finally, to meet required power level, the fm wave is
passed through an rfamplifer before radiated into the space.
4.5.4.5. Lecture-45:Phase modulated FM Transmitter
The part of the Armstrong FM transmitter (Armstrong phase modulator) which is expressed in
dotted lines describes the principle of operation of an Armstrong phase modulator. It should be
noted, first that the output signal from the carrier oscillator is supplied to circuits that perform the
task of modulating the carrier signal. The oscillator does not change frequency, as is the case of
125
direct FM. These points out the major advantage of phase modulation (PM), or indirect FM, over
direct FM. That is the phase modulator is crystal controlled for frequency.
The crystal-controlled carrier oscillator signal is directed to two circuits in parallel. This signal
(usually a sine wave) is established as the reference past carrier signal and is assigned a value
0°.The balanced modulator is an amplitude modulator used to form an envelope of double side-
bands and to suppress the carrier signal (DSSC). This requires two input signals, the carrier
signal and the modulating message signal. The output of the modulator is connected to the adder
circuit; here the 90° phase-delayed carriers signal will be added back to replace the suppressed
carrier. The act of delaying the carrier phase by 90° does not change the carrier frequency or its
wave-shape. This signal identified as the 90° carrier signal.
The carrier frequency change at the adder output is a function of the output phase shift and is
found by. fc = ∆θfs (in hertz)
126
When θ is the phase change in radians and fs is the lowest audio modulating frequency. In most
FM radio bands, the lowest audio frequency is 50Hz. Therefore, the carrier frequency change at
the adder output is 0.6125 x 50Hz = ± 30Hz since 10% AM represents the upper limit of carrier
voltage change, then ± 30Hz is the maximum deviation from the modulator for PM.
The 90° phase shift network does not change the signal frequency because the components and
resulting phase change are constant with time. However, the phase of the adder output voltage is
in a continual state of change brought about by the cyclical variations of the message signal, and
during the time of a phase change, there will also be a frequency change.
In figure. (c). during time (a), the signal has a frequency f1, and is at the zero reference phase.
During time (c), the signal has a frequency f1 but has changed phase to θ. During time (b) when
the phase is in the process of changing, from 0 to θ. the frequency is less than f1.
4.5.4.6. Lecture-46: Frequency stability in FM Transmitter
127
The oscillator on which reactance modulator operates cannot crystal controlled. Hence
the frequency stabilization of reactance modulator is required.
As the reactance modulator operates on the tank circuit of an LC oscillator, it is isolated
by buffer. The output is passed on to an amplitude limiter to power amplification by class C
amplifiers. A fraction of the output is taken from a limiter and fed to a mixer.
The mixer takes the master oscillator frequency (fs) and crystal oscillator frequency (f0)
to produce an IF signal of lower order. This is amplified and fed to the phase discriminator.
The output of the discriminator is connected to reactance modulator and provides a dc
voltage to correct automatically any drift in the average frequency of the master oscillator.
Operation :
Consider the frequency of master oscillator drift high. This high frequency will be fed to the
mixer. Since the crystal oscillator frequency is stable, high frequency will be appeared at the
mixer output and it is fed to the discriminator The discriminator is tuned to correct frequency
difference between the two oscillators. Discriminator output frequency is high and its output will
be a positive dc voltage This +ve dc voltage is fed in series with the input of reactance modulator
and therefore increases its transconductance. So as the capacitance of the reactance modulator
increases, bringing the oscillator frequency lower. Thus the rise in frequency is lowered and
corrected. When the master oscillator frequency drift is low, a negative correcting dc voltage
will be obtained and oscillator frequency correspondingly increased
4.5.4.7. Lecture-47
Introduction
Radio receiver :
Receiver does the function of selecting the desired signal from all the otherunwanted signals,
amplifying and demodulating it, and displaying it in the desiredmanner.
As modulation took place in the transmitter, the reverse process of demodulationmust be
performed in the receiver, to recover the original modulating voltages.Of various forms of
receivers, only two have real practical or commercial significance.They are tuned radio-
frequency (TRF) receiver and super heterodyne receiver
128
This unit centersaround basic principles of the super heterodyne receiver. In the article,
we will discuss the reasons for the use of the super heterodyne and various topics which
concern its design, such as the choice of intermediate frequency, the use of its RF stage,
oscillator tracking, band spread tuning and frequency synthesis. Most of the information
is standard text book material, but put together as an introductory article, it can provide
somewhere to start if you are contemplating building a receiver, or if you are considering
examining specifications with an objective to select a receiver for purchase.
FIGURE: AM RECEIVER
4.5.4.8. Lecture-48: Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver :
The desired signal received by the antenna is fed to the input of 1st RF amplifier.
For further amplification, it is passed through one or two RF amplifiers.
All the amplifiers are simultaneously (gang) tuned to reject all other unwanted signals. After the
desired signal was amplified to a suitable level, it was demodulated (detected). Since the
demodulated signal is lower in strength, it is amplified by using audio and power amplifiers. At
the end, audio signal is converted into speech or music by the loudspeaker.
Advantages:
i. It is simple to design.
ii. High sensitivity in fixed frequency receives.
129
iii. It gave the pavement for the invention of super heterodyne receiver.
Demerits :
i. TRF receiver suffers from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning range
ii. Insufficient adjacent – frequency rejection during tuning.
iii. Beyond broadcast frequencies, it cannot be operated.
iv. There is a risk of instability with high gain at single frequency.
4.5.4.9. Lecture-49:Superhetrodyne receiver

The super heterodyne (short for supersonic heterodyne) receiver was first evolved by
Major Edwin Howard Armstrong, in 1918. It was introduced to the market place in the
late 1920s and gradually phased out the TRF receiver during the 1930s.
RF stage selects the wanted frequency through antenna.The RF amplifier not only amplifies the
desired signal but also rejects The unwanted signals. Hence reduction of the noise figure is also
achieved. The signal with frequency fsis combined with the local oscillator frequency f0And
normally converted into a signal of a lower fixed frequency. Here a constant frequency
difference is maintained between local oscillator and the RF circuits, through capacitance tuning.
Normally, all the capacitors are ganged together and operated in unison by one control knob.
The output of the mixed is generally a lower fixed frequency of f0-fs. The signal at the
intermediate frequency contains the same modulation as the original carrier. This is passed
through IF amplifiers to increase the gain and bandwidth requirements. The IF amplifier
generally uses two or three transformers, each consisting of a pair of mutually coupled tuned
130
circuits.The characteristics of IF amplifiers are independent of the frequency to which the
receiver is tuned. Hence gain and selectivity are fairly uniform throughout its tuning range.
Afterwards, the IF signal is demodulated and amplified before to reproduce the original
information of RF, mixer and IF amplifier, to maintain gain constant
Image frequency and its rejections :

In the standard broadcast receiver the local oscillator frequency is made higher
than the incoming signal frequency.
i.e.
If a frequency fsi arrives at the input of a mixer, such that
,
this will also produce fi when mixed with f0.
This spurious intermediate frequency signal will also be amplified by IF stage andwill therefore
provide interference.
This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously. This term is called image
frequency The image frequency rejection is the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to
the gain at the image frequency.
And Q = loaded Q of the tuned circuit.

If receiver has an RF stage, then there are two lined circuits, both tune to , the total rejection
will be the product of two individuals.
Double Spotting:
This a well-known phenomenon in which the same short wave station is pickedup at two near by
points on the receiver dial. It is caused by poor front-end selectivity, i.e., inadequate image-
frequency rejection.
Example : Station A : Strong station at 14.7MHz.
Oscillator frequency is 15.15MHz
For an IF of 455 KHz - receiver.
Station B : a weak station at 13.790MHz.
Local oscillator will be adjusted to 14.245MHz
For the same receiver to produce 455K
Now 14.7MHz (strong) signal will be picked up when tuned to 13.790M(weak station)
Super heterodyne Tracking:
Super heterodyne receiver has a number of tunable circuits which must be tunedcorrectly to
receive the desired station. Various tuned circuits are mechanically coupled and they are
operated by one tuning control and dial. Irrespective of the received frequency, the RF and mixer
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input tuned circuits must be tuned to it. The local oscillator must simultaneously be tuned to a
frequency higher than this by intermediate frequency. Any error that exist in the frequency
difference will result in an incorrect frequency being fed to the IF amplifier. These are called
tracking errors. Due to these errors, the stations will appear away from their correct position on
the dial. It is not possible to maintain a constant frequency difference between local oscillator
and front-end circuits. Due to these, tracking errors always occur. For this, either a coil is placed
in series with the local oscillator ganged capacitor or a capacitor in series with the oscillator coil.
The capacitor is called a padding capacitor or patter.
4.5.4.10. Lecture-50: RF section and Characteristics

Advantages of RF section :
i. Greater gain is better sensitivity
ii. Improved image-frequency rejection
iii. Improved signal-to-noise ratio
iv. Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signal is better selectivity.
v. Better coupling of receiver to the antenna (particular at VHF and above)
vi. Prevention of spurious frequencies from entering the mixture andheterodyning there to
produce an interfering frequency equal to the IFfrom the desired signal.
vii. Prevention of re-radiation of the local oscillator through the antenna of the receiver.
RF Section Characteristics:
Sensitivity :
The sensitivity of a radio signals. It is expressed in terms of the voltage that mustbe applied to
the receiver input terminals to give a standard output power. There are several methods of
expressing sensitivity by manufacturers. One of them, a 400Hz sine wave with 30% modulation
is applied to the receiver through a standard coupling network (called as dummy antenna) to
produce the standard output power 50mw, is one method. In this, a load resistance of equal to
loud speaker is used at the output of the receiver. This is measured at 3 points along the tuning
range. A sensitivity curve for a typical good domestic receiver is shown below
132
Selectivity :
The selectivity of a receiver is its ability to reject (adjacent) unwanted signals. Selectivity is
measured at the end of sensitivity test with conditions same as for sensitivity. But here , the
frequency of the generator is varied to either side of the frequency to which the receiver is
turned. The output of the receiver naturally falls since the input frequency is now incorrect. So
the input voltage must be increased until the output is the same as standard level. The ratio of the
voltage required of resonance to the voltage required when the generator is tuned to the
receiver’s frequency is calculated and the curve is plotted. It is also used to determine the
adjacent-channel rejection of a receiver
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4.5.4.11. Lecture-51:Frequency changing and tracking
Whilst the local oscillator circuit tunes over a change in frequency equal to that of the RF
circuits, the actual frequency is normally higher to produce the IF frequency difference
component and hence less tuning capacity change is needed than in the RF tuned circuits.
Where a variable tuning gang capacitor has sections of the same capacitance range used
for both RF and oscillator tuning, tracking of the oscillator and RF tuned circuits is
achieved by capacitive trimming and padding.
Figure shows a local oscillator tuned circuit (L2,C2) ganged to an RF tuned circuit
(Ll,Cl) with Cl and C2 on a common rotor shaft. The values of inductance are set so that
at the centre of the tuning range, the oscillator circuit tunes to a frequency equal to RF or
signal frequency plus intermediate frequency.
Figure : Tracking Circuit
134
A capacitor called a padder, in series with the oscillator tuned circuit, reducesthe
maximum capacity in that tuning section so that the circuit tracks with the RF section
near the low frequency end of the band. Small trimming capacitors are connected across
both the RF and oscillator tuned circuits to adjust the minimum tuning capacity and affect
the high frequency end of the band. The oscillator trimmer is preset with a little more
capacity than the RF trimmer so that the oscillator circuit tracks with RF trimmer near the
high frequency end of the band.
Curve A is the RF tuning range. The solid curve B shows the ideal tuning range required
for the oscillator with a constant difference frequency over the whole tuning range. Curve
C shows what would happen if no padding or trimming were applied. Dotted curve B
shows the correction applied by padding and trimming. Precise tracking is achieved at
three points in the tuning range with a tolerable error between these points
Figure: RF and Oscillator Tracking
Where more than one band is tuned, not only are separate inductors required for each
band, but also separate trimming and padding capacitors, as the degree of capacitance
change correction is different for each band.
The need for a padding capacitor can be eliminated one band by using a tuning gang
capacitor with a smaller number of plates in the oscillator section than in the RF sections.
If tuning more than one band, the correct choice of capacitance for the oscillator section
will not be the same for all bands and padding will still be required on other bands.
Alignment of the tuned circuits can be achieved by providing adjustable trimmers and
padders. In these days of adjustable magnetic cores in the inductors, the padding
135
capacitor is likely to be fixed with the lower frequency end of the band essentially set by
the adjustable cores.
4.5.4.12. Lecture-52: Intermediate Frequency

