EUROCODES Eurocode 9 - Design of aluminium structures

Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 1

Strength and stability of aluminium members

according to EN 1999-1-1 – Eurocode 9

Torsten Höglund
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Design values of loads and resistances
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 2

Design values of loads are given in Eurocode 0 and 1.

Eurodode 9 gives the design values of resistance at the ultimate limit state, e.g.

M Rk Wel f o
M Rd = = (class 3 cross section)
γM γ M1
M Rd design value of bending moment resistance
M Rk characteristic value of bending moment resistance

f o = Rp0.2 characteristic value of 0,2 % proof strength

γ M1 = 1,1 partial factor for general yielding
Wel section modulus

For class 4 cross sections (slender sections, sections with large width/thickness
ratio) Wel is replaced by Weff for the effective cross section. However, if the
deflection at the serviceability limit state is decisive then a simplified method may
be used; see page 17.
EUROCODES Design values of loads and resistances
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 3

In a section with reduced strength due to welding (heat affected zone, HAZ)
Wel ρ u,haz f u
M Rd = (in a section with HAZ across the section)
γ M2
M Rd design value of bending moment resistance
fu characteristic value of ultimate strength
γ M2 = 1,25 partial factor for failure
ρ u, haz reduction factor for the ultimate strength in HAZ
EUROCODES Material properties
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 4

Part of Table 3.2 b.

EUROCODES Design of aluminium profiles
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 5

Local buckling behaviour / cross section class 4

Except for massive sections and very stocky sections local
buckling will occure in compressed parts at failure. However,
the behaviour is different depending on the slenderness β = b/t
where b is the width and t is the thickness of the cross section
part.
If β > β3 where β3 is roughly 6 for an outstand part and 22 for
an internal part, then local buckling will occure before the
compressive stress reach the 0,2 % proof stress fo. Such a m
f0,2
section part is called slender and the cross section is
referred to as Class 4 cross section.
Collapse load
tf,eff
tw,eff Buckling load
For very slender sections there is a
post-buckling strength allowed for
by using an effective cross section. (4) > 3
EUROCODES Cross section class 3, 2 and 1
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 6

m
f0,2
If β for the most slender part of the cross section
is β < β3 and β > β2 where β2 is roughly 4,5 (16),
then the cross section belong to class 3, non
slender section. Then buckling will occur for a
stress equal to or somewhat larger than fo and
some part of the cross section closer to the (3) 2 < < 3
neutral axis (webs) may be larger than
according to the theory of elasticity (linear stress
distribution).

If β for the most slender part is less than β2

then also parts of the cross section close to
the neutral axis will reach fo (class 2).

If βmax < β1 = 3 (11) then rotation capacity is

large enough for redistribution of bending
moment using plastic global analysis (class 1).
EUROCODES Local buckling - slenderness limits
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 7

The above given limits β3 , β2 and β1 are valid for material (Buckling class is
buckling class A and fo = 250 N/mm2. For buckling class defined later)
B and welded sections the limits are smaller.

Buckling Internal part Outstand part

class ε = 250/f o β1/ε β2/ε β3/ε β1/ε β2/ε β3/ε
A, without weld 11 16 22 3 4,5 6
A, with weld 9 13 18 2,5 4 5
B, without weld 13 16,5 18 3,5 4,5 5
B, with weld 10 13,5 15 3 3,5 4
For the web of a symmetric beam in bending β = 0,4bw/tw

bf
outstand
Example 1: Give cross section class
mm
bf = 70 Cross section class
Loading
internal tf = 14 1 2 3 4
bw = 90
tw tw = 4 Axial compression flange web
fo = 250 Bending web flange
EUROCODES Internal / outstand cross section part
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 8

For outstand cross section parts, b is the width of the flat part out-
side the fillet. For internal parts b is the flat part between the fillets,
except for cold-formed sections and rounded outside corners.
EUROCODES Stress gradient
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 9

For cross section parts with stress gradient (ψ = σ2/σ1) then

β = η bw/tw where
η = 0,70 + 0,30ψ if 1 > ψ > -1 1
z2
η = 0,80/(1- ψ) if ψ < -1
If the part is less highly stressed than the most severely stressed
fibres in the section, a modified expression may be used for ε
ε = (250 /f o ) ⋅ ( z1 / z 2 ) 2

bf
Example 2: Give cross section class

mm Cross section class

internal bf = 140 Loading
tf = 10 1 2 3 4

tw bw = 180 Axial compression x

tw = 6 Bending x
fo = 250
EUROCODES Axial force cross section resistance
Background and Applications 10
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 10

For axial compression the cross section resistance (no flexural

buckling) is the same for cross section class 1, 2 and 3
N Rd = Af o / γ M1 where γM1 = 1,1 = partial factor for material

For class 4 cross section the cross section resistance is

N Rd = Aeff f o / γ M1 where Aeff = area of effective cross section

This effective cross section is build up of section with effective

thickness teff for the cross section parts that belong to class 4.
C1 C2
teff = ρ c t where ρc = reduction factor for local buckling ρ c = −
(β / ε ) (β / ε ) 2

Buckling Internal part Outstand part

class C1 C2 C1 C2
A, without weld 32 220 10 24
A, with weld 29 198 9 20
B, without weld 29 198 9 20
B, with weld 25 150 8 16
EUROCODES Bending moment resistance
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 11

For bending moment the formulae for the resistance is depending on

cross section class. For class 2 cross section the resistance is given by
M Rd,2 = M pl = Wpl f o / γ M1 where Wpl = plastic section modulus Wpl = ∑ A ⋅ z

For class 1 cross section the resistance may be somewhat larger

but Mpl is a good approximation.

