Final Report 2019 1 PDF

Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 2015 Course
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel is an important form of renewable and alternative energy resource. It can be
used directly in CI engine without any existing modification hence which can be
replaceable to fossil diesel in the upcoming future. Biodiesel would produce from oilseed
plants such as rubber seeds, rapeseed, sunflower, canola, Jatropha, and Karanja, etc. It is
environmentally friendly and which will be the most feasible solution to diesel fuel in
heavily polluted cities. Biodiesel is a renewable and biodegradable energy source
produces 80% less carbon dioxide and 100% less sulfur dioxide emissions. It can be used
in engine directly at rated conditions and also with blending form with any ratio.
Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel derived from vegetable oils or animal fats or mono-
alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from a renewable lipid feedstock. The main
advantages of using biodiesel fuel are renewable, better quality of exhaust gas emissions,
biodegradability and, given that all the organic carbon present is photosynthetic in origin,
it does not contribute to a net rise in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere if all of
the energy inputs for the biodiesel production are non-fossil-based, and consequently to
the greenhouse effect. In the South East Asia, Malaysia is one of the countries which
actively produce oil for the commercial production and usage biodiesel as fossil fuels
replacement due to its rich palm oil resources. The current approved installed capacity for
biodiesel production is about 10.2 million tons in Malaysia. Malaysia is now looked upon
as the pioneer palm biofuel producer. Malaysia has embarked on a comprehensive palm
biofuel programmed since 1982 and has successfully established the use of palm methyl
esters and the blend of processed palm oil (5%) with petroleum diesel (95%) as a suitable
fuel for the transport and industrial sectors. Currently, the major concern for biodiesel
production is economic feasibility. Biodiesel production will not be favored without tax
exemption and subsidy from government; as the production cost is higher than fossil
derived diesel.
JSPM Narhe Technical Campus, Pune ∣ BE (Mechanical Engineering) Page 1

Country Quantity (million

tones/year)
China 4.5
European 0.7 – 1.0
United States 10.0
Japan 0.45-0.57
Malaysia 0.5
Canada 0.12
Taiwan 0.07
Table 1.1 Quality of waste cooking oil produces in selected countries.
Most biodiesel plants are using refined vegetable oils as their main feedstock. Therefore,
the cost of refined vegetable oils contributed nearly 80% of the overall biodiesel
production cost. Thus, it is undeniable that feedstock will be the most crucial variable
affecting the price of biodiesel in the global market. In order to overcome this limitation,
biodiesel manufacturer are focusing their attention on using low-cost feedstock such as
waste cooking oil in order to ensure economic viability in biodiesel production. Waste
cooking oil (WCO) is far less expensive than refined vegetable oils and therefore has
become a promising alternative feedstock to produce biodiesel. In fact, generation of
waste cooking oil in any country in the world is huge, and may result to environmental
contamination if no proper disposal method is implemented. Table 1.1 showed that, the
estimation of waste cooking oil produced in selected countries. Based on the table, waste
cooking oil generated is more than 15 million tones. However, it is estimated that the
WCO collected in Malaysia, is 0.5 million per year. This collected material is a good
commercial choice to produce biodiesel due to its low cost. It should be noted that the
actual amount of waste oil produced is much higher based on global production. 21st
century has been facing many problems like energy sustainability, environmental
problems and rising fuel prices. Conventional fuels are known for polluting air by
emissions of sulfur dioxides, carbon dioxides, particulate matter and other gases. This has
resulted to increased research in alternate fuels and renewable source of energy
.Moreover, energy consumption of the world is ever increasing, this has caused the fuel

resources dwindle. The transport sector worldwide has considerably increased the fuel
consumption reaching 61.5% of the total, especially in the last decade. Recent research
expects that the amount of petrol in the world can be used merely for next 46 years.
Hence, interest in research for an effective substitute for petroleum diesel is increasing.
Currently , India produces only 30% of the total petroleum fuels required for its
consumption and the remaining 70% is imported ,which costs about Rs. 80,0000 million
per year. It is evident that mixing of 5% of biodiesel fuel to the present diesel fuel can
save Rs.40, 000 million per year. It is a well-established fact that the world currently
needs to shift towards adopting renewable and non-polluting energy resources, in order to
reduce the harmful greenhouse gas emissions, to protect the environment and enhance
sustainable development .Several countries have already defined set targets to offset a
certain percentage of their existing energy production with renewable resources.
Biodiesel is defined as mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable
oils or animal fats. The wide spread depletion of fossil fuels in recent times and their non-
renewability, increasing cost and environmental concerns has led researchers in search of
alternative energy resources. Moreover, global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from
fossil-fuel combustion are increasing every year, intensifying air pollution and
magnifying the global warming problems caused by CO2. Significant population growth
and changes in lifestyle are resulting in ever increasing consumption of energy. Internal
combustion engines play a pivotal role in the world’s transportation, agriculture and
many other sectors right from the industrial age. Biodiesel due to its similarities with the
diesel fuel has gained lot of importance in the area of fuels. It has also gained outstanding
attention due to its renewability, biodegradability, non-toxicity, with high flash point and
good reduction in greenhouse emissions. Biodiesel produced form waste cooking oil
(WCO) has increasingly attracted the attentions as an alternative fuel due to lower
particulate emissions and other beneficial factors such as low cost. The present study
investigated the production of biodiesel (BFD) as one of the effective methods in solving
energy crises and environmental pollution. To increase the consumption of biofuels, a
high yield biodiesel (96%) was produced through trans-esterification process. The fuel is
a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled

greases. Biodiesel is produced from straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, and waste.
Biodiesel is biodegradable, nontoxic, and has significantly fewer broadcasts (emissions,
issues) diesel when burned than petroleum-based. The main commodity sources for bio-
diesel in India can be non-edible-oils obtained from plant species such as Jatropha, palm,
Curcas, Karanja, Neem, Sunflower etc. Biodiesel is has renewable source (spring) of
energy that can help reduce greenhouse gas broadcasts (emissions, issues) and minimize
the “carbon footprint “of agriculture (farming). It contributes less to global warming
because the carbon in the fuel was removed from the air by the plant feedstock. Biodiesel
is burning squeaky clean alternative fuel oil produced from domestic, renewable
resources. Biodiesel can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines in its pure form
with little yet (now) no modifications. Biodiesel is simple to use, biodegradable,
nontoxic, and essentially free of sulphur and aromatics. It is usually used have has
petroleum diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
and toxics from diesel - powered vehicles. When used as an additive, the resulting diesel
fuel may be called B5, B10 or B20, representing the percentage of the bio-diesel that is
blended with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is produced through has process in which
organically derived oils combined with alcohol are (ethanol yet (now) methanol) in the
presence of has catalyst to form ethyl yet (now) methyl ester. The biomass-derived ethyl
or methyl esters can be blended with conventional diesel fuel or used as a neat fuel
(100% biodiesel). Biodiesel can be made from any vegetable oil, animal fats, waste
vegetable oils, or microalgae oil. Dr. Rudolf actually invented diesel tea engine to run we
have myriad of fuel oils including coal dust suspended in water, heavy mineral oil and
you guessed it, vegetable oil. Dr. Diesel’s first engine experiments were catastrophic
failures. But by the time he showed his engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900,
his engine was running on 100% peanut oil. Dr. Diesel was visionary. In 1911 he stated
"diesel The engine can be fed with vegetable oils and would help considerably in the
development of agriculture(farming) of the countries which uses(wears out) it" In 1912,
said Diesel, " The uses(wears out) of vegetable oils for engine fuel oils seem insignificant
today may. Biodiesel can be blended in any proportion with mineral diesel to create a
biodiesel blend or can be used in its pure form. The use (wear out) (wears out) of

biodiesel in conventional diesel engines results in substantial reduction in the broadcast

(broadcast (emission, issue), outcome (exit)) of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and particulates. There are currently has wide number of existing biodiesel
production plants globally, and has wide number under golden construction planned to
supply tea growing global demand. In transesterification process tri esters of vegetable
oils are broken into fatty acid methyl/ethyl esters. Methanol or ethanol will react with
vegetable oil and reduces the viscosity of vegetable oil. Methanol is the most frequently
used alcohol due to virtue of its low cost and its physical and chemical advantages. The
fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel) produced by trans esterification are renewable,
biodegradable, non-toxic, sustainable, eco-friendly and free from sulfur and aromatic
content; this makes it an ideal fuel for heavily.
The present study is based on biodiesel production using transesterification process (the
most effective method to produce biodiesel from the vegetable oils or animal fat
feedstock).A variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel. Feedstock yield efficiency
per unit area affects the feasibility of ramping up production to the huge industrial levels
required to power a significant percentage of vehicles. In trans-esterification process, the
fatty acid triglycerides present in vegetable oils or animal fat are transformed to fatty acid
methyl ester (FAMEs) by the reaction with methanol or ethanol in the presence of the
catalyst. This fatty acid of methyl esters have good fuel properties and termed as
biodiesel. The catalyst such as NaOH, KOH, and NaOCH3 are dissolved in methanol or
ethanol and used for reaction. The transesterification process involves many variables
that affect the reaction. In addition, optimizing so many reaction factors requires a great
number of experiments, which are laborious, time-consuming, and not economically
viable. Accordingly, a few investigators have used response surface methodology.(RSM)
to minimize the number of experiments that are necessary to find an optimal combination
of process or input variables. Furthermore, due to the simultaneous effects of some
process variables on the system, the designed application of modeling tool, such as the
RSM response, are essential for maximizing productivity and reducing the costs of the
production process. RSM is a statistical method that is used widely to model and
optimize processes. It uses the input variables of the process and their responses or

outputs to identify the combined effect of the input variables and to obtain the best
response. RSM attempts to replace the implicit functions of the original design
optimization problem with an approximation model that is traditionally a polynomial
function (regression model) and, therefore, less expensive to evaluate. When there is
more than one output, several response surfaces should be optimized using Multi-
Response Surface Methodology (MRS). This paper used MRS with desirability functions
to find the best combination of input process variables in biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil in several optimization scenarios. The dosage of catalyst, process
temperature, mixing speed, mixing time, humidity and impurities of waste cooking oil are
the input variables that were considered in this case. The outputs studied are yield,
turbidity, density, viscosity and high heating value (HHV).
1.1 Available alternative fuels

Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and advanced fuels, are any materials
or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil
fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such
as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear
reactors.
The main purpose of fuel is to store energy, which should be in a stable form and can be
easily transported to the place of use. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels. The user
employs this fuel to generate heat or perform mechanical work, such as powering an
engine. It may also be used to generate electricity, which is then used for heating,
lighting, or other purposes.
1.1.1 Bio-fuel
Bio-fuels are also considered a renewable source. Although renewable energy is used
mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or
a percentage is used to create alternative fuels. Research is ongoing into finding more
suitable bio-fuel crops and improving the oil yields of these crops. Using the current

yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to
completely replace fossil fuel usage.
1.1.2 Biomass
Biomass in the energy production industry is living and recently dead biological
material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. It has become popular
among coal power stations, which switch from coal to biomass in order to convert to
renewable energy generation without wasting existing generating plant and infrastructure.
Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or
feed, and are specifically called nitrocellulose biomass. As an energy source, biomass can
either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to
various forms of bio-fuel.
1.1.3 Algae-based fuels
Algae-based bio-fuels have been promoted in the media as a potential panacea to crude
oil-based transportation problems. Algae could yield more than 2000 gallons of fuel per
acre per year of production.[1]Algae based fuels are being successfully tested by the U.S.
Navy Algae-based plastics show potential to reduce waste and the cost per pound of algae
plastic is expected to be cheaper than traditional plastic prices.
1.1.4 Bio-diesel
Bio-diesel is made from animal fats or vegetable oils, renewable resources that come
from plants such as atrophy, soybean, sunflowers, corn, olive, peanut, palm, coconut,
safflower, canola, sesame, cottonseed, etc. Once these fats or oils are filtered from their
hydrocarbons and then combined with alcohol like methanol, diesel is brought to life
from this chemical reaction. These raw materials can either be mixed with pure diesel to
make various proportions or used alone. Despite one’s mixture preference, bio-diesel will
release a smaller number of pollutants (carbon monoxide particulates and hydrocarbons)
than conventional diesel, because bio-diesel burns both cleanly and more efficiently.
Even with regular diesel’s reduced quantity of sulfur from the LSD (ultra-low sulfur
diesel) invention, bio-diesel exceeds those levels because it is sulfur-free.

1.1.5 Alcohol fuels
Methanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy; they are convenient fuels for
storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can be used in internal combustion
engines as alternative fuels. Butane has another advantage: it is the only alcohol-based
motor fuel that can be transported readily by existing petroleum-product pipeline
networks, instead of only by tanker trucks and railroad cars.
1.1.6 Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3) can be used as fuel. Benefits of ammonia include no need for oil, zero
emissions, low cost, and distributed production reducing transport and related pollution.
1.1.7 Carbon-neutral and negative fuels
Carbon neutral fuel is fuel such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel

to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from flue exhaust or derived from carbolic
acid in seawater. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a
net increase in atmospheric gases. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil
fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbolic acid, and their
combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative
carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus
constitute a form of remediation. Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced
by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabbatical reaction to produce
methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural
gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes
such as the Fischer–Troopship process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.
1.1.8 Compressed natural gas fuel

Compressed natural gas (COG) vehicles can use both renewable COG and non-renewable
COG. Conventional COG is produced from the many underground natural gas reserves
are in widespread production worldwide today. New technologies such as horizontal
drilling and hydraulic fracturing to economically access unconventional gas resources
appear to have increased the supply of natural gas in a fundamental way. Renewable

natural gas or bio-gas is a methane‐based gas with similar properties to natural gas that
can be used as transportation fuel. Present sources of biogas are mainly landfills, sewage,
and animal/agro‐waste. Based on the process type, biogas can be divided into the
following: biogas produced by anaerobic digestion, landfill gas collected from landfills,
treated to remove trace contaminants, and synthetic natural gas.
1.2 Energy Scarcity
Oil has the highest energy leverage of any resource; it now delivers about 75 times the
energy needed to extract it. Most of the technology and products developed and produced
in the 20th century were either powered or manufactured with oil. However, many
leading oil geologists now argue that the world is quickly reaching the point where world
consumption of oil total will soon outstrip the production rate of oil world-wide.
Today, no one seriously disputes that the production of accessible petroleum reserves will
max out sometime between now and the year 2020. The world will then face energy
descent an increasingly widening gap between oil production and demand and energy
transition the emergence of potentially new forms of energy to replace or substitute for
oil, such as shale gas and synthetic oil.
The size and growth of the energy gap will be exaggerated by continuing urban and
industrial development in China and India. As low cost manufacturers with a combined
population of 2.5 billion including many middle class aspirants China and India will
compete fiercely with traditional petroleum consumers in Europe and North America.
There is still significant debate as to the economic impacts of Energy Scarcity. Critics of
Peak Oil such as Vaclav Smile assert that even as oil production capacity decreases, other
types of fuel will be available take oil's place. For example, even though oil is now the
primary fuel for transportation, as oil prices rise as international oil supplies peak,
transportation will simply begin to transition to electric power sources supplied through
the burning of coal or natural gas. However, irrespective of the availability of substitute
fuels, Peak Oil proponents such as Richard Hein berg argue that the increasing cost of oil
will necessarily induce price pressures on both transportation and food production, which

will in turn produce economic and social stresses on cities. The question is therefore not
whether there will be future stress, but rather, at what level, and how quickly will the
price pressures occur.
1.3 Environmental Issues

Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical
environment. Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment on
individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment
and humans. Environmentalism, a social and environmental movement, addresses
environmental issues through advocacy, education and activism.
The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has already
exceeded over 9000 parts per million (NOAA) (with total "long-term" GHG exceeding
455 parts per million) (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report). This level is
considered a tipping point. "The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already
above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change. We are already
at risk of many areas of pollution...It's not next year or next decade, it's now." The UN
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) has stated "Climate change
is not just a distant future threat. It is the main driver behind rising humanitarian needs
and we are seeing its impact. The number of people affected and the damages inflicted by
extreme weather has been unprecedented. Environment destruction caused by humans is
a global problem, and this is a problem that is ongoing every day. By year 2050, the
global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people, thereby reaching a level
of 9.6 billion people (Living Blue Planet 24). The human effects on Earth can be seen in
many different ways. A main one is the temperature rise, and according to the report
”Our Changing Climate”, the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years
is primarily due to human activities (Walsh, et al. 20). Since 1895, the U.S. average
temperature has increased from 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F, with most of the increase taken place
since around year 1970.
Air pollutants are substances that adversely affect the environment by interfering with
climate, the physiology of plants, animal species, entire ecosystems, as well as with

human property in the form of agricultural crops or man-made structures. We

list climate at the top of the list to reflect the fact that global climate change has been
recognized as one of the most important environmental challenges to be faced by
humanity in the 21st century. In this context certain climate forcing agents the most
important one being carbon dioxide which otherwise cause no harm to living organisms,
should be added to the list of “classic” pollutants, along with such compounds as oxides
of nitrogen or sulfur. On the other hand, climate research has linked certain compounds
long recognized as air pollutants (for instance black carbon) to the warming of climate,
thus providing one more reason for their control. Air pollutants can originate from natural
or anthropogenic (man-made) sources, or both. Examples of natural sources of pollution
include volcanic eruptions or wind erosion. Emissions from internal combustion engines
are an exemplary source of anthropogenic pollution. Some sources of pollution, such as
forest fires, can be related to both natural phenomena and human activities. Atmospheric
reactions can transform primary pollutants into different chemical species. These
reactions can produce both harmless compounds and secondary air pollutants that may be
more harmful than their precursors.
Pollutant Natural Source Anthropogenic Source Environmental

Effect
Nitrogen oxides Lightning’s, High temperature fuel Primary pollutants

(NO + NO2) soil bacteria combustion—motor that produce
vehicles, industrial, and photochemical
utility smog, acid rain, and
nitrate particulates.
Destruction of
stratospheric

Particulates Forest fires, Combustion of biofuels Reduced

wind erosion, such as wood, and fossil atmospheric
volcanic fuels such as coal or diesel visibility. Human
eruption health impact. Black
carbon particulates
contribute to global
warming.
Sulfur dioxide Volcanic Coal combustion, ore Acid rain. Human

eruptions and smelters, petroleum health impact.
decay refineries, diesel engines
burning high-sulfur fuels
Ozone Lightning, Secondary pollutant Damage to plants,

photochemical produced in photochemical crops, and man-
reactions in the smog made products.
troposphere Human health
impact.
Carbon monoxide Unnoticeable Rich & stoichiometric Human health

combustion, mainly from impact
motor vehicles
Carbon dioxide Animal Fossil fuel and wood Most common

respiration, combustion greenhouse gas
decay, release
from oceans

Non-methane Biological Incomplete combustion, Primary pollutants

hydrocarbons processes solvent utilization that produce
(VOC) photochemical smog
Methane Anaerobic Natural gas leak and Greenhouse gas

decay, cud- combustion
chewing
animals, oil
wells
Chlorofluorocarb None Solvents, aerosol Destruction of

on (CFC) propellants, refrigerants stratospheric ozone
Table 1.2 Air Pollutants, Their Sources, and Effects
Governments and international organizations have been taking actions to protect the
quality of air, as well as in more recent years to control emissions of climate forcing
agents. Ambient air quality standards and guidelines, issued by environmental protection
authorities, are instrumental in achieving the air quality objective. An example of such
legislation is set by the US National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) adopted
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The NAAQS apply to both human
health (primary standard) and public welfare (secondary standard). Primary standards
protect sensitive members of the human population from adverse health effects of criteria
air pollutants. Secondary standards protect the public welfare from any known or
anticipated adverse effects associated with the presence of a pollutant in the ambient air.
Welfare effects include effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation, manmade materials,
animals, wildlife, weather, visibility, climate, damage to and deterioration of property,
hazards to transportation, as well as effects on economic values and personal comfort and
well-being.