Choosing a suitable intermediate frequency is a matter of compromise. The lower the IF
used, the easier it is to achieve a narrow bandwidth to obtain good selectivity in the
receiver and the greater the IF stage gain. On the other hand, the higher the IF, the further
removed is the image frequency from the signal frequency and hence the better the image
rejection. The choice of IF is also affected by the selectivity of the RF end of the receiver.
If the receiver has a number of RF stages, it is better able to reject an image signal close
to the signal frequency and hence a lower IF channel can be tolerated.
Another factor to be considered is the maximum operating frequency the
receiver. Assuming Q to be reasonably constant, bandwidth of a tuned circuit is directly
proportional to its resonant frequency and hence, the receiver has its widest RF
bandwidth and poorest image rejection at the highest frequency end of its tuning range.
A number of further factors influence the choice of the intermediate frequency:
1. The frequency should be free from radio interference. Standardintermediate

frequencies have been established and these are kept dear ofsignal channel
allocation. If possible, one of these standard frequencies shouldbe used.
2. An intermediate frequency which is close to some part of the tuning rangeof the
receiver is avoided as this leads to instability when the receiver is tunednear
thefrequency of the IF channel.
3. Ideally, low order harmonics of the intermediate frequency (particularlysecond
and third order) should not fall within the tuning range of the receiver.This
requirement cannot always be achieved resulting in possible heterodynewhistles
at certain spots within the tuning range.
4. Sometimes, quite a high intermediate frequency is chosen because thechannel
must pass very wide band signals such as those modulated by 5 MHzvideo used
in television. In this case the wide bandwidth circuits are difficultto achieve
unless quite high frequencies are used.
5. For reasons outlined previously, the intermediate frequency is normallylower than
the RF or signal frequency. However, there we some applications,such as in
tuning the Low Frequency (LF) band, where this situation could bereversed. In
this case, there are difficulties in making the local oscillator trackwith the signal
circuits.
Some modern continuous coverage HF receivers make use of the Wadley Loop or a
synthesised VFO to achieve a stable first oscillator source and these have a first
intermediate frequency above the highest signal frequency. The reasons for this will be
discussed later.
136
Standard intermediate frequencies
Various Intermediate frequencies have been standardised over the years. In the early days
of the superheterodyne, 175 kHz was used for broadcast receivers in the USA and
Australia. These receivers were notorious for their heterodyne whistles caused by images
of broadcast stations other than the one tuned. The 175 kHz IF was soon overtaken by a
465 kHz allocation which gave better image response. Another compromise of 262kHz
between 175 and 465 was also used to a lesser extent. The 465 kHz was eventually
changed to 455 kHz, still in use today.
In Europe, long wave broadcasting took place within the band of 150 to 350 kHz and a
more suitable IF of 110 kHz was utilised for this band. The IF of 455 kHz is standard for
broadcast receivers including many communication receivers. Generally speaking, it
leads to poor image response when used above 10 MHz. The widely used World War 2
Kingsley AR7 receiver used an IF of 455 kHz but it also utillised two RF stages to
achieve improved RF selectivity and better image response. One commonly used IF for
shortwave receivers is 1.600 MHz and this gives a much improved image response for
the HF spectrum.
Amateur band SSB HF transceivers have commonly used 9 MHz as a receiver
intermediate frequency in common with its use as a transmitter intermediate frequency.
This frequency is a little high for ordinary tuned circuits to achieve the narrow bandwidth
needed in speech communication; however, the bandwidth in the amateur transceivers is
controlled by specially designed ceramic crystal filter networks in the IF channel.
Some recent amateur transceivers use intermediate frequencies slightly below 9 MHz. A
frequency of 8.830 MHz can be found in various Kenwood transceivers and a frequency
of 8.987.5 MHz in some Yaesu transceivers. This change could possibly be to avoid the
second harmonic of the IF falling too near the edge of the more recently allocated 18
MHz WARC band. (The edge of the band is 18.068 MHz).
General coverage receivers using the Wadley Loop, or a synthesised band set VFO,
commonly use first IF channels in the region of 40 to 50 MHz An IF standard for VHF
FM broadcast receivers is 10.7 MHz In this case, the FM deviation used is 75 kHz and
audio range is 15 kHz. The higher IF is very suitable as the wide bandwidth is easily
obtained with good image rejection. A less common IF is 4.300 MHz believed to have
been used in receivers tuning the lower end of the VHF spectrum.
As explained earlier, a very high intermediate frequency is necessary to achieve the wide
bandwidth needed for television and the standard in Australia is the frequency segment of
30.500 to 30.6.000 MHz
4.5.4.13. Lecture- 53:AGC
137
A system which automatically varies the amplification of a receiver of electrical frequencies with
changes of signal voltageat the input. In radio receivers automatic gain control is sometimes refer
red to by its old name, automatic sound control, andin wire receivers by the term automatic level
control. Automatic gain control is in use in radar and other pulse receiverswhere the peculiarities
of working in a pulse mode must be taken into account.
In the majority of cases the signal voltage arriving at the input of the receiver changes appreciabl
y. This is due to thedifference in power of the transmitters and the difference in their distance fro
m the location of the receiver, the fading ofdiffused signals, the abrupt change of distance, and re
ception conditions between a transmitter and a receiver mounted onmoving objects, such as airpl
anes and automobiles. These changesleadto unacceptable oscillations or distortions ofsignals in t
he receiver. The automatic gain control is designed to significantly reduce variations in the outpu
t signal voltageof the receiver with respect to the input signal voltage. This is accomplished throu
gh circuits which transmit a rectifiedregulating voltage from the detector to the base of the transi
stors or to the control grids of variablemu tubes, to amplifiers ofhigh and medium frequency, and
to the frequency converter; this decreases their amplification while increasing signalvoltage at th
e input and vice versa. Thus compensation is made for variations in voltage of the input signals t
o the receiver.
Delayed AGC:
The disadvantage of automatic gain control, attenuating even the weak signal, is overcome by the
useof delayed automatic gain control (delayed AGC). Let’s take a look at the typical delayed
AGCcircuitry in figure. Thistype of system develops no AGC feedback until established received
signal strength is attained. Forsignals weaker than this value, no AGC is developed. For
sufficiently strong signals, the delayed AGC circuitoperates essentially the same as ordinary
AGC.
This circuit uses two separate diodes; one is the detector diode and the other the AGC diode. The
AGCdiode is connected to the primary of the last IF transformer and the detector diode to its
secondary. Apositive bias is applied to the cathode of the AGC diode. This keeps it from
conducting until a prearrangedsignal level has been reached. The adjust delay control allows
manual control of the AGCdiode bias.Manual control allows you to select the signal level at
which AGC is
applied.
138
In radio communications equipment three types of automatic gain control predominate
the simple gain control, the delayedgain control, and the amplified
delayed gain control. The operation of the automatic gain control may be representedgraphically
with respect to the amplitude characteristics of the receiver as shown in Figure 1.
Figure1:Amplitude characteristics of radio receivers with varioustypes of automatic gain control. The broken line
indicates the voltagelevel of the sigral at the output at which distortions of receivedsignals occur.
In the absence of automatic gain control the amplitude is represented by a straight line (A)—
that is, the signal voltage at theoutput is directly proportional to the input voltage up to the level i
ndicated by the broken line. As a result of the simpleautomatic gain control (C) only partial com
pensation for variation in voltage of the input signals takes place. Thedisadvantage of the simple
automatic gain control is that there is a decrease in amplification of weak signals; this iseliminate
d by a delay in the start of operation of the automatic gain control. The delayed automatic gain c
ontrol (B) acts inthe same way as the simple one when the input signal voltage exceeds a certain
level which is determined by the thresholdvoltage. The amplified-
delayed automatic gain control with a direct current amplifier in the feedback circuit is used to ga
inmuch greater stability of the signal voltage at the receiver output (D). Delayed automatic gain c
ontrol is most frequentlyused in receivers.
4.5.4.14. Lecture-54: FM receiver
139
RF section
 Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
 Pre-selector is a broad-tuned band pass filter with an adjustable center frequency used to
reject unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise bandwidth.
 RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in
determining the noise figure for the receiver.
Mixer/converter section
 Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer.
 Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired.
 Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequency to intermediate frequencies (i.e.
heterodyning process).
The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained in
the envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are translated
from RF to IF.
IF section
 Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and band pass filters to achieve most of the receiver gain
and selectivity.
 The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to construct high-
gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
 IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts.
Detector section
 To convert the IF signals back to the original source information (demodulation).
 Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced
demodulator.
Audio amplifier section
 Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers
AGC (Automatic Gain Control)
 Adjust the IF amplifier gain according to signal level (to the average amplitude signal almost
constant).
 AGC is a system by means of which the overall gain of radio receiver is varied automatically
with the variations in the strength of received signals, to maintain the output constant.
AGC circuit is used to adjust and stabilize the frequency of local oscillator.Types of AGC –No
AGC, Simple AGC, Delayed AGC.
140
4.5.4.15. Lecture-55: Comparison between AM receiver and FM receiver
Parameter AM FM
Stands for AM stands for Amplitude FM stands for Frequency

Modulation Modulation
Origin AM method of audio FM radio was developed in the

transmission was first United states in the 1930s,
successfully carried out in the mainly by Edwin Armstrong.
mid 1870s
Modulating differences In AM, a radio wave known as In FM, a radio wave known as
the "carrier" or "carrier wave" is the "carrier" or "carrier wave" is
modulated in amplitude by the modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted. signal that is to be transmitted.
141
The frequency and phase remain The amplitude and phase remain
the same. the same.
Pros and cons AM has poorer sound quality FM is less prone to interference
compared with FM, but is than AM. However, FM signals
cheaper and can be transmitted are impacted by physical barriers.
over long distances. It has a FM has better sound quality due
lower bandwidth so it can have to higher bandwidth
more stations available in any
frequency range
Frequency Range AM radio ranges from 535 to FM radio ranges in a higher

1705 KHz (OR) Up to 1200 bits spectrum from 88 to 108 MHz.
per second. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per
second.
Bandwidth Requirements Twice the highest modulating Twice the sum of the modulating
frequency. In AM radio signal frequency and the
broadcasting, the modulating frequency deviation. If the
signal has bandwidth of 15kHz, frequency deviation is 75kHz and
and hence the bandwidth of an the modulating signal frequency
amplitude-modulated signal is is 15kHz, the bandwidth required
30kHz. is 180kHz.
Zero crossing in modulated Equidistant Not equidistant

signal
Complexity Transmitter and receiver are Transmitter and receiver are

simple but synchronization is more complex as variation of
needed in case of SSBSC AM modulating signal has to be
carrier. converted and detected from
corresponding variation in
frequencies.(i.e. voltage to
frequency and frequency to
voltage conversion has to be
done).
Noise AM is more susceptible to noise FM is less susceptible to noise

because noise affects amplitude, because information in an FM
which is where information is signal is transmitted through
"stored" in an AM signal. varying the frequency, and not
the amplitude
142
4.5.4.16. Lecture-56:Amplitude limiting
Amplitude limiting
In an FM receiver, when the amplitude receiver present in the IF signal are fed
directly to the demodulator, noise will be produced in the circuit, to prevent noise
from entering in to the receiving section, the FM receiver employs an amplitude
limiter circuit in front of the demodulator. This process is known as amplitude
limiting.
The amplitude noise limiter circuit removes the amplitude variations from the
signal and allows only frequency variations of signal to reach the demodulator
circuit. The circuit diagram of an amplitude limiter (or) FM noise circuit is as
shown in figure.
The limiter circuit consisting of a bipolar transistor, two double tuned IF

transformers along with R1, R2, R3 resistors. These resistors maintain the transistor
in active region, by providing D.C. bias under zero signal conditions. The main
function of a limiter is to maintain the transistor in active region throughout the
receiving operation. If the level of the input signal voltage is low, the limiter acts
as a normal class A amplifier. Whenever the input signal voltage level becomes
larger than the active range, the transistor tends to be driven from cut-off to
saturation region.
The point forms the threshold of limiter as it is the point where actual limiting
action begins. The Rs resistor connected across collector, provides effective supply
voltage and reduces the collector current, responsible for driving the transmitter to
saturation region.
143
The response of limiter circuit, for different input signal voltages is as shown in
figure.
Thus, the output stage of the transformer provides noise free voltage to the
demodulator. Hence, noise gets eliminated from the signal.

g. Fill in the blanks type of questions
1. In a transmitter ……………. oscillator is used

ANSWER : Crystal
2. In India, ……………. modulation is used for radio transmission

ANSWER : Amplitude
3. Thermal noise in communication system due to thermal electrons

ANSWER : Cannot be eliminated
4. In TV transmission, picture signal is ……………… modulated

ANSWER : Amplitude
5. In a radio receiver, noise is generally developed at ………….

ANSWER : RF stage
6. Man made noise are …………. variations.

ANSWER : Amplitude
7. The signal voltage induced in the aerial of a radio receiver is of the order of
…………….
ANSWER : µV
8. Superhertodyne principle refers to

ANSWER : Obtaining lower fixed intermediate frequency
9. If a radio receiver amplifies all the signal frequencies equally well, it is said to have high
…………
ANSWER : Fidelity
10. Most of the amplification in a superhetrodyne receiver occurs at ………. stage

ANSWER : IF
144
h. Multiple choice questions
1. In an AM wave useful power is carrier by ………….
1. Carrier
2. Sidebands
3. Both sidebands and carrier
Answer : 2
2. In amplitude modulation, bandwidth is ……………. the audio signal frequency
1. Thrice
2. Four times
3. Twice
Answer : 3
3. In amplitude modulation, the ………… of carrier is varied according to the

strength of the signal.
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Answer : 1
4. The major advantage of FM over AM is …………..