For class 3 cross section the resistance is somewhere between

Mpl and Mel where
M el = Wel f o / γ M1 with Wel = elastic section modulus Wel = I / e

The actual resistance if found by interpolation

β3 − β
M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl − M el )
β3 − β 2
However, in most cases Mel could be used as a conservative approximation

For class 4 cross section the resistance is

M Rd,4 = Weff f o / γ M1 where Weff = section modulus for effective cross section
EUROCODES Effective cross section
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 12

The effective cross section is different for axial force and bending moment.
No effective cross section is needed for the combined loading axial force and
bending moment. The combination is solved using interaction formulae.

bf
z
tf t e,f t e,f
te,f
tw bc te,w
bw tw
y y
t e,w tw
t e,f
tf
Effective section Effective section Effective section
for axial compression for y- axis bending for z- axis bending
EUROCODES Effective cross section for axial force
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 13

The effective cross section is based on

the effective thickness of the cross
section parts.
If the cross section is symmetric, then the
effective cross section is also symmetric.

tf,eff

tf,eff
If the cross section is asymmetric, then

hw
bw
there might be a shift in the neutral axis.
For axially compressed extruded profiles
this shift is ignored i.e. the axial force is
taken as acting in the centre of the
effective cross section. For cold-formed In principle only the flat parts
sections the shift should be allowed for by between fillets need to be reduced,
adding a bending moment ΔMEd = NEdeN however, for simplicity, the whole
where eN is the shift in neutral axis for flange or web may be reduced.
gross and effective cross section.
EUROCODES Effective cross section for bending moment
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 14

To find the effective cross section for bending moment is sometimes a tricky task
and is not presented here in detail. Just a few comments:
• Local buckling may only occur on the compression side. For a member in
bending, even if the cross section is symmetric, the effective section is
asymmetric
• The neutral axis of the effective cross section is shifted closer to the tension side
and the compressed part of the cross section is increased
• In principle an iteration procedure should be used, however, only two steps are
necessary

E.g. for an I-section the first step is

to calculate the effective thickness of
the compression flange and calculate
the neutral axis for that section. The
second step is to calculate the
effective thickness of the web based
on this neutral axis. This is then the
effective cross section.
EUROCODES Effective cross section for bending moment
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 15

bf From above we know the cross section class

mm Cross section class
bf = 70 Loading

tf
bw tf = 14 1 2 3 4
bw = 90 Axial compression flange web
tw
tw = 4 Bending web flange

C1 C2
Compression, web ρ c = − C1 = 32, C 2 = 220 β = 90 / 4 = 22,5
(β / ε ) (β / ε ) 2
ε = 1, β 3 = 22
32 220
ρc = −
2
= 0,988 ρc is very close to one.
22,5 22,5 Use gross cross section
Compression and
bending, flange β = 70 / 14 = 5 β 3 = 6, β 2 = 4,5

M Rd,2 = Wpl f o / γ M1
Which formula β3 − β
to be used? M Rd,3 = M el + ( M pl − M el )
β3 − β 2
M Rd,4 = Weff f o / γ M1
EUROCODES Summary for members in bending
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 16

Web slenderness
EUROCODES
Background and Applications
If serviceability limit state is decisive 17
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 17

The relatively low elastic modulus of aluminium (compared to steel) means

that the deflection at the serviceability limit state is often decisive. Then
conservative design at the ultimate limit state can often be accepted.

For class 1, 2 and 3 cross section the resistance according to the theory of
elasticity could be used e.g.

Wel f o
M Rd =
γ M1

corresponding to the horisontal line marked ”steel” on the previous slide.

For class 4 cross section the resistance could be given by
W f
M Rd = ρc ⋅ el o
γ M1
where ρc is the reduction factor for local buckling for the cross section part
with the largest value of β / β3. This might be rather conservative but no
effective cross section need to be determined.
EUROCODES Buckling class
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 18

• Small residual stresses in extruded profiles mean that the buckling

curves are not depending on the shape of the cross section (as for steel)

• Buckling curve depends on material and longitudinal welding

• Material buckling class A or B depends on the σ - ε –diagram for small

strains (proportional limit - 0,2-proof stress ratio, fp/fo)

• Buckling class is given in Table 3.2 a and b

EUROCODES Effective width - effective thickness
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 19

fo fo

t
b beff beff teff
EUROCODES Why effective thickness?
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 20

Simple calculations You only need to reduce the thickness, not

to define start and stop of effective widths -
especially important for aluminium profiles.
Easier to allow for
combination of local Within the HAZs the lesser of the reduction
buckling and HAZ for local buckling and HAZ softening is used.

Easy to combine with shear The effects of plate buckling on shear lag
lag where effective width may be taken into account by first reducing
the flange width to an effective width, then
is used
reducing the thickness to an effective
beff beff thickness for local buckling basing the
slenderness β on the effective width for
CL shear lag. (National choice)

3
4
b0 b0
1 2
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Heat Affected Zone, HAZ
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 21

Two reduction factors

ρo,haz for 0,2 % proof strength and
ρu,haz for ultimate strength

Example: Extruded profile, t < 5 Sheet, strip and plate, t < 5

Alloy Tem- 0,2 % p. Ultimate Alloy Tem- 0,2 % p. Ultimate

per strength strength per strength strength
ρo,haz ρu,haz ρo,haz ρu,haz

T4 0,91 0,78 H14 0,37 0,64

3005
6082 T5 0,54 0,69 H16 0,30 0,56
T6 0,50 0,64 5754 H14 0,53 0,63
7020 T6 0,71 0,80 6082 T6 0,48 0,60
EUROCODES Width of heat affected zone
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 22

bhaz mm
T1 < 60oC
40
TIG, t<6
30

20 MIG
bhaz

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t mm
When 60 oC < T1 < 120oC
multiply with