1.4 Supply Chain
1.4.1 Ethanol Production and Distribution
Fig. 1.1 Ethanol productions and distribution
Ethanol is a domestically produced alternative fuel most commonly made from corn. It is
also made from cellulosic feedstock, such as crop residues and wood though this is not as
common. U.S. ethanol plants are concentrated in the Midwest because of the proximity to
corn production. Plants outside the Midwest typically receive corn by rail and are located
near large population centers. The production method of ethanol depends on the type of
feedstock used. The process is shorter for starch or sugar-based feedstock than with
cellulosic feedstock.
Most ethanol in the United States is produced from starch-based crops by dry or wet mill
processing. Nearly 90% of ethanol plants are dry mills due to lower capital costs. Dry-
milling is a process that grinds corn into flour and ferments it into ethanol with co-
products of distiller’s grains and carbon dioxide. Wet-mill plants primarily produce corn
sweeteners, along with ethanol and several other co-products (such as corn oil and
starch). Wet mills separate starch, protein, and fiber in corn prior to processing these
components into products, such as ethanol.

Making ethanol from cellulosic feedstock such as grass, wood, and crop residues is a
more involved process than using starch-based crops. There are two primary pathways to
produce cellulosic ethanol: biochemical and thermo chemical. The biochemical process
involves a pretreatment to release hemicelluloses sugars followed by hydrolysis to break
cellulose into sugars. Sugars are fermented into ethanol and lignin is recovered and used
to produce energy to power the process. The thermo chemical conversion process
involves adding heat and chemicals to a biomass feedstock to produce singes, which is a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Singes is mixed with a catalyst and reformed
into ethanol and other liquid co-products.
Delivering ethanol by pipeline is the most desirable option, but ethanol's affinity for
water and solvent properties require the use of a dedicated pipeline or significant cleanup
of existing pipelines to convert them into dedicated pipelines. Kinder Morgan ships
batches of ethanol through its Central Florida Pipeline
1.4.2 Biofuel supply chain
Fig. 1.2 biofuel supply chain
The biofuel supply chain involves producing biomass feedstock harvesting, collecting,
storing, and transporting the feedstock to the bio refinery converting the biomass to fuel

at the bio refinery distributing biofuels to end users and finally using the fuel. Biomass is
procured from diverse environments, each associated with different economic costs for
production and collection. These differing conditions contribute to a range of economic
costs for feedstock and environmental effects. Each subsequent stage of biofuel
production and use could incur positive or negative effects on the economics of
producing biofuels, the economic effects on other sectors, and the environment. This
chapter examines the supply chains of food-based biofuels that are produced and
nonfood-based biofuels that are likely to be produced in the United States within the 2022
timeline as established by the Renewable Fuel Standard amended by the Energy
Independence and Security Act of 2007 (RFS2). Other feedstock and conversion
technologies that are not likely to be deployed by 2022 also are discussed.
1.5 Market Rates

By 2022, the Government of India (GOI) proposes to reduce its dependence on crude oil
imports by ten percentage points in several ways: increasing domestic output; promoting
energy efficiency and conservation; and encouraging greater use of alternative fuels.
Growth in the biofuel market will partly reduce import dependence on crude oils and
encourage optimal use of other renewable energy resources, particularly when strong
economic growth prospects drive higher demand for gasoline and petroleum products.
India in 2016 achieved its highest ever ethanol market penetration, a gasoline blend rate
of 3.3 percent on average across the country. Nevertheless, tight ethanol supplies through
2018 will limit further gains or even shrink that percentage of penetration. As a result, the
ethanol blending program (EBP) is likely to expand but at a slower pace as demand from
industry is partly met by imports. The small trade deficit that emerged in 2015 is
expected to grow rapidly through 2018. Assuming normal market conditions, ethanol
imports will rise from 400 million liters in 2016 to 600 million liters through 2018.
Almost 80 percent of imported ethanol (worth $173 million) in 2016 was sourced from
the United States and was mostly classified as Indentured, Fuel Use (at port of origin).
Incidentally, 2016 import volume was the largest since 2009 (278 million liters) and
almost double the import volume of 2015. Through September 2016, strong retail gas
prices, fixed prices for fuel ethanol, excise duty exemptions, and surplus ethanol