Answer : 1
5.The superhetrodyne principle provides selectivity at ………. stage
1. RF
2. IF
3. audio
4. Before RF
Answer : 2
6.In superhetrodyne receiver, the input at mixer stage is ……….
1. IF and RF
145
2. RF and AF
3. IF and AF
4. RF and local oscillator signal
Answer : 4
7.The major advantage of FM over AM is …………..

Answer : 1
8.The IF is 455 kHz. If the radio receiver is tuned to 855 kHz, the local oscillator frequency
is ………….
1. 455 kHz
2. 1310 kHz
3. 1500 kHz
4. 1520 kHz
Answer : 2
9.In a radio receiver, we generally use ………….. oscillator as a local oscillator
1. Crystal
2. Wien-bridge
3. Phase-shift
4. Hartley
Answer : 4
10.In a superhetrodyne receiver, the difference frequency is chosen as the IF rather than
the sum frequency because …………….
1. The difference frequency is closer to oscillator frequency

2. Lower frequencies are easier to amplify
3. Only the difference frequency can be modulated
Answer : 2
146
i. True or False questions
1. The purpose of peak clipper circuits in radio transmitters is to prevent over modulation
True/False
2. In FM receiver amplitude limiter eliminates any change of amplitude of received FM signals
True/False
3. Full duplex operation permits transmission in both directions at the same time True/False
4. For FM receivers the standard IF frequency is 455 KHz True/False
5. In a radio receiver simple AGC an increase in signal strength produces more AGC. True/False
6. In a broadcast superhetrodyne receiver, the mixer input must be tuned to the signal
frequency.True/False
7. To prevent over loading of the last IF amplifier in a receiver, one should use variable sensitivity
True/False
8. In a radio detector the linearity is worse than in a phase discriminator True/False
9. The image frequency of an superhetrodyne receiver is not rejected by if tuned circuits
True/False
10. One of the main functions of the RF amplifier in superhetrodyne receiver is to improve the
rejection of the image frequency. True/False
j. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
1. State the advantages of superheterodyning ?

Ans: The advantages are:
 High selectivity and sensitivity.
 No change in Bandwidth that is bandwidth remains same all over the operating range.
 High adjacent channel rejection.
2. What is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting?

Ans: 540 KHz to 1600 KHz has a 10 KHz bandwidth
3. Range of frequency in AM baseband?

Ans: 100KHZ to 5 KHz.
4. What is baseband?
Ans: It is a band of frequencies occupied by a message signal.
5. What you mean by frequency translate?

Ans: It is the process of displaying the frequency contents of a signal to another place in
the frequency spectrum.
6. Transmission efficiency?
147
Ans: It is the ratio of the total AM power to that of the sideband.
7. What is Splatter?
Ans: Adjacent channel interference due to over modulation of carrier signal by abrupt peak
message signal.
8. What is the selectivity of a radio receiver? The ability of a radio receiver to select
aAns: desired signal frequency while rejecting all others is called selectivity.
9. What are the main components of a RF receiver?

Ans: RF filter, RF amplifier, mixer. Local Oscillator, IF filter, IF amplifier and Envelope
Detector.
10. What is RF stage?

Ans: It is the first input stage in which primary selection, filtering and amplification of the
input RF signal is performed.
11. What is IF stage?

Ans: It is the section of the receiver between the mixer and the detector. The IF stage
operates at a fixed intermediate frequency (FIF) and it is where most of the amplification
and filtering occurs.
12. What is local oscillator?

Ans: An oscillator in which a piece of electronic equipment that is usually used as a source
of electromagnetic wave frequencies for mixing with other frequencies that the equipment
handles
k. Analytical type questions
1. What is up conversion?
The process of increasing the frequency of a signal to a higher frequency for transmission
is up conversion. The mixer, which is a balanced modulator, performs the up-conversion.
2. What is the function of AGC circuit?

A circuit that maintains the output volume of a receiver, regardless of the variations in the
received signal power.
3. What is centre frequency?

Centre frequency is the frequency of the unmodulated FM carrier signal.
4. What is frequency deviation?

Frequency deviation – the maximum frequency change between a modulated and
unmodulated carrier signal.
5. What is discriminator?
Discriminator is a device that demodulates an FM signal.
6. What is Quadrature?
148
Quadrature is the phase relationship between two equal frequency signals that are 90° out
of phase.
7. FM modulation index?
FM modulation index – the ratio of frequency deviation to the message signal frequency.
8. What are varactor diode and Schottky diode?

Varactor diode is a diode that changes capacitance with a change in input voltage.
Schottky diode is diodes that have a low forward voltage drop in the range of 0.2V to
0.4V.
9. What is phase-locked loop (PLL)?

Phase-locked loop (PLL) is a circuit that locks onto a phase relationship between an input
signal and a VCO signal, and produces an error signal. The error signal is fed back to
control the VCO frequency so that it equals the input frequency.
10. What is Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)?

Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) is shifting an analog signal’s frequency between two values
to represent the binary states high and low of a digital signal. A modem uses FSK to
transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines.
11. What is voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)?

Voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) an oscillator that uses an input voltage to control its
output frequency.
12. What are the advantages and applications of PLL?

PLLs have high degree of noise immunity and a narrow bandwidth.
Do not require complex coil adjustments.
PLLs are also used for Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) operations in digital
communications. A PLL operates by producing a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)
frequency (f vco) that matches the RF frequency (fi).PLLs are used in FM and AM
demodulation because they do not require complex coil adjustments.
a. Essay type Questions

1. Draw theblockdiagramofphasemodulatedtypeFMtransmitterandexplainthesignificanceof
each block?
2. Explain the classification of transmitters.
3. What is an Amplitude Limiter? Explain its operation with an neat circuit Diagram.
4. Explain about image frequency and image frequency rejection of radio receiver.
5. Explain about AM transmitter. Why feedback is used in the AM transmitter and

explain its advantage?
6. Draw the block diagram of SSB transmitter and explain their principle of operation
7. Explain about double spotting and how it occurs.
8. Describe the general process of frequency changing in a super heterodyne receiver.
149
9. Drawtheblockdiagramofsuperhetrodymereceiverandthefunctionofeachblock.
10. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of intermediate frequency (IF)for a radio Receiver.

Eg :- -Prepare a model of something
-Trace something
-Prepare a report on something etc.,

1. List out the advantages and disadvantages of TRF receivers.
2. What is an image frequency? How is image frequency rejection achieved?
3. Mention the advantages of superhetrodyne receiver over TRF receiver

4. Distinguish between simple AGC and delayed AGC
5. Draw the block Schematic for FM broadcast receiver and explain the function of each unit.
6. Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyne receiver and the function of each block.
7. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of intermediate frequency (IF) for a radio receiver.
8. Explain about image frequency and image frequency rejection of radio receiver.
9. Explain about AM transmitter. Why feedback is used in the AM transmitter. Explain

its advantages?
10. Draw the block diagram of SSB transmitter and explain their principle of operation
11. Explain about double spotting and how it occurs
Not applicable

round - Placements)
150
1. What is Pre-emphasis?
2. Define de-emphasis.
3. What is the figure of merit of a AM system with 100 percent Modulation?
4. What is TRF receiver?
5. What is meant by figure of merit of a receiver?
6. Define sensitivity of receiver
7. Define selectivity of receiver
8. Define Noise-Quieting effect?
9. Define capture effect in FM?
10. Define FM threshold effect?

the campus)
1. Guest lecture by M.Hemanthkumar, Asst.Professor, VIIT, Duvvada

videos etc.
1. https://youtu.be/AQf7Xwu--ZM?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7

Not required

151
UNIT SYLLABUS
Time Division Multiplexing, Types of Pulse modulation, PAM (Single polarity, double polarity)
PWM: Generation & demodulation of PWM, PPM, Generation and demodulation of PPM, TDM
Vs FDM
4.6. Unit –VI - <PULSE MODULATION>

152
1. Understand and compare different analog modulation schemes.

2. Understand and compare different digital modulation schemes.
3. Demonstrate about Time and frequency division multiplexing techniques

1. Understand the design tradeoffs and performance of communications systems.
2. Learn about practical communication systems

57 Chalk & Board T1,C7,384
Time Division Multiplexing
58 Types of Pulse modulation, Chalk & Board T2,C5,369

59 PAM (Single polarity, Chalk & Board T2,C5,369
double polarity)
60 PWM: Generation & Chalk & Board T2,C5,376
61 demodulation of PWM Chalk & Board T2,C5,377
62 PPM Generation Chalk & Board T2,C5,380
63 demodulation of PPM Chalk & Board T2,C5,380
64 TDM Vs FDM Chalk & Board T1,C7,384
4.6.4.1. Lecture-57:Time Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal by
separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data stream
is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing.
The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications link is known as a
multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and
assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The composite signal thus
153
contains data from multiple senders. At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are
separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way
communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the long-distance, high-
bandwidth cable.
If many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, careful engineering is required to ensure
that the system will perform properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation
in the number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals to make
154
optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a classic example of a communications network
in which the volume of traffic can change drastically from hour to hour. In some systems, a different
scheme, known as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), is preferred.
4.6.4.2. Lecture-58:Types of pulse modulation
Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals

and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from
a source to a destination over a physical transmission medium
The three predominant methods of pulse modulation:

 pulse amplitude modulation
 pulse width modulation
 pulse position modulation
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

 the amplitude of a constant width, constant-position pulse is varied according to the
amplitude of the sample of the analog signal
155
 PAM waveforms resemble the original analog signal more than the waveforms for PWM
or PPM
 this is used as an intermediate form of modulation with PSK, QAM, and PCM, although it
is seldom used by itself
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
 is sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM)
 the width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the amplitude of the
analog signal at the time the signal is sampled
 used in special-purpose communications system mainly for the military but are seldom
used for commercial digital transmission
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
 the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to
the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal
 the higher the amplitude of the sample, the farther to the right the pulse is positioned
within the prescribed time slot
 the highest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far right, and the lowest amplitude
sample produces a pulse to the far left
 also used in special-purpose communications system mainly for the military but are seldom
4.6.4.3. Lecture-59: PAM (Single polarity, double polarity)

In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitudes of regularly spaced rectangularpulses vary with
the instantaneous sample values of a continuous message signal min a one-to-one fashion.
There are two types of PAM,
i. double polarity PAM
ii. Single polarity PAM.
In the double polarity PAM, the amplitudes of pulses are in both positive and negative depending
on the sample value. In single polarity PAM, the amplitudes of the pulses are always positive.
This can be achieved by adding a fixed dc level to the double sided PAM asshown in the
diagrams.
Mathematically, a PAM signal can be represented as
Where em(nTS) is the nth sample of the message signal,

Tsis the sampling period,
Kais the amplitude sensitivity and g(t) denotes the pulse.
For a single polarity PAM,
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The sampling rate must be equal to greater than twice the highest frequency greater than twice
the highest frequency component present in the message signal.
Generation:
The message signal (continuous signal) is applied to one input of an AND gate. Pulse train with
proper sampling frequency is applied to other input of AND gate. During the operation of AND
gate, it will be opened in the desired time intervals. The output of the AND gate there gives the
pulses at sampling rate with amplitude equal to the signal voltage at instant. The pulses are then
passed through a pulse shaping network to convert into flattop pulses.
Demodulation:
PAM signal can be demodulated by passing through a low pass filter.
The cut off frequency of the LPF must the just large enough to accommodate the
highest frequency component of the message signal em(t).
At the same time it must be low enough to remove the sampling frequency ripple
Advantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
 It is the base for all digital modulation techniques and it is simple process for both
modulation and demodulation technique.
 No complex circuitry is required for both transmission and reception. Transmitter and
receiver circuitry is simple and easy to construct.
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 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message or
information at same time.
Disadvantages of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
 Bandwidth should be large for transmitting the pulse amplitude modulation signal. Due to
Nyquist criteria also high bandwidth is required.
 The frequency varies according to the modulating signal or message signal. Due to these
variations in the signal frequency, interferences will be there. So noise will be great. For
PAM, noise immunity is less when compared to other modulation techniques. It is almost
equal to amplitude modulation.
 Pulse amplitude signal varies, so power required for transmission will be more, peak
power is also, even at receiving more power is required to receive the pulse amplitude
signal.
Applications of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
 It is mainly used in Ethernet which is type of computer network communication, we

know that we can use Ethernet for connecting two systems and transfer data between the
systems. Pulse amplitude modulation is used for Ethernet communications.
 It is also used for photo biology which is a study of photosynthesis.
 Used as electronic driver for LED lighting.
 Used in many micro controllers for generating the control signals etc.
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4.6.4.4. Lecture-60:PWM Generation
Pulse Width Modulation:It is a type of analog modulation. In pulse width modulation or pulse
duration modulation, the width of the pulse carrier is varied in accordance with the sample values
of message signal or modulating signal or modulating voltage. In pulse width modulation, the
amplitude is made constant and width of pulse and position of pulse is made proportional to the
amplitude of the signal. We can vary the pulse width in three ways
1. By keeping the leading edge constant and vary the pulse width with respect to leading
edge
2. By keeping the tailing constant.
3. By keeping the center of the pulse constant.
We can generate pulse width using different circuitry. In practical, we use 555 Timer which is
the best way for generating the pulse width modulation signals. By configuring the 555 timer as
monostable or astablemultivibrator, we can generate the PWM signals. We can use PIC, 8051,
AVR, ARM, etc. microcontrollers to generate the PWM signals. PWM signal generation has n
number of ways. In demodulation, we need PWM detector and its related circuitry for
demodulating the PWM signal.
159
Generation of Pulse Width Modulation:
PWM can be generated by applying triggered pulses at the sampling rate tocontrol the starting
time of pulses from the monostablemultivibrator. And also control the duration of these pulses.
The emitter coupled monostablemultivibrator of the following circuit diagram makes an
excellent voltage-to-time converter. Its gate width is dependent on the voltage to which the
capacitor C is changed. If the voltage is varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series fo a
rectangular pulses will be produced with varying widths. It is basically a
monostablemultivibrator with a modulating input signal applied at the controlvoltage input.
The control voltage is adjusted internally to 2/3 VVcc[1] .Externally appliedmodulating signal
changes the control voltage and hence the threshold voltage level. The timeperiod required to
charge the capacitor up to threshold voltage level changes giving pulsemodulated signal at the
output as shown in figure.
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4.6.4.5. Lecture-61: Demodulation of PWM
Demodulation of PWM:
The PWM signal can be demodulated just by passing through an integrator circuit. Here the
amplitude of the integrator output is proportional to the pulse width at that time.
161
162
163
Advantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
 As like pulse position modulation, noise interference is less due to amplitude has been
made constant.
 Signal can be separated very easily at demodulation and noise can also be separated
easily.
 Synchronization between transmitter and receiver is not required unlike pulse position
modulation.
Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
 Power will be variable because of varying in width of pulse. Transmitter can handle the
power even for maximum width of the pulse.
 Bandwidth should be large to use in communication, should be huge even when
compared to the pulse amplitude modulation.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
 PWM is used in telecommunication systems.

 PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without incurring
the losses. So, this can be used in power delivering systems.
 Audio effects and amplifications purposes also used.
 PWM signals are used to control the speed of the robot by controlling the motors.
 PWM is also used in robotics.
 Embedded applications.
 Analog and digital applications etc.
4.6.4.6. Lecture-62:PPM Generation
In the pulse position modulation, the position of each pulse in a signal by taking the reference
signal is varied according to the sample value of message or modulating signal instantaneously.
In the pulse position modulation, width and amplitude is kept constant. It is a technique that uses
pulses of the same breath and height but is displaced in time from some base position according
to the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling. The position of the pulse is 1:1 which is
propositional to the width of the pulse and also propositional to the instantaneous amplitude of
sampled modulating signal. The position of pulse position modulation is easy when compared to
other modulation. It requires pulse width generator and monostablemultivibrator.
Pulse width generator is used for generating pulse width modulation signal which will help to
trigger the monostablemultivibrator, here trial edge of the PWM signal is used for triggering the
monostablemultivibrator. After triggering the monostablemultivibrator, PWM signal is converted
164
into pulse position modulation signal. For demodulation, it requires reference pulse generator,
flip-flop and pulse width modulation demodulator.
Generation of PPM:
Pulse position modulation may be obtained very simply from PWM.Consider PWM and its
generation as shown in fig. with leading and trailing edges of eachpulse respectively.In PWM,
the locations of the leading edges are fixed and the trailing edges are not fixed.The position of
the trailing edge depends on pulse width which is determined by thesignal amplitude at that
instant.It can also be said that, the trailing edges of PWM pulses are position modulated.
Alternately, PPM can be obtained by from PWM by “getting rid of” the leading edgesand bodies
of the PWM pulses.If the pulses of PWM is differentiated another pulse train results.
This has positive going narrow pulses corresponding to leading edges and negative goingpulses
corresponding to trailing edges.If the position corresponding to the trailing edge of an
unmodulated pulse is counted aszero displacement.Then after trailing edges will arrive earlier or
later.Therefore, they will have time displacement other than zero.This time displacement is
proportional to the instantaneous value of the signal voltage.If the differentiated pulses
corresponding to the leading edges are removed with arectifier, the remaining pulses are position
modulated.
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4.6.4.7. Lecture-63: Demodulation of PPM
Demodulation
In the demodulation, PPM is again first converted into PWM. Later it P is passedthrough a
integrator to recover the message signal. PPM is converted into PWM by just passing it through
one input of bistablemultivibratorand with triggering pulses at other input.
Here, the triggering pulses given from the local generator must be in synchronized with the
triggered pulses received form transmitter. These triggers are used to switch off one of the stages
of flip-flop. The PPM pulses fed to the other input of flip-flop switches that stage ON. The
period of time during which this particular stage is off depends on the time difference between
two triggers. As a result, the pulse with width, corresponding to time displacement of each
individual PPM pulse, is produced.
DESCRIPTION:
166
There are different methods for extracting the message signal from a PPM wave synchronously
and asynchronously. The simplest asynchronous demodulator uses a low pass filter to filter out
the message signal from the modulated wave. The following block diagram represents the
implementation of a PWM modulator.
Advantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
 Pulse position modulation has low noise interference when compared to PAM because
amplitude and width of the pulses are made constant during modulation.
 Noise removal and separation is very easy in pulse position modulation.
 Power usage is also very low when compared to other modulations due to constant pulse
amplitude and width.
Disadvantages of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
 The synchronization between transmitter and receiver is required, which is not possible
for every time and we need dedicated channel for it.
 Large bandwidth is required for transmission same as pulse amplitude modulation.
 Special equipment’s are required in this type of modulations.
Applications of Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
 Used in non coherent detection where a receiver does not need any Phase lock loop for
tracking the phase of the carrier.
 Used in radio frequency (RF) communication.
 Also used in contactless smart card, high frequency, RFID (radio frequency ID) tags and
etc.
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4.6.4.8. Lecture-64: TDM Vs FDM

a. Fill in the blanks type of questions
1) In PWM signal reception, the Schmitt trigger circuit is used

ANSWER: To remove noise
2) In pulse width modulation,

ANSWER: Synchronization is not required between transmitter and receiver
3) The sampling technique having the minimum noise interference is

ANSWER: Natural sampling
4) In pulse amplitude modulation,

168
ANSWER: Amplitude of the pulse train is varied
5) Calculate the Nyquist rate for sampling when a continuous

time signal is given by
x(t) = 5 cos 100pt +10 cos 200pt - 15 cos 300pt
ANSWER: 300Hz
6) Calculate the minimum sampling rate to avoid aliasing when a continuous time signal
is given by x(t) = 5 cos 400pt
ANSWER: 400 Hz
.
7) A distorted signal of frequency fm is recovered from a sampled signal if the sampling
frequency fsis
ANSWER: fs< 2fm
b. Multiple choice questions
1) In Pulse Position Modulation, the drawbacks are
a. Synchronization is required between transmitter and receiver

b. Large bandwidth is required as compared to PAM
c. None of the above
d. Both a and b
ANSWER: Both a and b
2) In different types of Pulse Width Modulation,
a. Leading edge of the pulse is kept constant

b. Tail edge of the pulse is kept constant
c. Centre of the pulse is kept constant
d. All of the above
ANSWER: All of the above
3) In Pulse time modulation (PTM),
a. Amplitude of the carrier is constant

b. Position or width of the carrier varies with modulating signal
c. Pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation are the types of PTM
d. All of the above
4) Drawback of using PAM method is
a. Bandwidth is very large as compared to modulating signal

b. Varying amplitude of carrier varies the peak power required for transmission
169
c. Due to varying amplitude of carrier, it is difficult to remove noise at receiver
d. All of the above
5) Pulse time modulation (PTM) includes
a. Pulse width modulation

b. Pulse position modulation
c. Pulse amplitude modulation
d. Both a and b
6) Types of analog pulse modulation systems are
a. Pulse amplitude modulation

b. Pulse time modulation
c. Frequency modulation
d. Both a and b
7) The instantaneous sampling
a. Has a train of impulses

b. Has the pulse width approaching zero value
c. Has the negligible power content
d. All of the above
8) The techniques used for sampling are
a. Instantaneous sampling
b. Natural sampling
c. Flat top sampling
d. All of the above
9) A low pass filter is
a. Passes the frequencies lower than the specified cut off frequency
b. Rejects higher frequencies
c. Is used to recover signal from sampled signal
d. All of the above
170
c. True or False questions
1. Monostable multi vibrator is used to generate PDM. True/False
2. PAM stands for phase amplitude modulation. True/False
3. Sampling process converts analog signal into a corresponding sequence of samples. True/False
4. In pulse position modulation synchronization is required between transmitter and receiver. True/False
5. The flattop sampling is the technique that has the minimum noise interference to the sampled signal
True/False
6. The spectrum of the sampled signal may be obtained without overlapping only if fs≥2fm
True/False
7. In pulse modulation systems carrier is continuous signal True/False
8. The Schmitt trigger circuit is used to remove noise in the PWM waveform True/False
9. Pulse time modulation includes pulse amplitude modulation and pulse width modulation True/False
10. Latency is the major drawback in TDM over FDM True/False
d. Objective type of questions(Very short notes)
1. What are the advantage of PAM and PWM?

Ans: PWM system gives a greater signal to noise ratio as compared to PAM
but requires a larger bandwidth to achieve this.
2. What is Pulse position modulation?
Ans: Pulse position modulation (PPM) is the process in which the position of
a standard pulse is varied as a function of the amplitude of the sampled
signal.
3. What is the advantage of PPM over PWM and PAM?
Ans: The phase deviation are usually small. The noise produces a smaller
disturbing effect on the time position of the modulating pulse train and as a
result, PPM waves have a better performance with respect to signal to noise
ratio in comparison to PAM and PWM systems.
4. What are the applications of pulse position modulation?
Ans: It is primarily useful for optical communication systems, where there
tends to be little or no multipath interference. Narrowband RF (Radio
171
frequency) channels with low power and long wavelength (i.e., low
frequency) are affected primarily by flat fading, and PPM is better suited.
5. What is the purpose of using differential pulse position modulation?

Ans: It is possible to limit the propagation of errors to adjacent symbols, so
that an error in measuring the differential delay of one pulse will affect only
two symbols, instead of effecting all successive measurements.
6. What are the advantage of PPM?

One of the principle advantages of pulse position modulation is that it is an M-
ray modulation technique that can be implemented non-coherently, such that
the receiver does not need to use a phase-locked loop (PLL) to track the phase
of the carrier. This makes it a suitable candidate for optical communications
systems, where coherent phase modulation and detecting are difficult and
extremely expensive. The only other common M-ray non-coherent modulation
technique is M-ray frequency shift keying, which is the frequency domain dual
to PPM.
The other advantages of pulse position modulation are:
• The amplitude is held constant thus less noise interference.
• Signal and noise separation is very easy.
• Due to constant pulse widths and amplitudes, transmission power for each
pulse is same.
7. What is the application of PPM?

PPM is employed in narrowband RF channel systems, with the position of each
pulse representing the angular position of an analogue control on the transmitter, or
possible states of binary switch. The number of pulse per frame gives the number
of controllable channels available. The advantage of using PPM for this type of
application is that the electronics required to decode the signal are extremely
simple, which leads to small, light-weight receiver/decoder units. (Model aircraft
require parts that are as lightweight as possible).
8. Explain the principle of PPM?

The amplitude and the width of the pulse is kept constant in this system, while the
position of each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is
varied by each instantaneous sampled value of the modulating wave. This means
that the transmitter must send synchronizing pulses to operate timing circuits in the
receiver. The PPM has the advantage of requiring constant transmitter power
output, but the disadvantage of depending on transmitter-receiver synchronization.
9. What is the purpose of PPM?

PPM may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech or
data.
10. What are the analog analogies of PAM, PPM & PWM?
Ans: PAM is similar to AM; PPM and PWM is similar to angle modulation.
172
e. Analytical type questions
1. What is the purpose of using differential pulse position modulation?
3. What are the objectives met by modulation?
4. What are the different types of pulse modulation?
5. What are the different types of analog modulation?
6. What are the advantage of PAM and PWM?
7. What are the analog analogies of PAM, PPM & PWM?
8. Mention the applications of PWM
9. What is the difference between TDM and FDM?
10. What are different types of sampling techniques?
f. Essay type Questions
1. Explain with neat wave forms, how a PWM wave is converted into PPM wave.
2. Explain why a single channel PPM of system requires the transmission of

synchronization signal, where as a single channel PAM or PDM do not require the same
3. Discuss the generation and demodulation of PWM.