1 + (T1 - 60) / 120 6xxx alloy

1 + (T1 - 60) / 80 7xxx alloy

T1 = interpass cooling temperature when multipass

welds are laid
EUROCODES Longitudinally welded section
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 23

For a longitudinally welded section the loss of strength

in the heat affected zone HAZ should be allowed for.
The cross section classification is made as for extruded
sections, except that the limits β1, β2 and β3 are
2z + t w b
b haz
ρo,haztf
somewhat smaller.

tf
For the resistance a reduced thickness is used z teff = ρc tf

b haz
within the widths bhaz of the HAZs min(ρo,haztf; ρctf)
min(ρo,haztw; ρctw)

bc
t haz = ρ o,haz t ρc tw

where ρo,haz is the reduction factor for the 0,2 % tw

proof stress.
If the cross section belong to class 4 the effective
thickness is the lesser of ρc t and ρo,haz t within bhaz and
ρc t besides HAZ. Bending moment

Question 1: If a welded section is symmetric and Qu. yes no

belong to class 3 is then the reduced cross section 1 x
due to HAZ asymmetric?
Question 2: If a welded section is symmetric and belong
2 x
to class 4 is then the reduced cross section usually
asymmetric?
EUROCODES Member with transverse welds or welded attachments
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 24

For a member with a transverse cross weld the

tension force resistance is the lesser of
a) The strength in the sections beside the weld and
the HAZ N N
b) The strength in the HAZ
c) The strength of the weld
a) b) c)
The strength of the sections besides the welds
and the HAZs is based on the 0,2 % proof strength
fo whereas the strength in the HAZs is the ultimate
strength ρu,hazfu and in the weld fw, but with larger
partial factors γM2 = γMw = 1,25.

So ,for a member in tension the resistance is

the lesser of
a) N o,Rd = f o A / γ M1
b) N u,Rd = ρ u,haz f u A / γ M2
c) N w,Rd = f w Aw / γ Mw
EUROCODES Member with transverse welds or welded attachments
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 25

N N
Question 1: Which is the lesser of the strength in
HAZ and the weld for a tension member in EN-AW
6082-T6 with a but weld with Aw = A made of filler
metal 5356 (γM2 = γMw)
a) b) c)

Table 8.8 f w = 210 N / mm 2

Table 3.2b ρ u,haz f u = f u,haz = 185 N / mm 2

N N
Question 2: What is the difference for a member
with an attachment?

a) b)
a) N o,Rd = f o A / γ M1
b) N u,Rd = ρ u,haz f u A / γ M2
c) N w,Rd = f w Aw / γ Mw Formula c) is not applicable
EUROCODES Member with holes
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 26

For a member with (bolt) holes the resistance is the lesser of

a) The strength in the sections beside the holes
b) The strength in the section with the holes
1 2

p d Anet = min:
t (b - 2d) line 1

b1
p

b
2
t (b - 4d + 2s /(4p)) line 2
2
t (b1 + 2×0,65s1– 4d + 2s /(4p)) line 3
p

s s1
1 2

For a member in tension the resistance is the lesser of

a) N o,Rd = f o A / γ M1
b) N u,Rd = 0,9 f u Anet / γ M2 Note 0,9
The net area Anet shall be taken as the gross area less
appropriate deductions for holes, see figure.
EUROCODES Flexural, torsion-flexural and lateral-torsional buckling
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 27

N
N
(Flexural) buckling
Axial force
Torsional buckling
S
G N
Torsional-flexural buckling

Bending moment My
Lateral-torsional buckling

N
Flexural buckling
Mz
My N

Axial force and

bending N Mz
My N My
moment Lateral-torsional buckling
S
G N
My
EUROCODES Flexural buckling
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 28

2
π EI
1. Critical load according to classic theory N cr =
2
lcr
2. Yield load N y = Aeff f o
Ny
3. Slenderness parameter λ=
N cr
4. Buckling class and reduction factor χ
from formulae or diagram
5. Factor to allow for longitudinally or κ = 1 for members without welds
transverse welds
6. Resistance N b,Rd = κχN y / γ M1
1

χ 0,9
0,8 1ClassA
0,7 2
Class B
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
λ
EUROCODES Flexural buckling, members with longitudinal welds
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 29

For members with longitudinal welds

Buckling class A
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
κ = 1 − ⎜1 − A1 ⎟10 −λ − ⎜ 0,05 + 0,1 A1 ⎟ λ1,3(1− λ )
⎝ A⎠ ⎝ A⎠
where A1 = A − Ahaz (1 − ρ o,haz )
Ahaz = area of HAZ

Buckling class B

κ =1 if λ ≤ 0,2

κ = 1 + 0,04(4λ ) (0,5−λ ) − 0,22 λ1,4(1− λ ) if λ > 0,2

EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Members with transverse welds at the ends 30
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 30

For members with cross welds the κ factor is N b,Rd is the lesser of 1 and 2
depending on where the weld is placed along
(1) N b,Rd = χN y / γ M1 and
the member.
If the welds are at the ends then κ = 1 in the (2) N Rd = ωo N y / γ M1 where
formula for flexural buckling (1). However, then
a check is also needed of the section ρ u,haz f u / γ M2
ωo =
resistance at the ends where κ = ωo.(2) f o / γ M1

NEd NEd
Utilization grade oNy/ M1
Ny/ M1
EUROCODES Transverse welds at any section
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 31

If the weld is at a distance xs from one end N b,Rd is the lesser of 1 and 3
then the resistance at that section is found
(1) N b,Rd = χN y / γ M1 and
for κ = ωx (3). Furthermore the resistance for
the member without weld should also be
checked. (1) (3) N b,Rd = ω x χN y / γ M1

If the weld is at the centre of the member

ωo
then ωx = ωo. ωx =
χ + (1 − χ ) sin(πxs / lcr )

Utilization grade

Note that at the weld χhaz is based on λhaz = λ ωo (6.68a)

EUROCODES Torsional and torsional-flexural buckling
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 32

(1) For sections containing reinforced outstands such that mode 1 would
be critical in terms of local buckling, the member should be regarded as
"general" and Aeff determined allowing for either
or both local buckling and HAZ material.