availability, all pushed higher market penetration for ethanol. By some estimates, this
higher penetration saved upwards of $350 million in foreign exchange. However, soft
current retail gasoline prices have pushed ethanol prices down to INR 39 per liter (Prices
are ex-factory and are valid from Dec 1, 2016 to Nov 30, 2017). Any additional charges
in form of Value Added Tax (VAT)/Goods and Service Tax (GST) and transportation
will be paid to the ethanol suppliers and administered ethanol price will be subject to
revision per prevailing economic conditions. Meanwhile, the National Biodiesel Mission
(NBM) identified jatropha (jatropha curcas) as the most suitable inedible oilseed for
biodiesel production to help achieve a proposed biodiesel blend of 20 percent with
conventional diesel by 2017. That target was unmet due to a host of agronomical and
economic constraints. To help fill the gap, several existing biodiesel units shifted
operations to adopt multiple feedstock technology, which utilizes ‘used cooking oils’
(UCO), other unusable oil fractions, animal fats, and inedible oils; this achieved a
minimal (0.001) blend rate. The market for biodiesel (B100) is nascent and will continue
to grow if there is a strong commercially viable strategy for building a sustainable
biodiesel industry. That growth is encouraged by deregulated diesel prices, bulk sale of
biodiesel (B100) by authorized dealers, and authorization of joint ventures of parastatal
oil marketing companies (OMCs) and private manufacturers to supply to bulk consumers
only. At this point, however, advanced biofuel development remains at the experimental
stage with no viable plans for scaling it up. Notably, both the private and public sectors
claim to be successful in developing New Delhi and customizing technology for
converting lingo-cellulosic materials into advanced biofuels. Also, trials are still
underway to process municipal solid waste, micro-algae and photosynthetic organisms
into advanced biofuels. The suitability of these second-generation biofuels for respective
needs has to be evaluated against a country’s other bio-energy options to achieve the best
possible social, environmental and economic benefits.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Hariram Venkatesan et. al. [1] studied that Biodiesel is one of the promising substitute
source of energy fuel in the transportation sector due to rapid depletion of petroleum
reserves on one side and increased energy demand as well as environmental pollution
hazards on the other side. A comprehensive review is conducted highlighting the various
available edible as well as non-edible vegetable feed stocks for biodiesel production,
metal based additives along with the variations in physio-chemical properties, and its
effect on performance and emission aspects. The influence of nano-metallic additives like
Al2O3, CNT, CeO3, ZnO2, TiO2, CoO2, CuO, FeO2, and others with respect to
properties, performance and emission were analyzed in detail. Selective and critically
archived articles are considered for this review. Based on this review, it is very clear that
non-edible oil based biodiesel are one of the best source of energy. The addition of nano-
metallic additives to the biodiesel through various forms significantly improves the
properties and it contributes to enhanced performance with reduced emissions.
Ang F. Chen et. al. [2] concludes that the effect of Nanoparticles-diesel fuel blends on
combustion characteristics, performances and exhaust emissions of a four-stroke single-
cylinder diesel engine. Three types of Nanoparticles employed in this experiment were
aluminum oxide, carbon nanotubes and silicon oxide. The Nanoparticles were dispersed
in a dosage of 25ppm, 50ppm and 100ppm with pure diesel and were labeled as DA25,
DA50, DA100 (aluminum oxide blends), DC25, DC50, DC100 (carbon nanotubes
blends) and DS25, DS50, DS100 (silicon oxide blends). The ultraviolet-visible
spectrophotometer analysis was done for 200 h to quantify the stability of the
Nanoparticles-diesel fuel blends. The blended fuels were experimentally tested with
YANMAR TF120M diesel engine at engine loads of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% at a
constant 1800 rpm engine speed. The results revealed that the brake specific fuel
consumption reduced by up to 19.8% and brake thermal efficiency enhanced by 18.8%.
Silicon oxide blends show better results than aluminum oxide blends in many aspects,

such as higher combustion pressure, lower brake specific fuel consumption and lower
carbon monoxide emissions. Aluminium oxide and silicon oxide show stable blend
conditions with 28.1% and 22.0% absorption ratio at 200 h sedimentation time, while
carbon nanotube blends were least stable with absorption ratio reducing to less than 30%
after 10 h. Combustion analysis of carbon nanotube blends with diesel show that carbon
nanotubes have the potential to be further researched as an additive for diesel fuel due to
significant combustion improvement in NOx emissions. However, the issue on the
stability of carbon nanotube blends must be resolved before its potential can be fully
utilized.
J. Sadhik Basha, R. B. Anand [3] The present study reports the results of Alumina and
CNT (carbon nanotube) Nanoparticles blended biodiesel fuel on the performance,
emission, and combustion characteristics of a diesel engine. The biodiesel is produced
from the raw jatropha oil by standard transesterification process, and subsequently, the
Nanoparticles such as Alumina, CNT, and Alumina–CNT are blended with the biodiesel
fuel in the mass fractions of 25 and 50ppm with the aid of an ultrasonicator. The
characterization studies of the Nanoparticles such as TEM and XRD are carried out to
analyze their morphology. The whole investigation is carried out in a constant speed
diesel engine in four phases using neat biodiesel fuel, Alumina blended biodiesel, CNT
blended biodiesel, and Alumina–CNT blended biodiesel fuels. The results revealed a
considerable enhancement in the brake thermal efficiency and marginal reduction in the
harmful emissions for the Nanoparticles blended biodiesel fuels compared to those of
neat biodiesel fuel. Furthermore, the hot-plate evaporation test confirmed a shorten
ignition delay effect, and improved heat transfer rate associated with the Nanoparticles
blended biodiesel fuels, owing to their enhanced surface area/volume ratio, and heat
conduction properties.
A. Prabu [4] the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of Nanoparticles

dispersed test fuels are investigated in a single cylinder constant speed DI diesel engine
and the conclusions drawn are summarized as follows:

1. Significant improvement in brake thermal efficiency is observed for Nanoparticles

dispersed test fuels compared to those of B100. At the maximum of 12% improvement in
BTE is observed for B20A30C30 test fuels, followed by 9% improvement in BTE for
B100A30C30test fuel, compared with B100.
2. The addition of Nanoparticles in biodiesel decreases the ignition delay and accelerates
earlier initiation of combustion which results in the lower heat release rate and cylinder
pressure at the full load condition.
3. The NO emission drastically reduced for the B20A30C30 test fuel with percentage
reduction of 30%, when compared with B100 due to the combined effect of Alumina and
Cerium oxide Nanoparticles.
4. At the maximum of 60% reduction of CO, 44% reduction of UBHC and 38%
reduction of smoke opacity are observed for B20A30C30 test fuel due to the improved
Oxidation–Reduction process by addition of Nanoparticles.
5. Among the Nanoparticles dispersed test fuels B20A30C30 shows significant improved
of performance and emission characteristics of the engine. Altogether, the performance,
combustion and emission characteristics of a DI diesel engine are improved by
incorporation of alumina and cerium oxide Nanoparticles as additive in biodiesel diesel
blend without any engine modification.
Amit R Patil et. al. [5] observed increasing the fuel density increased the BSFC at all the
load conditions. This can be due to the fuel meter delivering fuel on a volumetric basis
and the density being higher for biodiesel than for diesel resulting in fuel injection pump
discharging more biodiesel mass as compared to that of diesel mass. This causes higher
fuel consumption for almost the same power output. Regarding the adiabatic flame
temperature, some authors state that it is slightly higher for biodiesel because of its
oxygenated nature which help for more complete combustion and so higher temperature
and NOx emission. At higher speeds the exhaust temperature of all blends decrease than
diesel fuel. The advanced injection and combustion when using biodiesel may also justify
the CO reduction with this fuel. The HC emission is lower at part load, but tends to

increase at higher loads for all the fuels investigated in this study with an increase in the
brake power, the air fuel ratio decreases as the fuel injected increases, and hence results
in higher smoke. The main objectives of this study are to determine the important physio-
chemical properties of Jatropha oil, emission characteristics of preheated Jatropha oil and
compare them with diesel oil. It showed increases in brake thermal efficiency, brake
power and reduction of specific fuel consumption for Jatropha oil and its blends with
diesel generally, but the most significant conclusion from the study is that the 97.4%
diesel/2.6. The obtained data was analyzed for various parameters such as thermal
efficiency, BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption), smoke opacity, and CO2, CO and
HC emissions. This is due to the fact that preheated Jatropha oil has lower viscosity
which results in increase of brake thermal efficiency was higher than unheated Jatropha
oil. NOx emissions increased with the increasing engine load due to a higher combustion
temperature. CO emission of unheated Jatropha oil is higher than diesel fuel and
preheated Jatropha oil. This is possible because of high viscosity of vegetable oil. In the
range of whole engine load, CO2 emission of diesel fuel is lower than other fuels. HC
emissions of all the fuels are lower at partial engine load, but increased at higher engine
load. This is due to relatively less oxygen available for reaction when more fuel is
injected into the engine cylinder at higher engine load. Due to the fact that higher load,
higher fuel inlet temperature, oxygen content of Jatropha oil may be responsible for better
combustion and resulting into lower smoke opacity. The decrease in BSFC can be
attributed to the more efficient utilization of the fuel at higher injection pressures because
of better atomization associated with slight delay in admission due to high needle lift
pressure with same period and hence lesser fuel going into the cylinder. The reduction in
HC and Smoke emission is mainly due to the fact that bio-diesel has about 10–11%
oxygen contents which help in better combustion of the fuel inside the cylinder. The
higher injection pressure helps in keeping the emissions of HC For all combinations of
compression ratio and injection pressure, the emissions of HC, NOx, smoke opacity and
exhaust temperature are lower with pure bio-diesel against that of diesel fuel.
V. Nadana Kumar et. al. [6] an experimental investigation is carried out to establish the
performance and emission characteristics using Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) as nano