4. Write short notes on the following
i) Double polarity PAM

ii) Demodulation of PWM
5. Explain, how a PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal?
6. Explain the generating and demodulation of PPM
7. Write short notes on
I. Single polarity PAM ii) Generation of PWM

8. ExplainthePPMgenerationfromPWMwithaneatblockdiagramandnecessaryfigures.
9. Draw the circuit of PPM demodulator and explain the operation.
10. Compare PAM,PPM and PWM
g. Problems <As per required Number>

NOT REQUIRED
h. Case study <As per required Number>

173
iii) Double polarity PAM
Demodulation of PWM
2. Explain with neat wave forms, how a PWM wave is converted into PPM wave
4. Discuss the generation and demodulation of PWM

1. Explain with neat wave forms, how a PWM wave is converted into PPM wave.
2. Explain why a single channel PPM of system requires the transmission of

synchronization signal, where as a single channel PAM or PDM do not require the same
3. Discuss the generation and demodulation of PWM.

iv) Double polarity PAM

v) Demodulation of PWM
5. Explain, how a PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal?
6. Explain the generating and demodulation of PPM
7. Write short notes on
i. Single polarity PAM ii) Generation of PWM

8. ExplainthePPMgenerationfromPWMwithaneatblockdiagramandnecessaryfigures.
Not applicable

round - Placements)
1. What are the advantages of PWM over PAM?
2. What is pulse position modulation?
3. What is the advantage of PPM over PWM and PAM?
5. What are the purposes of using differential pulse position modulation?
6. What are the advantages of pulse position modulation?
174
7. What are the applications of PPM?
8. Explain the principle of PPM?
9. What is the purpose of PPM?
10. What are the analog analogies of PAM, PPM, and PWM?
11. What is frequency modulation?
12. What is PWM? Or pulse length modulation? Or pulse duration modulation?
13. What are the disadvantages of PWM?

Not Applicable

the campus)
1. Guest lecture by P.DilleswaraRao, Asst. Professor, VIIT, Duvvada

videos etc.
1. https://youtu.be/OE_05sAxvJ8?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7

Not required

175
5. Reference text books/web material etc.,
<Please provide a detailed list of textbooks and reference materials relevant for the entire
subject. Note: Please do not copy all the lecture level references. You are requested to
avoid any references which may only be relevant to 1 or 2 lectures>
Textbooks:
1. Communication systems-Simon Haykin ,2nd Ed.
2. Analog communication systems by Sanjay Sharma
Please add if you have more…
Web-links (including videos):
1. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/117102059/10
5. https://youtu.be/OE_05sAxvJ8?list=PL9A4900FA347106F7
Reference Journals:
1.
2.
176
6. Mid Question Paper + Schemes of Evaluation.
<Please include atleast three mid 1 and three mid 2 papers with scheme of evaluation for
each of them. Note: All of the papers are to be included here in this section as softcopy.
Please do not attach scanned hardcopies at the end.>
MID –I EXAMINATION SET-1
1. a) Explain envelope detector and also mention its drawbacks? (3M)

b) The amplitude of an AM signal varies from 5V to 15 V .Determine the modulation
index, carrier power, side band power and total power.(2M)
2. Explain the principle of coherent detector of DSB-SC modulated more with a neat block
diagram. Discuss the effect of frequency and phase error in demodulation of DSB-SC
wave using synchronous detector. (5M)
3. a) Define the following terms

(i)Carrier swing ii) Frequency Deviation iii) Percent Modulation (3M)
b) Explain the difference between Narrow band FM and Wide band FM. (2M)
Scheme of Evaluation
1. a) circuit diagram-(1M)
Explanation with equation -(1M)
Draw backs-(2 M)
b) Modulation index-(1/2M)
Carrier power-(1/2M)
Side band power-(1/2M)
Total power- (1/2M)
2. Principle of coherent detector-(1M)

Block diagram-(1M).
Regarding equations-(1M)
Effect of frequency-(1M)
Phase error-(1M)
3. i)Carrier swing -(1M)

ii) Frequency Deviation-(1M)
iii) Percent Modulation-(1M)
b) Any 4 differences (2M)
177
MID –IEXAMINATION SET-2
1. a) What is modulation? Why is modulation used in communication system? (3M)

b) What do you understand of modulation index? What is its significance?(2M)
2. a) Compare the general AM, DSB, SSB and VSB systems. (2M)
b) In an AM-SC system, modulating signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal
4cos2π103,which Modulates carrier signal 6cos2π106t. Write the equation of the
modulated wave. Plot the two Sided spectrum of the modulated wave. Calculate the
amount of power transmitted.(3M)
3. a) Give the relation between FM & PM(2M)
b) Give a brief discussion about WBFM. (3M)
1. a) Definition of modulation (1M)
Need for modulation (2M)
b) Definition of modulation index (1M)
Significance (1M)
2. a)Any 4 comparisons (Each carries ½ M).

b) Equation of the modulated wave (1M).
Plot the two Sided spectrum of the modulated wave (1M).
Calculate the amount of power transmitted.(1M)
3. a) Any 4 points (Each carries ½ M)
b) Definition (1M).
Explanation (1M)
Spectrum (1M)
MID –I EXAMINATION SET-3
1. a) Explain the generation of AM wave using square law modulator. (3M)

b) A carrier signal C(t)=5cos2π*106t is modulated by a message signal m(t)= cos4π*103 t
to generate an AM signal with a modulation index of 0.5. Then (2M)
i. Calculate the band width and power
ii. Determine the quantity
2. a) Discuss Quadrture null effect of DSB-SC and SSB-SC. (2M)
b) Explain Costas Receiver. (3M)
3. The equation for a FM wave is S(t) = 10 cos[5.7x108t + 5 sin(12x103)t] Calculate
a) Carrier Frequency b) Modulating Frequency c) Modulation index d) Frequency deviation
178
e) Power dissipated in a 100Ω resistor load. f) Transmission Bandwidth g) Deviation
Ratio(5M)
1. a) Block diagram (1M).

Explanation (1M)
Equations (1M)
b) Band width and power (1M)
Determine the quantity (1M)
2. a) Quadrature null effect of DSB-SC (1M)
SSB-SC(1M).
b) Block diagram (1M).
Need for Costas receiver (1M)
Working operation (1M)
3. a) Carrier Frequency (1M)b) Modulating Frequency (1M)c) Modulation index (1/2M) d)
Frequency deviation (1/2M) e) Power dissipated in a 100Ω resistor load (1M). f)
Transmission Bandwidth (1/2 M) g) Deviation Ratio (1/2M)
MID –II EXAMINATION SET-1

1. a). Prove that narrowband FM offers no improvement in SNR over AM. (2M)
b). Calculate the figure of merit for a DSB-SC system. (3M)
2. a). What is an image frequency? How is image frequency rejection achieved? (2M)
b). Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyne receiver and the function of each block.
(3M)
3. a). Write Short notes on Double Polarity PAM (2M)

b). Draw the circuit of PPM demodulator and explain the operation (3M)
1. a). SNR of AM. (1/2M)
SNR of FM (1/2 M)
SNR of FM for modulation index lesser values (1M)
b). SNR of channel (1M)
SNR of output (1M)
179
Figure of merit (1M)
2. a). Definition of image frequency with equations (1M)

Rejection method (1M)
b). Block diagram (1M)
Working operation of individual blocks (2M)
3. a). Definition (1M)

Waveforms (1M)
b). Circuit of PPM (1M)
Operation (1M)
Waveforms (1M)

1. a). Explain, how noise can be calculated in a communication system (2M)
b). Derive an expression for the S/N ratio for an FM System (3M)
2. a). Mention the advantages of superhetrodyne receiver over TRF receiver (2M)
b). Distinguish between simple AGC and delayed AGC (3M)
3. a). Distinguish between PAM ,PWM & PPM (2M)

b). Explain the PPM generation from PWM with a neat block diagram and necessary
figures (3M)
1. a). Block diagram (1M)
Explanation (1M)
b). SNR of channel (1M)
SNR of output (1M)
Figure of merit (1M)
2. a). Any 2 advantages(Each one 1M)

180
b). Circuit diagram of simple AGC (1M)
Delayed AGC (1M)
Relation with graphs (1M)
3. a). Any 4 points ( Each carries 1/2M)

b). Block diagram (1M)
Explanation (1M)
Waveforms (1M)

1. a). Explain about pre-emphasis and de-emphasis (2M)
b). Explain the noise performance of SSB-SC receiver and prove its S/N ratio is unity
(3M)
2. a). Discuss the factors influencing the choice of intermediate frequency (IF) for a radio
receiver (2M)
b). Draw the block Schematic for FM broad cast receiver and explain the function of each
unit. (3M)
3. a). Distinguish between TDM and FDM (2M)

b). Write short notes on Single-Polarity PAM (3M)
1. a). Pre-emphasis circuit & graph (1M)
De-emphasis circuit & graph (1M)
b). Block diagram of SSB receiver (1/2M)
Explanation (1M)
SNR of channel (1/2 M)
181
SNR of output (1/2 M)
Figure of merit (1/2 M)
2. a). Any 4 points regarding choice of IF (Each carries 1/2M)

b). Block Schematic for FM receiver(1M)
Explanation for each block (2M)
3. a). Any 4 differences (Each carries 1/2M)

b). Definition of PAM (1/2M)
Definition of single polarity PAM (1M)
Generation method (1M)
Wave forms (1/2 M)
182
7. Fast track material for Back-Log students.
1. Modulation: Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of high frequency
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal.
2. Types of analog modulation
1. Amplitude modulation
2. Angle Modulation
3. Frequency modulation
4. Phase modulation.
3. Depth of modulation: It is defined as the ratio between message amplitude to that of
carrier amplitude. m=Em/Ec
4. Degrees of modulation:
1. Under modulation. m<1
2. Critical modulation m=1
3. Over modulation m>1
5. Need for modulation:
 Ease of transmission Multiplexing
 Reduced noise
 Narrow bandwidth
 Frequency assignment
 Reduce the equipments limitations.
6. Types of AM modulators:There are two types of AM modulators. They are
1. Linear modulators
2. Non-linear modulators
Linear modulators are classified as follows: Transistor modulator &Switching

modulators
There are three types of transistor modulator: Collector modulator, Emitter modulator,
Base modulator
Non-linear modulators are classified as follows: Square law modulator, Product

modulator, Balanced modulator
7. Classification of modulation.
There are two types of modulation. They are
1. Analog modulation
2. Digital modulation
Analog modulation is classified as follows
a. Continuous wave modulation

b. Pulse modulation
183
Continuous wave modulation is classified as follows
a. Amplitude modulation
i. Double side band suppressed carrier
ii. Single side band suppressed carrier
iii. Vestigial side band suppressed carrier
b. Angle modulation
c. Frequency modulation
d. Phase modulation
Pulse modulation is classified as follows
1. Pulse amplitude modulation

2. Pulse position modulation
3. Pulse duration modulation
4. Pulse code modulation
Digital modulation is classified as follows
1. Amplitude shift keying

2. Phase shift keying
3. Frequency shift keying
8. Single tone and Multi tone Modulation:
1. If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency
component then the modulation is called multi tone modulation.
2. If modulation is performed for a message signal with one frequency component then
the modulation is called single tone modulation.
9. Compare AM with DSB-SC and SSB-SC.
AM signal DSB-SC SSB-SC
Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=fm

Contains USB, LSB, carrier Contains USB,LSB Contains LSB or USB
More power is required for Power required is less than thatPower required is less than
of AM.
Transmission AM &DSB-SC
10. Advantages of VSB-AM:
1.It has bandwidth greater than SSB but less than DSB system.
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2.Power transmission greater than DSB but less than SSB system.
3.No low frequency component lost. Hence it avoids phase distortion.
11. Compare linear and non-linear modulators.
Linear modulators Non-linear modulators
1.Heavy filtering is not 1.Heavy filtering is required required.
2.These modulators are used in 2.These modulators are used in low level high level
modulation. Modulation.
3.The carrier voltage is very much 3.The modulating signal voltage is very much
greater than modulating signal greater than the carrier signal voltage. voltage.
12. Advantages of ring modulator
1. Its output is stable.

2. It requires no external power source to activate the diodes.
3. Virtually no maintenance.
4. Long life.
13. Demodulation: Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is

recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation.
14. Types of AM detectors:
1. Nonlinear detectors
2. Linear detectors
15. Types of linear detectors:
1. Synchronous or coherent detector.

2. .Envelope or non coherent detector.
16. Multiplexing: It is defined as the process of transmitting several message signals

simultaneously over a single channel.
17. Sensitivity: It is defined as a measure of its ability to receive weak signals.
18. Selectivity: Selectivity of a receiver is defined as its ability to select the desired signals
among the various signals.
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19. Stability: It is the ability of the receiver to deliver a constant amount of output for a given a
given period of time.
20. Super heterodyne principle: It can be defined as the process of operation of modulated
waves to obtain similarly modulated waves of different frequency. This process uses a locally
generated carrier wave, which determines the change of frequency.
21. Drawbacks of emitter modulator:
1. The amplifier is operated in class A mode, thus the efficiency is low.