2) For sections such as angles, tees and cruciforms, composed entirely

of radiating outstands, local and torsional buckling are closely related.
When determining Aeff allowance should be made, where appropriate,
for the presence of HAZ material but no reduction should be made for
local buckling i.e. ρc = 1. 1
0,9
χ 1
Formulae for critical load 0,8
0,7 2
Ncr are given in Annex I 0,6
of Eurocode 9 part 1-1. 0,5
0,4
0,3
Aeff f o 0,2
λ= 0,1
N cr 0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
λT
1 Cross section composed of radiating outstands,
2 General cross section
EUROCODES Buckling length factor k
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 33

The buckling length should be taken as lcr = kL. The figure gives guidance for k.

lcr /2
lcr /2
lcr

lcr
lcr

lcr
L

End conditions
1. Held in position and restrained in rotation at both ends
2. Held in position at both ends and restrained in rotation at one end
3. Held in position at both ends, but not restrained in rotation
4. Held in position at one end, and restrained in rotation at both ends
5. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, and partially
restrained in rotation but not held in position at the other end
6. Held in position and restrained in rotation at one end, but not held in
position or restrained at the other end
EUROCODES Lateral-torsional buckling of beams
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 34

My
Critical moment Fz

π ⎛ π 2
EK w ⎞⎟
M cr = ⎜
EI y GK v + My
L ⎜ L2 ⎟⎠
⎝
Slenderness parameter

αWel,y f o
λLT = 1
M cr χLT
0,9
1
0,8 2
0,7
Reduction factor χLT 0,6
0,5
0,4
Resistance
0,3

M b,LT = χ LTαWel,y f o / γ M 1
0,2
0,1
0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
λLT
1 Class 1 and 2 cross sections
2 Class 3 and 4 cross sections
EUROCODES Lateral-torsional buckling need not be checked
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 35

Lateral-torsional buckling need not be checked in any of the following

circumstances
a) Bending takes place about the minor principal axis (symmetric profiles)
b) Hollow sections with h/b < 2
c) Rotation is prevented
d) The compression flange is fully restrained against lateral movement
throughout its length
e) The slenderness parameter λLT between points of effective lateral
restraint is less than 0,4.

h
λLT < 0,4

h/b<2
a) b) c) d) e)
EUROCODES Bending and axial compression
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 36

1 Classification of cross-sections for members with combined bending and axial

forces is made for the loading components separately. No classification is made
for the combined state of stress.
major axis (y-axis) bending: minor axis (z-axis) bending:
ξ yc η ξ zc
⎛ ⎞ M y,Ed ⎛ ⎞ c ⎛ M z,Ed ⎞
⎜ N Ed ⎟ ≤ 1,00 ⎜ N Ed ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎜ χ ω x N Rd ⎟
+ ≤ 1,00
ω 0 M y,Rd ⎜χ ω N ⎟ ⎜ ω 0 M z,Rd ⎟
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ z x Rd ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 A cross-section can belong to different classes for axial force, major axis bending
and minor axis bending. The combined state of stress is accounted for in the
interaction expressions. These interaction expressions can be used for all classes
of cross-section. The influence of local buckling and yielding on the resistance for
combined loading is accounted for by the resistances in the denominators and the
exponents, which are functions of the slenderness of the cross-section.
3 Section check is included in the check of flexural and lateral-torsional buckling

All exponents may conservatively be given the value 0,8. Alternative expressions
depend on shape factors αy or αz and reduction factors χy or χz.
EUROCODES Comparison with Eurocode 3 for steel
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 37

1,0 1,0

λy = 0
N Ed NEd λy = 0
N Rd NRd Ec 3
Ec 3
Ec 9 Ec 9
ψy =1,0
ψy =1,0 λy = 0,62
λy = 0,62 Klass 2
0,5 Klass 3 0,5

λy = 1,23
λy = 1,23

0 0
0 0,5 M y,Ed 1,0 0 0,5 1,0
M y,Ed
M y,Rd
M y,Rd
Cross section class 3 Cross section class 2

Major axis bending, constant bending moment

EUROCODES Design section
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 38

N
emax e1 M1 N e +v e1
M1

e +v e

vmax
vmax

N.v = second order

bending moment

M2
e2
N e2 M2 N

Basic case Max(e + v) occur in the Max(e + v) occur at the

span if N is large and/or end if M1 is large and/or
M2 < M1
the slenderness of the the slenderness of the
member is large member is small
EUROCODES Different end moments or transverse loads
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 39

ξ yc
⎛ ⎞ M y,Ed
⎜ N Ed ⎟ + ≤ 1,00
⎜ χ ω x N Rd ⎟ ω 0 M y,Rd
⎝ y ⎠ M1,Ed NEd
K + B ≤1 My,Rd x NRd
ω0 = 1
1 NEd MEd
ωx = max +
πx χωxNRd My,Rd
χ + (1 − χ ) sin NEd
lcr χNRd
1
varies according to a sine curve
ω x and so also the first term K in the M2,Ed NEd
interaction formula My,Rd NRd
In principal all sections along the member
need to be checked. However B K
⎛⎛ ξ yc
⎜ N Ed ⎞ M y ,Ed ⎞⎟
max⎜ ⎜ ⎟ +
⎜ ⎜⎝ χ yω x N Rd ⎟
⎠ ω0 M y,Rd ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ xπ ⎞ ( M Ed,1 − M Ed,2 ) N Rd 1
is found for cos ⎜ ⎟= ⋅ ⋅ but x ≥ 0
⎝ lc ⎠ M Rd N Ed π(1/ χ − 1)
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Equivalent moment 40
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 40

In Eurocode 3 (steel) the method with equivalent constant bending moment is

used. Then for different bending moment distribution different coefficient are
needed. One example is given below.

