Classification of Plastics and Definition of Certain Properties

E. Karrer

Citation: J. Rheol. 1, 290 (1930); doi: 10.1122/1.2116319

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1122/1.2116319
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Published by the The Society of Rheology

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 290 ~OURNALOF RI-IEOLOGY APRIL, 1930

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS AND DEFINITION OF CERTAIN

PROPERTIES
]~. KARRER

Plastics are materials that under eertain conditions have a convenient

and useful range of plasticity. In general, something must be done to
the material to bring it into the plastic state for purposes of molding;
and, in general, something quite different must be done to make it again
non-plastie. The first step in processing the material is termed plasticizing,
the last is in some cases termed curing, but may, perhaps in general, be
more appropriately termed deplasticizing.
Plastics are sometimes grouped to indicate origin and composition as
casein, cellulose, and phenol plastics; and one would have to include
clay plastics and rubber plastics. This mode of classification indicates
also general lines of demarcation between industries. It is not, however,
always clear. There has also been a tendency to classify plastics accord-
ing to the way in which they m a y be plastieized; e. g., there are those
termed thermoplastics--waxes, asphalt, thermoprene, and glasses. These
become moldable when heated. Their plasticity is determined by tem-
perature primarily. Following such lines of classification other plastics
may be grouped as follows: chemoplastics, materials which become plastia
by virtue of some chemical reaction; mechanoplastics, materials which
m a y be plasticized by mechanical agitation and working. It will be de-
sirable, from a practical point of view, to include here a class of materials
espeeially useful in dentistry t h a t are said to be cheoplastic. Cheoplastics
are those plastic materials which are formed by mixing metals in various
ways, for example, the dental amalgams. In addition to the above classes,
there are some important materials which m a y be plasticized by means
of solvents or solvating agents. These m a y be termed solvoplastics,
and m a y be further subdivided into two important groups, hydroplastics,
such as days, plasters, ordinary mortar; and organoplastics, materials
t h a t may be plasticized by means of organie solvents, as nitrocellulose
and rubber. Under the chemoplasties m a y be mentioned rubber whieh
becomes plastic on oxidation, and perhaps such a plastic as bakelite.
Among mechanoplastics, one m a y mention such a mixture of" clay and
oil or water, that, when agitated, m a y become more plastie. A better
illustration, perhaps, is a mixture of litharge and glycerine that has already
hardened appreciably, since such a mixture m a y be made very plastic
by breaking up and agitating. In other words, some substances t h a t are
thixotropie m a y be classed as mechanoplastics. Like the first mentioned,
and like most classifieations, this for plastics has no sharp boundaries.
Some substances m a y fall in any one or several of the classes. Such a
substance is rubber, which may be plasticized by heating, being, therefore,

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 VOL. 1, NO. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS 291

thermoplastic; or b y mechanical working, being, therefore, mechano-

plastic; or b y oxidation and other chemical reaction, being, therefore,
chemoplastie; or b y a process of solvation, being therefore, solvoplastic,
and in particular, organoplastie. However, this mode of classifying
brings out very well certain difficulties encountered in defining general
properties of matter.
How such a classification of plastics may aid in the definition of their
outstanding property, plasticity, may be illustrated as follows: Ries, 1
in defining plasticity, states: "Seger has defined it (plasticity) as the
property which solid bodies show of absorbing and holding a liquid in
their pores and forming a mass which can be pressed or kneaded into
ally desired shape which it retains when the pressure ceases, and, on the
withdrawal of water, changes to a hard mass." The first part of this
definition has to do with the classification of the plastic, and has nothing
to do with the property, plasticity, of clay, whether plasticized or not.
T o state t h a t the material must absorb a liquid in order to become plastic
is merely to say that this particular plastic is a solvoplastic. The last
portion of the definition has to do, essentially, with the process of re-
moving the plasticizing agent, that is, with the deplasticizing of the
clay--in this case b y evaporation of the water. Only the intermediate
phrases are pertinent to the definition of the property of plasticity of
matter (in this case clay, in particular). This instance has been chosen
because it is such a clear illustration of the point in question, but m a n y
cases of a less flagrant kind are to be found in the literature on plastics;
as "plasticity is the yielding property of a wet mixture to change of form. ''2
The phrase "wet mixture" again pertains to the manner of plasticizing
rather than to the property plasticity.
In clays the deplastieizing is a desiccating process; in rubber it is b y
means of a reaction with sulphur known as vulcanization. In certain
phenol products it is b y means of a "condensation or polymerizing re-
action;" in thermoplastics it is b y means of solidifying b y cooling or
freezing. A generic term is obviously required here and the term de-
plasticizing is probably satisfactory. In both of the definitions referred
to above, the special plasticizing characteristics of a clay are confusedly
intertwined with the general property, plasticity of matter.
One of the peculiar characteristics of the class of materials called plastics
is t h a t m a n y of their properties are either intermediate or are extreme
when compared with ordinary solids and liquids. I t seems t h a t some
definitions of certain general properties of m a t t e r as defined at present,
do not fit them. Any quantitative or specific definition of a word for
technical purposes should remain consistent with and certainly ought not
in any way contradict its qualitative and historical connotation. For