2. The output power is very small. Thus it is not suitable for generating high level
modulation.
22. Frequency modulation: Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the
frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating or message signal.
23. Modulation index of frequency modulation: It is defined as the ratio of maximum

frequency deviation to the modulating frequency. β = δf/fm
24. Multitone modulation: Modulation done for the message signal with more than one
frequency component is called multitone modulation.
25. Phase modulation: Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of the
carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
26. Types of Frequency Modulation: Based on the modulation index FM can be divided into
types. They are Narrow band FM and Wide band FM. If the modulation index is greater than one
then it is wide band FM and if the modulation index is less than one then it is Narrow band FM
27. Basic difference between an AM signal and a narrowband FM signal: In the case of
sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal and a narrowband FM signal
is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the narrow band FM is reversed.
28. Methods of producing an FM wave: Basically there are two methods of producing an FM
wave. They are
i) Direct method: In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose frequency varies
as function of the modulating source. It is used for the generation of NBFM
ii) Indirect method: In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a
function of the modulation. Normally it is used for the generation of WBFM where
WBFM is generated from NBFM
29. Phase deviation: The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is
called phase deviation.
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30. Frequency Deviation: The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the
carrier frequency is called frequency deviation.
31. Carson’s rule: An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal
generated by a single tone-modulating signal of frequency fm is defined as B =2 ∆f(1+1/ β)
32. Deviation ratio D for non-sinusoidal modulation: The deviation ratio D is defined as the
ratio of the frequency deviation ∆f, which corresponds to the maximum possible amplitude of the
modulation signal m(t),to the highest modulation frequency . D = ∆f / fm
33. Use of crystal controlled oscillator: The crystal-controlled oscillator always produces a
constant carrier frequency thereby enhancing frequency stability.
34. Disadvantages of FM system:
a. A much wider channel is required by FM.

b. FM transmitting and receiving equipments tend to be more complex and hence it
is expensive
35. Types of FM detectors: Slope detector and phase discriminator.
36. Types of phase discriminator: Foster seely discriminator and ratio detector.
37. Disadvantages of balanced slope detector:
a. Amplitude limiting cannot be provided

b. Linearity is not sufficient
c. It is difficult to align because of three different frequency to which various tuned
circuits to be tuned.
d. The tuned circuit is not purely band limited.
38. Noise: Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.
39. Classification of Noise: Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise
and internal noise.
40. Types of External noise:
a. Atmospheric noise
b. Extraterrestrial noises
c. Man –made noises or industrial noises
41. Types of internal noise:
a. Thermal noise
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b. Shot noise
c. Transit time noise
d. Miscellaneous internal noise
42. Flicker noise: Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio
frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter current and junction temperature and
inversely proportional to the frequency.
43. Reasons for higher noise in mixers:
a. Conversion transconductance of mixers is much lower than the transconductance

of amplifiers.
b. If image frequency rejection is inadequate, the noise associated with the image
frequency also gets accepted.
44. Signal to noise ratio: Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at
the same point in a system.
45. Thermal noise: Thermal noise is the name given to the electrical noise arising from the
random motion of electrons in a conductor.
46. Narrowband noise: The receiver of a communication system usually includes some
provision for preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a
narrowband filter whose bandwidth is large enough to pass modulated component of the received
signal essentially undistorted but not so large as to admit excessive noise through the receiver.
The noise process appearing at the output of such filter is called narrow band noise.
47. Image frequency: Image frequency is defined as the signal frequency plus twice the
intermediate frequency. This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously and
hence it is undesirable. fsi = fs + 2 fi fsi - image frequency .It can be eliminated by providing
adequate image signal selectivity between antenna and mixer input.
48. Intermediate frequency: Intermediate frequency (IF) is defined as the difference between
the signal frequency and the oscillator frequency.
IF = fs – fo when fs>fo (or)

IF = fo –fs when fo>fs
49. Partition noise: In an electron tube having one or more positive grids, this noise is caused by
irratic partition of the cathode current among the positive electrodes. In a transistor, the partition
noise is created from the random fluctuation in the division of current between the collector and
base.
50. Frequency translation: Suppose that a signal is band limited to the frequency range
extending from a frequency f1 to a frequency f2. The process of frequency translation is one in
which the original signal is replaced with a new signal whose spectral range extends from f1’ to
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f2’ and which new signal bears, in recoverable form the same information as was borne by the
original signal.
51. Tracking: it is the process of correctly tuning a number of tunable circuits in a receiver.
52. TRF receiver: Tuned Radio Frequency is also called straight receiver.Here the receiver
operates in straight forward manner without frequency conversion.
53. Advantages of superheterodyne receiver over TRF: The advantages of superheterodyne

receiver over TRF are high selectivity,improved sensitivity throughout the carrier frequency
band..It eliminates image frequency.
54. Figure of merit of DSBSC system: The figure of merit of DSBSC signal is unity
55. Capture effect: When the interference signal and FM input are of equal strength, the
receiver fluctuates back and forth between them .This phenomenon is known as the capture
effect.
56. Threshold effect: As the input noise power is increased the carrier to noise ratio is decreased
the receiver breaks and as the carrier to noise ratio is reduced further crackling sound is heard
and the output SNR cannot be predicted by the equation. This phenomenon is known as
threshold effect.
57. Pre-emphasis: The premodulation filtering in the transistor, to raise the power spectral
density of the base band signal in its upper-frequency range is called pre emphasis (or pre
distortion). Pre emphasis is particularly effective in FM systems which are used for transmission
of audio signals.
58. De-emphasis: The filtering at the receiver to undo the signal pre-emphasis and to suppress
noise is called de-emphasis.
59. Figure of merit of SSBSC system: For the same average transmitted signal power and the
same average noise power in the message bandwidth ,an SSB receiver will have exactly the same
output signal to noise ratio as a DSB-SC receiver when both receivers use coherent detection for
the recovery of the message signal.
60. Noise performance of AM receiver with that of DSB-SC receiver: The figure of merit of
DSB-SC or SSB-SC receiver using coherent detection is always unity,the figure of merit of AM
receiver using envelope detection is always less than unity.Therefore noise performance of AM
receiver is always inferior to that of DSB- SC due to the wastage of power for transmitting the
carrier.
61. Figure of merit of a AM system with 100 percent modulation: The figure of merit of a
AM system with 100 percent modulation is 1/3.This means that other factors being equal an AM
system must transmit three times as much average power as a suppressed system in order to
achieve the same quality of noise performance .
189
62. Characteristics of a receiver: The characteristics of a receiver are sensitivity, selectivity,
fidelity, signal to noise ratio.
63. Post detection filter: The post detection filter named as ”base-band low pass filter” has a
bandwidth that is just large enough to accommodate the highest frequency component of the
message signal.
64. Pulse modulation: It is a type of modulation in which pulses are varied in some respect,
such as width or amplitude, to represent the amplitude of a signal.
65. PAM
In PAM, the modulating signal modulates the carrier pulse amplitude. As mentioned here
amplitude of high frequency carrier is varied in accordance with the sampled values of message
signal.
The figure depicts time domain representation of the PAM technique which mentions analog
message signal and PAM modulated signal as output.
66. PWM
The PWM signal is a pulse signal which pulse width is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating analog signal.
190
The figure depicts time domain representation of the PWM. One of the application of PWM is in
speed control of the DC motor.
67. PPM
The PPM signal is a pulse signal which pulse position is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal amplitude. The time domain representation of PPM is mentioned in the figure.
555 Timer IC is most popular to generate waveforms for PPM and PWM modes. PWM is
generated using 555 timer in monostablemultivibrator mode. PPM is generated using 555 timer
by using PWM as a trigger signal in monostablemultivibrator mode.
68.The following table summarizes difference between PAM, PWM and PPM
Method B.W. Power Efficiency(SNR) Complexity

PAM Less Lowest Lowest
PWM High Moderate Moderate
PPM High Highest Highest
191
8. Sample Question Papers with solutions (Minimum 3)
Code No: RT22045 R13 SET - 1
II B. Tech II Semester Regular Examinations, May/June - 2015
ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
(Electronics and communication Engineering)
Max. Marks:
Time: 3 hours 70
Note: 1. Question Paper consists of two parts (Part-A and Part-B)

2. Answer ALL the question in Part-A
3. Answer any THREE Questions from Part-B
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PART-A
1. a) Explain the need of modulation in communication system?
b) Describe VSB modulation and give its applications?
c) Define the following terms?
i) Carrier swing ii) Frequency Deviation iii) Percent Modulation
d) What is threshold effect in an envelope detector? Explain?
e) Write the main requirements of AM broadcast transmitters?
f) Discuss the types of pulse Modulation. (3M+3M+4M+4M+4M+4M)
PART-B
2. a) Describe an expression for AM wave and sketch its frequency spectrum.
b) Explain the square law detection of AM signals.
3. a) Prove that the balanced modulator produces an output consisting of sidebands

only with the carrier removed.
b) Explain the principle of coherent detector of DSB-SC modulated more

with a neat block diagram.
4. a) For an FM modulator with a modulating signal m(t)= Vm sin300wt, the carrier
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Signal Vc(t)=8 sin(6.5×106)t and the modulator index β = 2. Find out the
significant side frequencies and their amplitudes.
b) Explain the difference between Narrow band FM and Wide band FM.
5. a) Calculate the figure of merit for a DSB-SC system.

b) Prove that narrowband FM offers no improvement in SNR over AM.
6. a) Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyme receiver and the function of each
block.
b) Discuss the factors influencing the choice of

intermediate frequency (IF) for a radio Receiver.

ii) Demodulation of PWM
ANSWERS
PART-A
1. a) Explain the need of modulation in communication system?
frequency range.
4. Narrow banding :
193
Suppose the audio range extends from, say 50hz to 10KHz. In such case the ratio of the
highest audio frequency to the lowest is 200. Therefore, an antenna suitable for use at one
end of the range would be entirely too short or too long for the other end. Suppose if it is
translated so that it occupies the range from to .

In this case the ratio of highest to lowest frequency would be only 1.01. Thus with the
process of frequency translation, wideband signal can be changed to narrowband signal
which is more conveniently processed.
5. Common Processing:
When number of different signals occupying different spectral ranges is there for
transmission, it is necessary to adjust the frequency range of processing apparatus.
So the processing apparatus is made elaborate to operate in same fixed frequency range
instead to translate the frequency range of each signal.
7. Reduction of Noise and Interference:
The effect of noise and interference cannot be completely eliminated in communication
system. However it is possible to minimize their effects by using certain types of
modulation schemes. These schemes generally require a transmission bandwidth much
larger than the bandwidth of the message signal. Here bandwidth is traded for noise
reduction.
b) Describe VSB modulation and give its applications?
Consider the message signal m(t) and VSB modulated wave S(t) whose spectrums are
shown above. Here lower sideband is assumed to be modified into the vestigial sideband.
The transmitted Vestige of the lower sideband compensates for the amount removed from
the upper sideband. Now the transmission bandwidth of the VSB modulated wave is
given by B =W + fvWhere W is the message bandwidth and fv is the width of the
194
vestigial sideband. Thus the bandwidth is conserved in VSB modulation as efficiently as
SSB modulation, retaining the low frequency base band characteristics of DSBSC.
c) Define the following terms?

i. Carrier swing
Carrier swing is defined as the total variation in frequency from the lowest to the
highest point. The carrier swing = 2* frequency deviation of the FM signal
ii. Frequency Deviation
Frequency deviation ( ) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum difference
between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier frequency. The
term is sometimes mistakenly used as synonymous with frequency drift, which is
an unintended offset of an oscillator from its nominal frequency
iii. Percent Modulation

Master Oscillator:
Buffer Amplifier:
harmonic frequency.
Class C Amplifiers:
generators.
195


Low level modulation is one in which the transmitter output power generated
bymodulated amplifier is raised to the desired level. Here the carrier voltage is
modulatedat the low power level and it is amplified before it is radiated into the space
throughantenna. Hence a class B tuned power amplifier is used after modulated
amplifier
f) Discuss the types of pulse Modulation.
Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information signals and then
converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source
to a destination over a physical transmission medium
The three predominant methods of pulse modulation:

 pulse amplitude modulation
 pulse width modulation
 pulse position modulation
196
or PPM
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
 the position of a constant-width pulse within a prescribed time slot is varied according to
the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal
 the higher the amplitude of the sample, the farther to the right the pulse is positioned
within the prescribed time slot
197
 the highest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far right, and the lowest amplitude
sample produces a pulse to the far left
 also used in special-purpose communications system mainly for the military but are seldom
2. a) Describe an expression for AM wave and sketch its frequency
spectrum.
AM Wave:
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave
c(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t). Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave
c(t) given by
C(t) = Accoswct

where Ka is constant called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

theAM Wave S(t).
i.e.,
Percentage modulation is defined as the maximum absolute value of Kam(t) multiplied by
100
Case(i): When for all t,
The term 1+Kam(t) is always nonnegative.
In this case the percentage modulation is either less than or equal to 100%.
The expression for the envelope of the AM wave is given by
For all t.
Case(ii) : When for some t,

The percentage modulation is greater than 100% and it is called over modulation.
198
In this case the envelope of the AM wave is evaluated from , but it
contains envelope distortion.
Conditions for good detection :

(i) The percentage modulation is less than 100% to avoid envelope distortion or over
modulation
(ii) The message bandwidth W is small compared to the carrier frequency fc
Frequency-Domain Description of AM Wave
Given by
i.e., S(f).
199
weights
LSB.
Demodulation is a process of recovering the baseband signal from the modulated signal.
Base band signal can be recovered form the AM signal in two ways.
200
modulating signal.
By using proper filter, the dc terms as well as the terms whose spectral components are
located near c cw &2w can be eliminated leaving the output signal.
3. a) Prove that the balanced modulator produces an output consisting of
sidebands only with the carrier removed.
201
Most of the power is associated with the carrier signal which represents a waste of power.
Hence more power can be saved if the carrier signal is suppressed without loss of
information. This suppression of carrier signal in the standard AM Wave is called Double
Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) modulation.
This wave undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message signal m(t) crosses zero.