N Ed M y, Ed
+ k yy ≤1
χ y N Rk / γ M1 M y,Rk / γ M1

Cmy C my
k yy = k yy =
N ⎛ ⎞
1 − χ y Ed ⎜1 − χ y N Ed ⎟ C yy
N cr, y ⎜ N cr, y ⎟⎠
⎝
Cross section class 3 and 4 Cross section class 1 and 2

N Ed
For example for M1 ψ M1 Cmy = 0, 79 + 0, 21ψ + 0, 36(ψ − 0, 33)
N cr,y

⎡⎛ ⎞⎤ Wpl, y
⎜
C yy = 1 + wy − 1 ⎢ 2 −
⎜
(
1,6 2
Cmy λ y 1 + λ y) ( )⎟⎥
⎟⎥
wy =
Wel, y
≤ 1,5
⎢⎣⎝ wy ⎠⎦
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Arbitrary moment distribution
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 41

ξ yc
⎛ ⎞ M y,Ed NEd
⎜ N Ed ⎟ + ≤ 1,00
⎜ χ ω x N Rd ⎟ ω 0 M y,Rd NRd
⎝ y ⎠
x

K + B ≤1 max
NEd
+
MEd
xNRd My,Rd
NEd
ω0 = 1
1 NRd
ωx =
πx
χ + (1 − χ ) sin NEd
lcr NRd

B K
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Member with transverse weld
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 42

For members with transverse (local) weld two checks should be made
1. As if there were no weld 2. Check in the section with the weld
Ny
λ= χ λhaz = λ ωo χ haz
N cr
ξ
⎛ N Ed ⎞ yc M y,Ed ωo
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ≤ 1,00 ω x.haz = for χ = χ haz
χ + (1 − χ ) sin(πxs / lcr )
⎝ χ ω x N Rd ⎠ ω 0 M y,Rd
ρ u,haz f u / γ M2
ω0 = 1 ωo =
f o / γ M1
1
ωx =
πx x xs
χ + (1 − χ ) sin
lcr K
NEd NEd
x Ny / M1 x,haz haz Ny/ M1

B
MEd (x) M Ed (xs)
My / M1 0 M y / M1
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Lateral-torsional buckling
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 43

Check for flexural buckling and

ηc γc ξ zc
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ M y,Ed ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ N Ed ⎟⎟ +⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ M z,Ed ⎟ ≤ 1,00
⎜ χ LTω ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ χ z ω x N Rd ⎠ ⎝ xLT M y,Rd ⎠ ⎝ ω 0 M z,Rd ⎠

As for flexural buckling all exponents may conservatively be given the value
0,8. Alternative expressions depend on shape factors αy or αz and reduction
factors χy or χz.

The shape factors are:

For class (1 and) 2 cross sections α = Wpl/Wel

For class 3 cross sections α = between Wpl/Wel and 1

For class 4 cross sections α = Weff/Wel

EUROCODES
Background and Applications Lateral-torsional buckling
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 44

N
If there are no lateral bending moment Mz,Ed = 0 then My

ηc γc
⎛ N Ed ⎞ ⎛ M y , Ed ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ≤1
⎝ χ zω x N Rd ⎠ ⎜ χ LTω x, LT M y,Rd ⎟
⎝ ⎠

η c = 0,8 or η 0 χ z where η 0 = 1 or α z2α y2 but 1 ≤ η 0 ≤ 2

γ c = γ 0 where γ 0 = 1 or α z2 but 1 ≤ γ 0 ≤ 1,56
ω x and ω x,LT are coefficients which allow for HAZ across the
member and/or of the moment distribution along the member. If My
there are no cross welds and constant moment then both ω are = 1 N

else
ωo ωo
ωx = ωx,LT =
πx πx
χ z + (1 − χ z ) sin χ LT + (1 − χ LT ) sin
lcr lcr
EUROCODES Design of frames
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 45

Three methods are possible:

L
qEd

lcr
a) “Equivalent buckling HEd MI
length method” I0
x
I = +

h
h
(a) (b) (c)

A
MII MII
b) “Equivalent sway φ
φ

L cr
= +

Lcr
imperfection method”
A A-A
(d) (e) (f)
(g)

c) ”Alternative method” N Rk
λ=
h

N cr
N Rk N Rk
EUROCODES The equivalent column method
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 46

L
qEd

lcr
HEd MI
I0
x
I = +

h
h

(a) (b) (c)

(a) System and load The second order bending moment is
(b) Equivalent column length allowed for by the critical buckling length.
(c) First order bending moment
EUROCODES The equivalent sway method
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 47

A
MII MII

φ φ

Lcr
= +

Lcr
A A-A
(d) (e) (f)
(g)

(d) System, load and initial sway imperfection

(e) Initial local bow imperfection and buckling length for flexural buckling
(f) Second order moment including moment from sway imperfection
(g) Initial local bow and buckling length for lateral-torsional buckling
EUROCODES Equivalent horizontal forces
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 48

The effect of initial sway imperfection and bow imperfection may be replaced
by systems of equivalent horizontal forces introduced for each columns.