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 292 JOURNAL OF R~oLoeY APRIL, 1930

even under the best conditions this will mean t h a t there m a y be a conflict
in certain aspects of the quantitative and qualitative definition.
Plastics bridge the gap between the liquid and solid states. I t m a y be
argued at a n y time as to whether a particular plastic is a solid or a liquid.
This is true, however, of sols and gels, in general. T h e y possess different
degrees of plasticity, different degrees of hardness or softness, different
degrees of elasticity, as solids in general do. However, like liquids they
possess, to variously marked degrees, properties of flow. In the plasti-
cized stage they v e r y d e a r l y often approach to the liquid state, while,
in general, in the deplastieized state t h e y are, sometimes at least, un-
doubtedly to be classified as ordinary solids. I t m a y be said then, in
a general way, t h a t t h e y possess different degrees of solidity. I t is of
interest to compare plastics in respect to this property, t h a t is, as to their
semblance to solids. A very general characterization of the three states
of m a t t e r is as follows: A gas when unrestrained changes shape and volume
indefinitely. A liquid changes shape under gravity b u t retains a defi-
nite volume, while a solid retains b o t h shape and volume without sus-
taining walls. Typical solids will not only retain shape under gravity,
b u t will sustain an appreciable force compared to their weight before
changing shape permanently. This is the phenomenon referred to when
"yield value"* is mentioned. I t is to be expected t h a t solids will differ
in this respect and resist shearing stresses from practically zero when
approaching the borderline of liquids to those of the hardest and toughest
alloys t h a t m a y be either brittle or elastic and extendible.* When some
plastics in the plasticized state are caused to flow, there frequently appears
some such "yielding force" in the flow equation. This "yield value" is,
in fact, a v e r y good measure of "solidness" or "solidity." This is true
in ordinary circumstances only when a definite yield value is manifested.
I t frequently happens in plastics t h a t such is not the case. T i m e enters
as in a rate of deformation or as in a specified period for relaxation and
recovery; or as in both these aspects. T h e element of time m a y play
an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in determining the numerical magnitude of such a
p r o p e r t y as "yield value." Conditions m u s t be specified for every value
reported, and general agreement on reference conditions is desirable b u t
difficult when so little is known concerning these properties of matter.
* "Yield value" is somewhat of a queer phrase by which to call a property of a
material. It is more like a designation of a point on a graph, like yield point. Shearing
strength or yield strength are excellent, but they should not be used to mean the inter-
cept. "Solidity" is consistent with the present argument. Various phrases may be
used until nomenclature is standardized.
t Extendible is little used in common parlance and is available for this specific
use. Derivatives extendibility and extendance are suggestive. Extensile, extensility,
extensanee (comparable to contractile, contractility, and contractanee) should be
considered in this connection too.

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 VOL. 1, No. 3 CLASSIFICATIONo]~ PLASTICS 293

The greater the yield value the more solid is the mass. For a typical
solid, say lead, appreciable force m a y be applied before any perceptible
flow or deformation takes place in a short time. The fact t h a t there is
such a distinct yield value and semblance to solids in some sols containing
common plastics accounts for the unfortunate abuse of the terms plasticity
and plastometer, the latter being used synonymously with viscometer
and consistometer. As has been pointed out recently, 3 it is also unfor-
tunate t h a t the reciprocal of mobility has sometimes been called plasticity.
The force up to the "yield value" is one portion of the total force which
enters into the description of plasticity in a very analogous manner to
the electrode drop of potential compared with the over-all drop of po-
tential in a discharge tube. In ultimate analysis, plasticity will have to
be a function not only of the "yield value" b u t of the rate of yielding for
forces above the "yield value." The other aspect of plasticity, the re-
tention of shape, is not, for the time being, considered (since it arises of
necessity from the existence of the yield value).
In ordinary solids, there is not only a simple yield value, but there
is a component of the deformation t h a t is elastic in the sense that the
original dimensions are resumed with the velocity of sound; other portions
that are hysteretic, t h a t is, they m a y in time be recovered, b u t at lower
speed; while others are permanent changes. Increase in the latter two
makes for increased plasticity. I t leads to gross contradiction to say
that plasticity is proportional to the yield value or shearing strength.4
Just what contribution to the property, plasticity, any value of the
shearing strength m a y make could only be said after considerable detailed
analysis. T h e value of the shearing strength does measure how far
removed from a simple liquid any particular system is, and in some sense
indicates that it m a y have plasticity. The further removed it is from the
liquid state, the harder or more rigid it m a y be; but this hardness m a y
be associated with extendibility or brittleness, or retractivity (see footnote
on p. 295), as well as with softness and retentivity t h a t make for high
plasticity.
When the yield force is small compared with the weight, i. e., when
the shearing strength or yield strength is too small to resist the gravita-
tional stresses, as in ordinary thin liquids, the rate of flow varies directly
as the pressure even for very minute pressures. T o a simple idealized
solid m a y be given the property of yielding at a constant rate of flow under
stresses larger than that where yielding begins. In general, such will
not be the case. There m a y be different rates of flow for different magni-
tudes of forces.
T h e idealized liquid in bulk gives no evidence of a yield point and flows
in such a manner that the rate of flow is proportional to the pressure
gradient. This means that plotting the rate of flow against shearing