Then
202
Here the message signal m(t) is band limited to the internal - w £ f £ w and the
modulation process simply translates the spectrum of the baseband signal by plus or
minus fc without fc.

Balanced Modulator:
203
Modulator.
4. a) For an FM modulator with a modulating signal m(t)= Vm sin300wt, the
carrier
6
Signal Vc(t)=8 sin(6.5×10 )t and the modulator index β = 2. Find out the significant
side frequencies and their amplitudes.
c) Explain the difference between Narrow band FM and Wide band FM.
Wideband FM
Narrow-band FM :
5. a) Calculate the figure of merit for a DSB-SC system.

DSB-SC: The DSB-SC systems uses synchronous detection at the receiver
204
Noise Power:
The input noise power i m N F
Now we will evaluate the noise power 0 N at the input of the synchronous detector

carrier.
is given by
205

So
206
Signal Power: The modulated signal at the input of the detector is
The input signal power is mean square of
The signal voltage at the output of the detector is

Signal power at the output of the detector is
Figure of merit is
Thus the figure of merit is one (unity).

S/N ratios at the input and output of the detector is identical and there is no improvement in S/N
ratio
b) Prove that narrowband FM offers no improvement in SNR over AM.
Section that the frequency-modulated signal is given by
Where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, kf is the frequency sensitivity factor
of the modulator, and m(t) is the message signal. The received FM signal s(t) has a carrier
207
frequency fc and a transmission bandwidth BT, such that a negligible amount of power lies
outside the frequency band fc ± BT/2for positive frequencies, and similarly for negative
frequencies.
6. a) Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyme receiver and the function of each block.
208
b) Discuss the factors influencing the choice of intermediate frequency (IF) for a
radio Receiver.
209
Another factor to be considered is the maximum operating frequency the receiver.
Assuming Q to be reasonably constant, bandwidth of a tuned circuit is directly

circuits.
discussed later.
In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitudes of regularly spaced rectangularpulses vary with
the instantaneous sample values of a continuous message signal min a one-to-one fashion.
There are two types of PAM,
iii. double polarity PAM
iv. Single polarity PAM.
In the double polarity PAM, the amplitudes of pulses are in both positive and negative depending
on the sample value. In single polarity PAM, the amplitudes of the pulses are always positive.
This can be achieved by adding a fixed dc level to the double sided PAM asshown in the
diagrams.
Mathematically, a PAM signal can be represented as
210
Where em(nTS) is the nth sample of the message signal,
Tsis the sampling period,
Kais the amplitude sensitivity and g(t) denotes the pulse.
For a single polarity PAM,
The sampling rate must be equal to greater than twice the highest frequency greater than twice
the highest frequency component present in the message signal.
i) Demodulation of PWM
Demodulation of PWM:
The PWM signal can be demodulated just by passing through an integrator circuit. Here the
amplitude of the integrator output is proportional to the pulse width at that time.
211
212
213
214
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70

PART-A
1. a) Explain the need for modulator.
b) Compare the DSB and SSB systems.
c) Explain the terms of Narrow band FM and wide band FM
d) Explain, how noise can be calculated in a communication system.
e) What is the significance of Harmonic generator in transmitters?
f) Write short notes on “ Time division multiplexing”. (3M+3M+4M+4M+4M+4M)
PART-B
2. a) Explain the generation of AM wave using square law modulator.
b) A tone modulated AM-signal with a modulation index of

“m” and base band signal Frequency of ωm is detected using
envelope detector, whose time constant is RC, for Effective
2
demodulation, show that (1/RC) ≥ [m ωm/(√1-m )].
3. a) Explain the concept of frequency translation using the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
3
b) In an AM-SC system, modulating signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal 4cos2π10 ,which
6
Modulates carrier signal 6cos2π10 t. Write the equation of the modulated wave. Plot the
two Sided spectrum of the modulated wave. Calculate the amount of power transmitted.
4. a) Give the phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves for sinusoidal

modulation.
b) Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM signal having a

frequency Deviation of 75 kHz and an audio bandwidth of 10kHz.What will be the
change in the Bandwidth, if modulating frequency is doubled? Determine the bandwidth
when modulating Signal amplitude is also doubled.
5. a) Explain about pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.
215
b) Explain the noise performance of SSB-SC receiver and prove its S/N
ratio is unity.
6. a) List out the advantages and disadvantages of TRF receivers.

b) What is an image frequency? How is image frequency rejection
achieved?
7. a) Explain, how a PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal?

b) Explain the generating and demodulation of PPM.
PART-A
frequency range.
b) Compare the DSB and SSB systems.
DSBSC SSB
It contains both side bands It contains either upper side bad or lower side
216
bad
Band width is 2fm Band width is fm
Power requirement is more Power requirement is less
Quadrature null effect is occurred Quadrature null effect is minimised
Used in point to point communication Used in voice transmission

Wideband FM
Narrow-band FM :
d) Explain how noise can be calculated in a communication system.

The DSB-SC systems uses synchronous detection at the receiver
217
Noise Power:
Now we will evaluate the noise power N0at the input of the synchronous detector

carrier.
is given by
218

So
219
e) What is the significance of Harmonic generator in transmitters?
f) Write short notes on “ Time division multiplexing”.
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal by
separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data stream
is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing.
The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications link is known as a
multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and
assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The composite signal thus
contains data from multiple senders. At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are
separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way
communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the long-distance, high-
bandwidth cable.
If many signals must be sent along a single long-distance line, careful engineering is required to ensure
that the system will perform properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The scheme allows for variation
in the number of signals being sent along the line, and constantly adjusts the time intervals to make
optimum use of the available bandwidth. The Internet is a classic example of a communications network
in which the volume of traffic can change drastically from hour to hour. In some systems, a different
scheme, known as frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), is preferred.
220
PART-B
5. a) Explain the generation of AM wave using square law modulator.

Generation of AM Waves:
There are two methods of for generating AM Wave.

i. Square-law modulation
ii. Switching modulation
221
i. Square-law modulator:
In this the sum of carrier signal and modulating signal is applied to a non-linear device.
The non-linear device may be a diode or a transistor. The non-linear device is suitably
biased and operated in the restricted portion of the characteristic curve. In general, the
transfer characteristic of diode-resistor load combination can be represented closely by a
square-law,
Where V1 and V2 are the input and respectively and a1 and a2 are constants.
Here input voltage V1(t) consists of carrier and modulating signal.
A bandpass filter is used at the output for extracting the desired modulation products.
In general the filter may be a single tuned or double tuned which should be met the
required parameters.
Therefore by the input-output relation for the above modulator circuit, we have
This can be extracted with appropriate filter by eliminating the unwanted terms.
b) A tone modulated AM-signal with a modulation index of “m” and base band signal
Frequency of ωm is detected using envelope detector, whose time constant is RC, for
2
Effective demodulation, show that (1/RC) ≥ [m ωm/(√1-m )].
6. a) Explain the concept of frequency translation using the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
222



Then
223
3
b) In an AM-SC system, modulating signal is a single tone sinusoidal signal 4cos2π10 ,which
6
Modulates carrier signal 6cos2π10 t. Write the equation of the modulated wave. Plot the two
Sided spectrum of the modulated wave. Calculate the amount of power transmitted.
4. a) Give the phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves for sinusoidal modulation.
b) Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM signal having a frequency
Deviation of 75 kHz and an audio bandwidth of 10kHz.What will be the change in the
Bandwidth, if modulating frequency is doubled? Determine the bandwidth when modulating
Signal amplitude is also doubled.
5. a) Explain about pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.
In common narrowband two way fm communications, Pre emphasis follows a 6 dB per octave
rate. This means that as the frequency doubles, the amplitude increases 6 dB. This is usually
done between 300 - 3000 cycles. Pre emphasis is needed in FM to maintain good signal to noise
ratio. Why is it necessary? Common voice characteristics emit low frequencies higher in
amplitude than high frequencies. The limiter circuits that clip the voice to allow protection of
over deviation are usually not frequency sensitive, and are fixed in level, so they will clip or limit
the lows before the highs. This results in added distortion because of the lows overdriving the
limiter. Pre emphasis is used to shape the voice signals to create a more equal amplitude of lows
and highs before their application to the limiter. The result is that the signal received is perceived
louder due to more equal clipping or limiting of the signal, but probably more important is the
increased level of the higher frequencies being applied to the modulator results in a better
transmitted audio signal to noise ratio due to the highs being above the noise as much or more
than the lows.
224
Transmitters that employ a true FM modulator require a pre emphasis circuit before the
modulator fore the true FM modulator doesn't automatically pre emphasize the audio like a
transmitter that uses a phase modulator. A separate circuit is not necessary for pre emphasis in a
transmitter that has a phase modulator because the phase modulator applies pre emphasis to the
transmitted audio as a function of the phase modulator
The receiver De emphasis circuitry takes the unnatural sounding pre emphasized audio and turns
it back into its original response. Pre emphasized (discriminator) audio is however available
directly from the audio demodulation (discriminator) circuitry. In linking systems, many choose
to eliminate the emphasis circuitry to allow better representation of retransmitted signals. Since
the signal has already been pre emphasized (by the user that is transmitting,) and since the
225
receiver you are listening to takes care of the de emphasis.It doesn't need to be done over and
over again. Some loss of quality does exist, but quality is better maintained by a flat system. A
flat audio response system is one which has equal output deviation for the same input deviation,
no matter what the applied audio frequency is within reason. Reasonable audio frequency
response would be from 50 cycles to about 3500 to 5000 cycles in a system not filtering PL.
Audio response in a system filtering PL would be around 250 to about 3500 to 5000 cycles.
Upper cut off frequency would be determined mainly on acceptable use of available bandwidth.
3. Explain the noise performance of SSB-SC receiver and prove its S/N ratio is unity.
Noise-Power: The input noise power
The Noise power density spectrum at the output of the Synchronous detector is same as
given by the DSB-SC case
The power density spectrum for SSB-SC signal is equal to n / 2 explained in

previous problem
Hence
The bandwidth of the detected signal at the output of the detector is 2fm.
Both SSB-SC and DSB-SC produces identical spectra at the synchronous detector output.
In both cases, the detected output is with identical spectra.
Therefore, the noise power at the output of detector is
Signal Power:
The signal power at the input and output of the synchronous detector in a SSB-SC
receiver can be evaluated by observing the spectra.
The signal power is proportional to the area under the power density spectrum
(Parseval’s theorem).
The power density spectrum of the signal is proportional to the square of the
Fourier transform .
It is obvious that the area under the power density spectrum of a SSB-SC signal is same
as the area under power density spectrum F.
Hence the power of SSB-SC signal is same as the power (MS value) of the baseband
226
Signal .
The detector output in SSB-SC system is Hence the output of the detector has the signal
power
The figure of merit is given by
This is same as the figure of merit of the DS-SC system which means both are identical from
noise performance point of view in spite of the fact that SSB-SC has half bandwidth. This is
because, the large bandwidth in the DSB-SC system increases the signal as well as noise power.
6. a) List out the advantages and disadvantages of TRF receivers.
4.6.15.1. Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver :
The desired signal received by the antenna is fed to the input of 1st RF amplifier.
For further amplification, it is passed through one or two RF amplifiers.
All the amplifiers are simultaneously (gang) tuned to reject all other unwanted signals. After the
desired signal was amplified to a suitable level, it was demodulated (detected). Since the
227
demodulated signal is lower in strength, it is amplified by using audio and power amplifiers. At
the end, audio signal is converted into speech or music by the loudspeaker.
Advantages:
i. It is simple to design.
ii. High sensitivity in fixed frequency receives.
iii. It gave the pavement for the invention of super heterodyne receiver.
Demerits :
i. TRF receiver suffers from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning range
ii. Insufficient adjacent – frequency rejection during tuning.
iii. Beyond broadcast frequencies, it cannot be operated.
iv. There is a risk of instability with high gain at single frequency.
c) What is an image frequency? How is image frequency rejection achieved?

Image frequency and its rejections :
In the standard broadcast receiver the local oscillator frequency is made higher
than the incoming signal frequency.
i.e.
If a frequency fsi arrives at the input of a mixer, such that
,
this will also produce fi when mixed with f0.
This spurious intermediate frequency signal will also be amplified by IF stage andwill therefore
provide interference.
This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously. This term is called image
frequency The image frequency rejection is the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to
the gain at the image frequency.
And Q = loaded Q of the tuned circuit.