NEd NEd NEd NEd

4NEde0d
φ NEd
L

e0,d 8NEde0d

L
L2

4NEde0d
φ NEd
L
NEd NEd NEd NEd

Initial sway imperfection Initial bow imperfection

qeqv L2 8 N Ed e0, d
= N Ed e0,d gives qeqv =
8 L2
EUROCODES Initial sway imperfection
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 49

Initial sway φ = φ0 ⋅ α h ⋅ α m

1 2 2 ⎛ 1⎞
φ0 = αh = but ≤ α h ≤ 1,0 α m = 0,5⎜1 + ⎟
200 h 3 ⎝ m⎠
h = height in m meters
m = number of column in a row including only those columns which carry a vertical
load NEd > 50 % of the average value for the columns
ΣF1
φ ΣF1
φ ΣF2
φ ΣF2
ΣF3
φ ΣF3
ΣF4
φ ΣF4
ΣF5
φ ΣF5

Equivalent horizontal forces

EUROCODES Alternative method
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 50

L
qEd
HEd
I0
I

N Rk N cr

N Rk χ
In principle λ= e0,d
N cr
EUROCODES Elastic or plastic global analysis
Background and Applications 51
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 51

Elastic global analysis may be used in all cases.

Plastic global analysis
1. Plastic global analysis may be used only where the structure has sufficient
rotation capacity at the actual location of the plastic hinge, whether this is in the
members or in the joints. Where a plastic hinge occurs in a member, the member
cross sections should be double symmetric or single symmetric with a plane of
symmetry in the same plane as the rotation of the plastic hinge and it should
satisfy the requirements for cross section class 1.
2. Where a plastic hinge occurs in a joint the joint should either have sufficient
strength to ensure the hinge remains in the member or should be able to sustain
the plastic resistance for a sufficient rotation.
3. Only certain alloys have the required ductility to allow sufficient rotation capacity.
4. Plastic global analysis should not be used for beams with transverse welds on
the tension side of the member at the plastic hinge locations.
5. For plastic global analysis of beams recommendations are given in Annex H.
6. Plastic global analysis should only be used where the stability of members can
be assured.
EUROCODES Torsion
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 52

Aluminium profiles are often asymmetric resulting in torsion. Example:

Shear centre

Fξ

The beam is twisted around 1. Divide the load in the direction of F Fz

η
the shear centre the principal axes
The deflection due to twisting 2. Calculate the deflection in those
may be larger than the directions
deflection due to bending 3. Calculate the vertical deflection vz v

The load also deflects laterally, in this case to the left because the vy v
lateral deflection due to twist is larger than due to bending.
EUROCODES How to avoid torsion?
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 53

S.C Cv
.

Cv

a. Add stiffeners
b. Change cross section so that the load Cv = torsion
acts through the shear centre stiffness (relative)

c. Use hollow sections

EUROCODES St Venants torsion resistance
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 54

For members subjected to torsion for which distortional deformations and warping
torsion may be disregarded (St Venants torsion) the design value of the torsional
moment at each cross-section shall satisfy

TEd ≤ TRd where TRd = WT,pl f o /( 3 γ M1 )

τ V
b1 t1

δ t2
D

t
h
t2
b2
τ
V
St Venants torsion Fillets increase torsion
stiffness and strength Warping torsion
considerably; see Annex J
EUROCODES Warping torsion resistance
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 55

For members subjected to torsion for which distortional deformations may be

disregarded but not warping torsion (Vlasov torsion) the total torsional moment at
any cross-section should be considered as the sum of two internal effects:

The following stresses due to torsion should be taken into account:

- the shear stresses τt,Ed due to St. Venant torsion moment Tt,Ed
- the direct stresses σw,Ed due to the bimoment BEd and shear stresses τw,Ed due
to warping torsion moment Tw,Ed.
Check the von Mises yield criterion

2 2 2
⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ τ Ed ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + 3⎜ ⎟⎟ ≤ C
⎜ f /γ ⎟ ⎜ f /γ ⎟ ⎜ f /γ ⎟⎜ f / γ ⎟ ⎜ f /γ
⎝ o M1 ⎠ ⎝ o M1 ⎠ ⎝ o M1 ⎠⎝ o M1 ⎠ ⎝ o M1 ⎠
where C = 1,2
If the resultant force is acting through the shear centre there is no torsional moment
due to that loading.
Formulae for the shear centre for some frequent cross-sections. see Annex J
EUROCODES Other structures covered in part 1-1
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 56

M
N
h0 h0 V
NEd a
x

b
L/2

a
e0 yst

b
2a
L/2

z z
Ach Ach Ach Ach
y y y y y
NEd b
z z b

c
Built-up columns with lacings and
battening [Eurocode 3] d

Un-stiffened and stiffened plates

under in-plane loadings [2]
EUROCODES Plate girders
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 57

tf
bf

tf,ef
References

bc = bw /2
tw,ef tw,ef

bc
G1
Bending BS 8118 [4]

bw
G2

hw

hf
tw tw Höglund [2, 8]
t w,ef = cw tw tf,ef = cf tf

(a) (b) (c)

a
c bf t
E H f

MSd
Ed
Shear Höglund [5]
+ h
w
tw
Vw
Vf Others [6]
K G
Vw Vf
(a) (b) (c)
Rotated stress field + additional tension field

Patch loading Lagerkvist [6j]

Tryland [6l]

2a a0 a1

tw
Höglund [5]
Corrugated web a3
a2
x Benson [6a]
Ullman [12]
EUROCODES Worked examples and TALAT lectures
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 58

About 30 worked examples based on the ENV

version of Eurocode 9 are available on the
TALAT CD-ROM, also available at:

http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/2000/2300.htm

where also TALAT Lecture

2301 Design of Members and
2302 Design of Joints can be found

About 50 examples based on EN 1999 and updated

lectures will be available on the EAA homepage.
A list of the examples are given at the end of this presentation
EUROCODES Main references
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 59

[1] Eurocode 9, EN 1999-1-1. Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures – Part

1-1: General rules. CEN (European Committee for Standardization) 2007.
[2] Höglund, T., Design of members. TALAT CD-ROM lecture 2301, (Training in
Aluminium Application Technologies), European Aluminium Association.
http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/2000/2300.htm