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 294 JOURNAL OF I~HEOLOGY APRIL, 1930

stress a straight line passing through the origin results. For the idealized
solid such a straight line does not run through the origin b u t begins at
some other definite point on the pressure axis. However, it is found t h a t
both liquids and solids m a y change in rate of flow with change of pressure,
t h a t is, there result m a n y departures from the straight lines just described.
In this intervening region some of the most useful plastics lie. I t appears
t h a t a colloid system in which the more or less solid solute m a y form a
continuous structure in the solvent is v e r y likely to give lines with con-
tinuous curvature, even through the origin; t h a t is, continuous variation
in rate of flow with change in pressure even for minute pressures. Colloid
s y s t e m s in which solute is reticulated and has expanded structure are
sometimes said to have structural viscosity; and are perhaps to be con-
trasted with other colloid systems inwhichthe solute is discrete or forms con-
densed structures. T h e y m a y also be described with the t e r m thixotropie.
One might a priori expect to find all degrees of semblance to solidity
and all manner of departures from a simple liquid; t h a t is, t h a t some sols
and gels m a y have large and definite "shearing strengths ''4 while in others
these m a y be almost vanishingly small; and t h a t either of these m a y
manifest curvature to various extents ill the rate of flow versus pressure
curves; or be thixotropie. I t seems t h a t enough is already known re-
garding properties of materials to assert t h a t curves wittl concavity toward
the pressure axis m a y be rare for v e r y low pressures. This would necessi-
tate t h a t the viscosity would become greater as the rate of flow is increased;
i. e., t h a t the system be negatively thixotropie. Only unstable complex
systems m a y be imagined to have such a property. Supersaturated solu-
tions which are sensitive to agitation, and in which crystallization or
precipitation could be retarded might constitute an imaginary negatively
thixotropie system. Also a heterogeneous system whose portions are
reactive and m a y be brought into contact during flow, m a y be negatively
thixotropie. A muscle when contracting undergoes an increase in vis-
cosity and m a y be given as a real case of a negative thixotropie system.
There is another commonly talked of quality t h a t does not seem to
have been clearly defined as a general property of matter. Elasticity
or "elasticness" is surrounded b y considerable ambiguity. 5 u
modulus has been called the "elasticity" of a b o d y as th6ugh it were a
complete measure of the property "elasticity" for all things. MaxwelP
appears to have used the t e r m with caution, b u t the precedent has been
very generally and uncritically followed in standard textbooks and in
handbooks. This is especially unfortunate since there are so m a n y other
appellations for this quantity; such as elastic constant or modulus, and
modulus or coefficient of elasticity.
*Koung's modulus is defined as the ratio of the extending force, per
unit area, F, to the relative increase ill length.

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 VoL. 1, No. 3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS 295