If receiver has an RF stage, then there are two lined circuits, both tune to , the total rejection
will be the product of two individuals.
7. a) Explain, how a PPM signal can be generated from PWM signal?
Generation of PPM:
Pulse position modulation may be obtained very simply from PWM.Consider PWM and its
generation as shown in fig. with leading and trailing edges of eachpulse respectively.In PWM,
the locations of the leading edges are fixed and the trailing edges are not fixed.The position of
228
the trailing edge depends on pulse width which is determined by thesignal amplitude at that
instant.It can also be said that, the trailing edges of PWM pulses are position modulated.
Alternately, PPM can be obtained by from PWM by “getting rid of” the leading edgesand bodies
of the PWM pulses.If the pulses of PWM is differentiated another pulse train results.
This has positive going narrow pulses corresponding to leading edges and negative goingpulses
corresponding to trailing edges.If the position corresponding to the trailing edge of an
unmodulated pulse is counted aszero displacement.Then after trailing edges will arrive earlier or
later.Therefore, they will have time displacement other than zero.This time displacement is
proportional to the instantaneous value of the signal voltage.If the differentiated pulses
corresponding to the leading edges are removed with arectifier, the remaining pulses are position
modulated.
229
d) Explain the generating and demodulation of PPM.
Generation of Pulse Position Modulation:
230
231
Demodulation
232
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PART-A
b) Discuss Quadrture null effect of DSB-SC and SSB-SC

f) Distinguish between PAM & PWM. (3M+3M+4M+4M+4M+4M)
PART-B

3. a) Explain the generation of double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

modulator. Write the necessary equations,
b) Discuss the effect of frequency and phase error in demodulation of DSB-

SC wave using synchronous detector.
4. a) Give the phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves for sinusoidal

modulation.
b) Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM signal having

a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and an audio bandwidth of 10kHz.What will
233
be the change in the bandwidth, if modulating frequency is doubled?
Determine the bandwidth when modulating signal amplitude is also doubled.
5. a) Derive an expression for the S/N ratio for an FM System.

b) Explain the difference between DSB & SSB system.
6. a) Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyme receiver and the function of each block.
b) Discuss the factors influencing the choice of intermediate frequency

(IF) for a radio receiver.
7. a) Explain the PPM generation from PWM with a neat block diagram and necessary
figures.
b) Draw the circuit of PPM demodulator and explain the operation.
ANSWERS
frequency range.
b) Discuss Quadrture null effect of DSB-SC and SSB-SC

Principle :
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSBSC wave S(t) by first multiplying S(t)
with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering the product.
234
The locally oscillator carrier in the detection should exactly be coherent or synchronized
with the carrier C(t) that used in the DSB-SC transmission. Because of this, the
demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous detection.
Consider the local oscillator carrier signal has an arbitrary phase difference w.r.t the
carrier used in the production of DSB-SC.

given by
when
represents the Quadrature Null effect of the coherent detector.

As long as the phase error f is constant, the detector output provides an undistorted
version of the original message signal m(t). But in nature, the phase error f also varies
randomly with time because of the random variations in the communication channel. Due
235
to this, the detector output also varies randomly with time by the multiplying factor Cosf.
This is undesirable. Therefore, effective current system must be provided at the receiver
to maintain the local oscillator in perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with
carrier wave used in the generation of DSBSC at the transmitter. This increases the
receiver complexity and price.
The detection of SSB modulated waves, just presented, assumes ideal conditions, namely,
perfect synchronization between the local carrier and that in the transmitter both in
frequency and phase. The effect of a phase error f in the locally generated carrier wave is
to modify the detector output as follows.
Where the plus sign applies to an incoming SSB modulated wave containing only the
upper sideband (i.e., the modulated wave of Eq.7.47), and the minus sign applies to one
containing only the lower sideband (i.e., the modulated wave of Eq.7.48). Owing to the
phase error f, the detector output v0(t) contains not only the message signal m(t) but also
its Hilbert transform m(t). Consequently, the detector output suffers from phase
distortion. This phase distortion is usually not serious with voice communications
because the human ear is relatively insensitive to phase distortion. The presence of phase
distortion gives rise to what is called the Donald duck voice effect. In the transmission of
music and video signals, on the other hand, phase distortion in the form of a constant
phase difference in all components can be intolerable.

Wideband FM
Narrow-band FM :
236

Master Oscillator:
Buffer Amplifier:
harmonic frequency.
Class C Amplifiers:
generators.
237


Low level modulation is one in which the transmitter output power generated bymodulated
amplifier is raised to the desired level. Here the carrier voltage is modulatedat the low power
level and it is amplified before it is radiated into the space throughantenna. Hence a class B tuned
power amplifier is used after modulated amplifier
f) Distinguish between PAM & PWM.

or PPM
PART-B

AM Wave:
Amplitude modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave
c(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t). Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave
c(t) given by
C(t) = Accoswct
238

where Ka is constant called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

theAM Wave S(t).
i.e.,
Percentage modulation is defined as the maximum absolute value of Kam(t) multiplied by
100
Frequency-Domain Description of AM Wave
Given by
i.e., S(f).
weights
239
LSB.

The square-law Demodulation:
Demodulation is a process of recovering the baseband signal from the modulated signal.
Base band signal can be recovered form the AM signal in two ways.
240
modulating signal.
By using proper filter, the dc terms as well as the terms whose spectral components are
located near c cw &2w can be eliminated leaving the output signal.
3. a) Explain the generation of double side band suppressed carrier (DSB-
SC) modulator. Write the necessary equations

241


Then
242

Balanced Modulator:
243
Modulator.
b) Discuss the effect of frequency and phase error in

demodulation of DSB-SC wave using synchronous detector.
Principle :
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSBSC wave S(t) by first multiplying S(t)
with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass filtering the product.
The locally oscillator carrier in the detection should exactly be coherent or synchronized
with the carrier C(t) that used in the DSB-SC transmission. Because of this, the
demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous detection.
Consider the local oscillator carrier signal has an arbitrary phase difference w.r.t the
carrier used in the production of DSB-SC.

given by
244
when
represents the Quadrature Null effect of the coherent detector.

As long as the phase error f is constant, the detector output provides an undistorted version
of the original message signal m(t). But in nature, the phase error f also varies randomly
with time because of the random variations in the communication channel. Due to this, the
detector output also varies randomly with time by the multiplying factor Cosf. This is
undesirable. Therefore, effective current system must be provided at the receiver to
maintain the local oscillator in perfect synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with
carrier wave used in the generation of DSBSC at the transmitter. This increases the
receiver complexity and price.
4. a) Give the phasor comparison of narrowband FM and AM waves for
sinusoidal modulation.
b) Compute the bandwidth requirement for the transmission of FM
signal having a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and an audio
bandwidth of 10kHz.What will be the change in the bandwidth, if
modulating frequency is doubled? Determine the bandwidth when
modulating signal amplitude is also doubled.
5. a) Derive an expression for the S/N ratio for an FM System.

Noise in Angle Modulation System
Section
that the frequency-modulated signal is given by
Where Ac is the carrier amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, kf is the frequency sensitivity
factor of the modulator, and m(t) is the message signal. The received FM signal s(t) has a
carrier frequency fc and a transmission bandwidth BT, such that a negligible amount of
power lies outside the frequency band fc ± BT/2for positive frequencies, and similarly for
negative frequencies.

245
b) Explain the difference between DSB & SSB system.
DSBSC SSB
It contains both side bands It contains either upper side bad or lower side bad
Band width is 2fm Band width is fm
Power requirement is more Power requirement is less
Quadrature null effect is Quadrature null effect is minimised

occurred
Used in point to point Used in voice transmission

communication
Figure of merit is one Figure of merit is one
The equation of DSBSC is
Now the upper side frequency is defined by
246
6. a) Draw the block diagram of superhetrodyme receiver and the function of
each block.
Superhetrodyne receiver
b) Discuss the factors influencing the choice of

intermediate frequency (IF) for a radio receiver.
247
Another factor to be considered is the maximum operating frequency the
receiver. Assuming Q to be reasonably constant, bandwidth of a tuned circuit is directly

circuits.
discussed later.
7. a) Explain the PPM generation from PWM with a neat block diagram
and necessary figures.
Pulse Width Modulation:It is a type of analog modulation. In pulse width modulation or pulse
duration modulation, the width of the pulse carrier is varied in accordance with the sample values
of message signal or modulating signal or modulating voltage. In pulse width modulation, the
248
amplitude is made constant and width of pulse and position of pulse is made proportional to the
amplitude of the signal. We can vary the pulse width in three ways
4. By keeping the leading edge constant and vary the pulse width with respect to leading
edge
5. By keeping the tailing constant.
6. By keeping the center of the pulse constant.
We can generate pulse width using different circuitry. In practical, we use 555 Timer which is
the best way for generating the pulse width modulation signals. By configuring the 555 timer as
monostable or astablemultivibrator, we can generate the PWM signals. We can use PIC, 8051,
AVR, ARM, etc. microcontrollers to generate the PWM signals. PWM signal generation has n
number of ways. In demodulation, we need PWM detector and its related circuitry for
demodulating the PWM signal.
Generation of Pulse Width Modulation:
249
b) Draw the circuit of PPM demodulator and explain the operation.
Demodulation
250
DESCRIPTION:
There are different methods for extracting the message signal from a PPM wave synchronously
and asynchronously. The simplest asynchronous demodulator uses a low pass filter to filter out
the message signal from the modulated wave. The following block diagram represents the
implementation of a PWM modulator.
251
9. Virtual Labs if required
 Please provide the details of any virtual labs if applicable. Please provide the links to
the videos etc. Please do NOT embed videos as it will increase the size of the
documents.
252
10. Mapping of Assignments / Question Papers with course objective
learning outcomes.
Course objective Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Assignmen Add more
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 columns if
there are
extra
assignment
s
To introduce Yes No No No No No
the concepts
of analogue
communicatio
n systems
To equip Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

students with
various issues
related to
analogue
communicatio
n such as
modulation,
demodulation,
transmitters
and receivers
and noise
performance
To prepare Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
mathematical
background
for
253
communicatio
n signal
analysis
To introduce No No No No No Yes
the concepts
of pulse
modulation
techniques.
Learning Assignme Assignme Assignme Assignme Assignme Assignme Add more

Outcomes nt 1 nt 2 nt 3 nt 4 nt 5 nt 6 columns if
there are
extra
assignment
s
The students Yes No No No No No

will have the
knowledge of
components of
analogue
communicatio
n system.
Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes

The students
will have the
ability to
analyze
various
methods of
baseband/band
pass Analogue
transmission
and detection.
254
The student will Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
be able to
analyze and
allocate
performance
objectives to
components of
an analogue
communication
system and to
design analogue
communication
systems
The students No No No Yes No No

will be able to
evaluate the
performance of
analogue
communicatio
ns in the
presence of
noise.
255
11. Bloom’s Taxonomy checklist
Bloom's Digital Taxonomy Checklist

Check the skills that apply to determine the level at which the student is working
Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Eval

bookmarking comparing building classifying appraising
choosing diagramming constructing dissecting blogging
defining explaining developing distinguishing critiquing
finding interpreting editing examining defending
labeling outlining experimenting with inspecting disproving
listing relating modeling linking influencin
matching summarizing playing mashing interpretin
recalling tagging solving simplifying measuring
256

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COURSE FILE

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

VIGNAN’S INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

S.NO. Content Page No.

1 Course Objectives & Outcomes 3

4 Unit wise course Material(As per given format)

1.1. Course Objectives

1. To introduce the concepts of analogue communication systems

After studying this course:

2. Differentiate modulation and demodulation techniques of Amplitude and Angle

3. Evaluate the performance of analog communications in the presence of noise.

4. Analyze and allocate performance objectives to components of transmitters and

UNIT II DSB & SSB MODULATION

UNIT III ANGLE MODULATION

UNIT V TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS

Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter, AM Transmitter, Effect of feedback on performance of AM

UNIT VI PULSE MODULATION

Lecture no. Unit

02 Need for modulation

07 power relations in AM waves

08 Generation of AM waves, square law Modulator,

10 Detection of AM Waves; Square law detector,.

13 Generation of DSBSC Waves, Balanced Modulators

15 Coherent detection of DSB-SC Modulated waves

16 COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain description,

17 Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM SSB Modulated Wave

18 Phase discrimination method for generating AM SSB Modulated waves.

19 Demodulation of SSB Waves,

20 Vestigial side band modulation: Frequency description, Generation of VSB

21 Envelope detection of a VSB Wave pulse Carrier

22 Comparison of AM Techniques, Applications of different AM Systems.

23 UNIT- Basic concepts, Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation

27 Constant Average Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave

28 Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM,

29 Detection of FM Waves: Balanced Frequency discriminator,

30 Balanced Frequency discriminator,

31 Zero crossing detector

32 Phase locked loop

33 Comparison of FM & AM.

34 UNIT- IV Noise in Analog communication System

35 Noise in DSB & SSB System

36 Noise in SSB system

38 Noise in Angle Modulation System,

39 Threshold effect in Angle Modulation System,

40 Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis.

41 UNIT- V Radio Transmitter – Classification of Transmitter

43 Effect of feedback on performance of AM Transmitter

44 FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type

45 phase modulated FM Transmitter

46 frequency stability in FM Transmitter

47 Radio Receiver -Receiver Types

48 Tuned radio frequency receiver

50 RF section and Characteristics

55 Comparison with AM Receiver

57 UNIT- VI Time Division Multiplexing

58 Types of Pulse modulation

59 PAM (Single polarity, double polarity)

AMPLITUDE MODULATION : Introduction to communication system, Need for modulation,

4.2.1. Unit Objectives:

After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand:

1. To introduce the concepts of analogue communication systems

4.2.2. Unit Outcomes:

4.2.3. Unit Lecture Plan