[3] Mazzolani (ed), Valtinat, Höglund, Soetens, Atzori, Langseth, Aluminium

Structural Design. CISM Courses and Lectures No. 443,
SpringerWienNewYork 2003
[4] BS 8118 Structural use of aluminium, Part 1. Code of practice for design
Part 2. Specification for material, workmanship and protection 1991

[5] Höglund, T., Shear Buckling resistance of Steel and Aluminium Plate Girders.
Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 29, Nos. 1-4, pp. 13-30, 1997
EUROCODES [6] References on Shear Buckling and Patch Loading
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 60

[a] Benson, P.G.(1992). Shear buckling and overall web buckling of welded aluminium girders. Royal Institute of
Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Stockholm, PhD thesis
[b] Brown, K.E.P.(1990). The post-buckling and collapse behaviour of aluminium girders. University of Wales
College of Cardiff, PhD thesis.
[c] Burt, C.A.(1987). The ultimate strength of aluminium plate girders. University of Wales College of Cardiff, PhD.
[d] Edlund, S., Jansson, R. and Höglund, T.(2001). Shear buckling of Welded Aluminium Girders. 9th Nordic Steel
Construction Conference, Helsinki.
[e] Evans, H.R. and Lee, A.Y.N.(1984). An appraisal, by comparison with experimental data, of new design
procedures for aluminium plate girders. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Structures & Buildings, Feb. 1984.
[f] Evans, H.R. and Hamoodi, M.J. (1987). The collapse of welded aluminium plate girders - an experimental study.
Thin-Walled Structures 5.
[g] Evans, H.R. and Burt, C.(1990). Ultimate load determination for welded aluminium plate girders. Aluminium
Structures: advances, design and construction. Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York.
[h] Höglund, T.(1972). Design of thin plate I girders in shear and bending with special reference to web buckling.
Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of Building Statics and Structural Engineering, Stockholm.
[i] Höglund, T.(1995). Shear buckling of Steel and Aluminium Plate Girders. Royal Inst of Technology, Dept. of
Structural Engineering, Technical Report 1995:4, Stockholm
[j] Lagerqvist, O. (1994). Patch loading. Resistance of Steel Girders Subjected to Concentrated Forces. Ph.D. thesis,
Luleå University of Technology, Division of Steel Structures, Luleå, Sweden.
[k] Rockey, K.C. and Evans, H.R.(1970). An experimental study of the ultimate load capacity of welded aluminium
plate girders loaded in shear. Research Report, University of Wales College of Cardiff.
[l] Tryland, T. (1999). Aluminium and Steel Beams under Concentrated Loading. Dr.Ing. Thesis. Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
EUROCODES References on beam columns
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 61

See first of all [2]

[7] Höglund, T., Approximativ metod för dimensionering av böjd och tryckt stång.
Royal Inst. of Technology, Division of Building Statics and Structural
Engineering, Bulletin 77, Stockholm 1968

[8] Höglund, T., Dimensionering av stålkonstruktioner. Extract from the handbook

Bygg, Chapter K18. The Swedish Institute of Steel Construction, Stockholm
1994
English Translation in: Höglund, T., Steel structures, Design according to the
Swedish Regulations for Steel Structures, BSK. Dept. of Steel Structures,
Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm 1988

[9] Edlund, S., Buckling of T-section Beam-Columns in Aluminium with or without

Transverse Welds. Royal Inst. of Technology, Department of Structural
Engineering, Stockholm 2000
EUROCODES References on local and overall buckling
Background and Applications

Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 62

[10] Langseth, M. and Hopperstad, O.S., Local buckling of square thin-walled

aluminium extrusions. Thin-walled Structures, 27, pp. 117-126, 1996
[11] Hopperstad, O.S., Langseth, M. and Tryland, T., Ultimate strength of
aluminium alloy outstands in compression: experiments and simplified
analysis. Thin-walled Structures, 34, pp. 279-294, 1999
[12] Ullman, R., Shear Buckling of Aluminium Girders with Corrugated webs.
Royal Inst. of Technology, Department of Structural Engineering, ISRN
KTH/BKN/B-67-SE, Stockholm 2002
EUROCODES
Background and Applications Eurocode 9, strength and stability 63
Brussels, 18-20 February 2008 – Dissemination of information workshop 63

Thank you for your attention !

Eurocode 9, worked examples
Torsten Höglund

1. Mathcad formulations
2. Serviceability limit state
3. Axial tension
4. Bending moment
5. Axial force
6. Shear force
7. Concentrated force
8. Torsion
9. Axial force and bending moment
10.Nonlinear stress distribution
11.Trapezoidal sheeting
12.Shells
 Mathcad formulations
The calculations in the following examples are set out in detail. In most submatrix ( a , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2) Part of matrix ( a=matrix, 0 och 1 define rows, 1 and 2
cases, the designer can make simplifications when he/she has learned by define columns)
experience which checks are not usually critical.
Normally, in a matrix, the first row is numbered 0 and the
first column is numbered 0
The examples are worked out in the mathematics program Mathcad, version 8.
Some of the operators and notations used in the examples are explained below.
Example: ⎛1 8 2⎞
g = ⎜3 4 7⎟
x := 50.6⋅ mm Definition of value ⎜ ⎟
⎝5 6 9⎠
y ≡ 2.5⋅ mm Global definition
⎛8 2⎞
x + y = 53.1mm
submatrix ( g , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2) = ⎜ ⎟
Calculation result ⎝4 7⎠
a b Boolean equality
augment ( f , g ) Augmentation of matrices
0.5 Decimal point must be used
Example:
⎛1 1 8 2⎞
augment ( c , g ) = ⎜ 3 3 4 7⎟
c := ( 1 3 2 ) Row vector T
⎯⎯ → ⎜ ⎟
( c⋅ d ) Vectorise operator, i.e. perform arithmetical operation
〈1〉 Column ⎝2 5 6 9⎠
on each element of a vector or matrix
⎯⎯ →
f ⎛8⎞
〈1〉
Example: d := ( 2 4 3 ) a := ( c⋅ d ) Example: g = ⎜4⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎛1 8 2⎞ gives a = ( 2 12 6 ) ⎝6⎠
g := ⎜ 3 4 7 ⎟ Matrix Aef Notation ( ef is not a subscript but part of variable notation)
⎜ ⎟
⎝5 6 9⎠ A Subscript i
i
T Transpose, i.e. rows and columns are interchanged
c Example: g =7
1, 2
⎛1⎞ ⎛1 3 5⎞
c = ⎜3⎟ g = ⎜8 4 6⎟
Example: T T
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 7 9⎠
 Serviceability limit state
No. Cross section etc. Description