To be elastic connotes more in respect to resumption of shape t h a n in

reference to the forces necessary to change shape. T o call u
modulus the elasticity means t h a t a stiff material like steel is more elastic
t h a n a material like rubber or a structure like a spring m a d e of the same
steel, which m a y easily undergo far greater deformation before under-
going p e r m a n e n t loss in dimensions. There is some contradiction here
with the common historical connotation of elasticity. This is m a d e more
evident when a "perfectly elastic b o d y " is defined as one t h a t m a y be
deformed and t h a t resumes completely its initial shape and volume. T h e
forces necessary to deform are entirely ignored and the property of re-
sumi~tion of shape now is paramount. This definition also implies t h a t
elasticity m a y be graduated b y reference to the extent to which shape
is resumed as well as to the stress t h a t it m a y withstand before perma-
nently deforming, or the stress necessary to give a definite deformation.
I t is sometimes stated in reference books t h a t steel is more elastic t h a n
rubber because Young's modulus is greater; and sometimes because
steel resumes more completely its initial shape than does rubber. ~
Elasticity has distinct connotations in respect to ease of or resistance to
deformation; in respect to resumption of shape; and in respect to the
greatest possible magnitude of the stress and strain before p e r m a n e n t
set is noticeable. T h e first aspect has to do with Young's modulus (or
quite generally for gases, liquids, and solids, perhaps better Hooke's
constant) ; the last with a property t h a t m a y be termed extendibility. T o
bring out clearly these various aspects of elasticity, one need only consider
several classes of things such as bars of different steels where u
modulus will differentiate; steel bar and steel spring having the same
u modulus where extendibility will decide; lead and certain soft
alloys where r e s u m p t i v i t y or retentivity m a y decide, and, lastly, t h e
intermediate class of plastics, such as rubber, whose classification is tile
theme of this note, and in which all of these properties m a y v a r y in di-
verse ways. T h e use of the word elasticity to mean quantitatively only
one of its aspects has given rise to an enormous amount of fruitless argu-
mentation; and to confusion due to contradictions in textbooks and in
standard handbooks. 8
u modulus m a y be written
E = ~/Z~ -- Lo .

" R e s u m p t i v i t y " * of shape m a y be written

* R e t r a e t i v i t y seems to connote something of suddenness and forcefulness in
contrast to anything more or less passive. I t may well be used ill place of "elasticity,"
where complete and quick recovery, as measured by a high Young's modulus, is in
mind, while "resumptivity" lends itself much more clearly as a generic term.

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 296 JOURNAL OF lq.HEOLOGY APRIL, 1930

L1 -- L2
Resumptivity L2 -- L0

Recently, 9 a p r o p e r t y r e t e n t i v i t y (R) has been defined in connection with

plasticity, as the relative deformation retained of the total deformation
given or
L~ -- Lo
R
L1 -- Lo
where L0, L1, L2 are initial length, extended or compressed length, and
recovered length.
L1 -- L2
Resumptivity = 1 -- R - L l ~ 0

I t is more difficult to arrive at a q u a n t i t a t i v e definition of extendibility.

If, tentatively, it be t a k e n as the m a x i m u m possible relative extension or
compression t h a t will still allow a p p r o x i m a t e l y complete r e c o v e r y in
short time (say, to within 10% in one second), extendibility m a y be
written
L~ -- Lo
Extendibility - L0

T h e n elasticity is a function of these, or

( F L I - - L 2 L ~ - - Lo)
Elasticity = f (L1 - Lo)/Lo " L1 Lo" Lo

F o r m u l a t i o n in this m a n n e r m a y at least clear up some conflicting state-

m e n t s regarding the p r o p e r t y elasticity a n d m a y emphasize how unde-
sirable it is to use the term in a q u a n t i t a t i v e m a n n e r for merely one aspect
of it.
All of the a b o v e reflections on the various general properties of m a t t e r ,
especially as applied to sols and gels, m a y n o t in themselves be v e r y useful,
b u t to h a v e m a d e such considerations should mitigate against narrow
a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y terminology.

Summary
Plastic materials have been classified according to the means b y which
t h e y m a y be p u t into a usefully plastic state, as mechanoplastics, t h e r m o -
plastics, chemoplastics, solvoplastics, eheoplasties. Plastics m a y present
intermediate or extreme aspect of certain general properties of m a t t e r
as solidity, elasticity, plasticity, and viscosity. Some critical discussion
is m a d e of terminology.
References
1. "Clays, Occurrence, Properties, and Uses," 1914~ p. 119.
2. A. S. T. M. Proceedings, 27, 793 (1927).
3. Scott Blair and Crowther, J. Phys. Chem., 33, 321 (1929).

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 VOL. 1, NO. 3 CLASSIFICATIONOF PLASTICS 297

4. Buckingham, Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Mats., 21, 1154 (1929).

5. Bingham, J. Franklin Inst., 197, 99 (1924).
6. Maxwell, "Theory of Heat," 1886.
7. Coston, "Strength and Elasticity of Materials," 1, page 4 (1925).
8. Mark's Mechanical Engineers Handbook, 1924.
9. Ind. Eng. Chem., 21, 770 (1929); also Anal. Ed., 1, 158 (1929).
B. F. GOODRICHPHYSICAL I~]~SEARCI-ILABORATORY
DI~CEMBER 16, 1929

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