Deflection of class 4 cross section girder

2.1 made of two extrusions and one plate.
Distributed load.

Simple method to check resistance and

2.2 deflection of class 4 cross section girder.
Distributed load.

Deflection of asymmetric extruded profile

2.3 due to bending and torsion of concentrated
load. Check of stresses included.
 Axial tension
No. Cross section etc. Description

3.1 fo, fu, fo,haz, fu,haz etc Characteristic values of material properties

a) Axial tension force resistance of a plane

3.2
plate

b) Axial tension force resistance of a plate

with MIG butt weld across the plate

c) Axial tension force resistance of a plate

with longitudinal butt weld

d) Axial tension force resistance of a plate

with welded attachment across the plate

e) Axial tension force resistance of a plate

with bolt holes
 Bending moment
No. Cross section etc. Description

Bending moment resistance of cross section

4.1 with closed cross section parts and
outstands

Bending moment resistance of extruded

4.2
hollow cross section

Bending moment resistance of welded

4.3 hollow cross section with outstands. Class 2
cross section

Bending moment resistance of welded

4.4 hollow cross section with outstands. Class 4
cross section
 Axial compression 1
No. Cross section etc. Description

Axial compression force resistance of

5.1 square hollow cross section (local and
flexural buckling)

Axial compression force resistance of

5.2 symmetric hollow extrusion (local and
flexural buckling)

Axial compression force resistance of cross

5.3 section with radiating outstands (torsional
buckling)

Axial compression force resistance of

5.4
channel cross section (distortional buckling)
 Axial compression 2
No. Cross section etc. Description

5.5 Axial force resistance of laced column

Axial force resistance of orthotropic plate

with
a)
5.6 a) open stiffeners
b) trapezoidal stiffeners
c) closed stiffeners
b) c)

Axial force resistance of orthotropic double-

skin plate
a) profiles joined with grooves and
5.7
tongues
b) truss cross section
a) b) c) c) frame cross section
 Shear force 1
No. Cross section etc. Description

Shear force resistance of a plate girder with

6.1 no intermediate stiffeners incl. contribution
from the flanges
Shear force resistance of a web with
6.2 a) flexible intermediate stiffeners
b) rigid intermediate stiffeners

Shear force resistance of a web with

6.3
transverse and longitudinal stiffeners

Shear force resistance of a plate girder with

6.4
corrugated web
 Shear force 2
No. Cross section etc. Description

Shear force resistance of orthotropic plate

with
a)
6.5 a) open stiffeners
b) trapezoidal stiffeners
c) closed stiffeners
b) c)

Shear force resistance of orthotropic

double-skin plate
a) profiles joined with grooves and
6.6
tongues
b) truss cross section
a) b) c) c) frame cross section
Concentrated force and interaction M+V
No. Cross section etc. Description

Concentrated force resistance of beam and

7.1
plate girder (patch loading).

Interaction between shear force and

7.2 bending moment for a plate girder at the
support region.

Plate girder in shear, bending from

7.3 concentrated forces. Rigid end post, no
intermediate stiffeners.
 Torsion
No. Cross section etc. Description

8.1 Cross section shape to avoid torsion

8.2 Torsion constant for a hollow cross section

8.3 Torsion constant for a deck profile

8.4 Torsion and bending of thin-walled section

 Axial force and bending moment
No. Cross section etc. Description

9.1 Tensile force and bending moment

Beam-column with rectangular hollow

9.2
section

9.3 Beam-column with eccentric load

Eccentrically loaded beam-column with

9.4
cross weld

Axial force resistance of cantilever

9.5 column fixed to ground with bolted foot
plate or fixed into a concrete block
 Nonlinear stress distribution
No. Cross section etc. Description

10.1 Transverse bending of asymmetric flanges

Warping and bending of thin-walled

member in torsion and bending.
See 8.4 and also 2.2
 Trapezoidal sheeting
No. Cross section etc. Description

11.1 Trapezoidal sheeting without stiffeners

Trapezoidal sheeting with one stiffener in

11.2
the webs

Trapezoidal sheeting with one stiffener in

11.3 the top flanges and one stiffener in the
webs

Trapezoidal sheeting with two stiffeners in

11.4
the flanges and two stiffeners in the webs
 Cylindrical shells
No. Cross section etc. Description

Cylindrical shell in
a) Meridional (axial) compression and
12.1 bending
b) Meridional (axial) compression with
coexistent internal pressure

Cylindrical shell in circumferential

12.2
compression

12.3 Cylindrical shell in shear

Cylindrical shell with stepwise wall

12.4
thickness in circumferential compression
Stiffened shells and shells with torus parts
No. Cross section etc. Description

Horizontally corrugated wall treated as an

12.5 orthotropic shell. Axial compression and
external pressure

Welded torispherical shell under external

12.6
pressure

Welded toriconical shell under external

12.7
pressure