additive in WCO blended with various proportions of nano additives 25ppm, 50ppm and
75ppm respectively. The biodiesel is produced from the WCO by standard
transesterification process and subsequently, the nano particles are blended by means of
an ultrasonicator to achieve stable suspension. It is observed that the blends are stable
which are suitable for the performance test on the compression ignition engine. The
characterization study of the nano particles such as SEM is carried out to analyze their
morphology. The whole investigation is carried out in a single cylinder DI diesel engine
using different proportions of nano additive blended biodiesel. The result shows a
considerable enhancement in brake thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption due
to the influence of aluminium oxide Nanoparticles addition in biodiesel blend
Vinoothan Kaliveer et. al. [7] investigate the engine performance and emission of diesel
engine operating on ethanol biodiesel-diesel blends and compare these results with those
operating on neat diesel oil and B20. BTE increases with the increase in engine load, it is
also observed that BTE for B20 with E10 blend is higher compared to that of diesel oil
and other blends. BTE is increased marginally for B20 with E10 when compared with
diesel oil at full load. BSFC decreases with the increase in engine load. BSFC increased
for ethanol blends at higher loads. NOx increases with increase in engine load, at higher
loads the NOx emissions for ethanol blends is lower compared to that of diesel oil. CO
emissions decreases with increase in engine load, at higher loads the CO emissions for
ethanol blends are lower compared to that of diesel oil. Emission of HC is higher
compared to that of diesel oil. Better results are obtained for B20 with E10 blend
compared to all other blends and diesel oil.
Sunil kumar et. al. [8] Experimental investigations were carried out to determine
performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine using graphene nanoparticles
blended biodiesel fuels. The fuel combinations used for the study were neat diesel and
graphene nanoparticle blended biodiesel. The biodiesel was prepared from Waste
Cooking Oil Methyl Ester (WCOME). The graphene nanoparticles were blended with the
biodiesel fuel in the mass fractions of 20ppm, 40ppm and 60ppm with the aid of an
ultrasonicator. Subsequently, the stability characteristics of graphene blended biodiesel

fuels were analyzed under static conditions. The investigation were carried out using an
experimental setup consisting of a single-cylinder four stroke diesel engine coupled with
an eddy current dynamometer loading device and the results shown that improvement in
the calorific value, reduction in flash point , higher enhancement in the brake thermal
efficiency and reduction in the harmful pollutants for the blend of graphene nanoparticle
due to the incorporation of graphene nanoparticle gives more surface area for reactivity
and having higher thermal conductivity were observed.
Sahar et. al. [9] Biodiesel production from waste oils is an attractive option to produce
biodiesel economically, but high free fatty acids (FFA) in waste oils are a serious
bottleneck for the process of transesterification. Present investigation deals with the
utilization of waste cooking oil (WCO) for the production of biodiesel. The acid value of
WCO was 5.5 mg KOH/g which indicated high FFA content. The WCO was subjected to
esterification using different acid catalysts (HCl, H2SO4 and H3PO4) and H2SO4
catalyzed reaction was found to be the most efficient since the FFA reduced up to 88.8%
at 60 °C with 1:2.5 methanol to oil molar ratio. Transesterification was done in the
presence of alkali catalyst (KOH) and Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield was 94% in
the presence of 1% catalyst at 50 °C. The biodiesel was characterized based on acid
value, saponification value, iodine value, cetane number, specific gravity, viscosity, cloud
point, pour point and calorific value. The Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis of
synthesized biodiesel was also performed. Base on ASTM standards, alkali catalyzed
transesterification was an efficient method to produce biodiesel form WCO. Results
revealed that the waste cooking oils can be converted into biodiesel as an energy source
along with environmental pollution reduction.
K. A. Abed et. al. [10] studied that the ever increase in global energy demand,
consumption of depletable fossil fuels, exhaust emissions and global warming, all these
led to search about alternative fuels. Biodiesel was produced from waste cooking-oil by
transesterification process. Blends of waste cooking-oil biodiesel and diesel oil were
prepared in volume percentages of 10, 20 and 30% as B10, B20 and B30. Biodiesel
blends have ASTM standards of physical and chemical characterization near to diesel

fuel. Diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions were studied experimentally for
burning waste cooking-oil blend with diesel fuel. This experimental was applied on a
diesel engine at different engine loads from zero to full load. Thermal efficiencies for
waste cooking-oil biodiesel blends were lower than diesel oil. Specific fuel consumptions
of biodiesel blends were higher than diesel fuel. Higher exhaust gas temperatures were
recorded for biodiesel blends compared to diesel oil. CO2 emissions for waste cooking-
oil biodiesel blends were higher than diesel oil. CO, smoke opacity and HC emissions for
biodiesel blends were lower than diesel fuel. NOx emissions for biodiesel blends were
higher than diesel fuel.
Ajin C. Sajeevan and V. Sajith [11] work aims at the synthesis of the cerium oxide
Nanoparticles and investigation on the effect of Nanoparticles on various
physicochemical properties of diesel and engine performance and emissions.
Characterization techniques such as EDS, XRD, and TEM have been used for studying
the properties of the cerium oxide Nanoparticles prepared by the precipitation method.
Surfactant has been added to the diesel for improving the stability of the nanofluid, used
for the experimentation. Load test has been done in the diesel engine to investigate the
effect of catalytic Nanoparticles on the efficiency and the emissions from the engine.
Based on the experiments the following conclusions were drawn.
(1) The flash point and fire point increase with the dosing level of cerium
oxide Nanoparticles in diesel;
(2) even though kinematic viscosity increases with the catalytic
Nanoparticles addition in fuel, it was found to be decreasing with the
addition of surfactant DDSA;
(3) the results of the load test on the diesel show that the efficiency is
increased up to 5% and a reduction of HC and NO emissions by 45% and 30%,
respectively, especially at higher load;
(4) The reduction in the emissions is proportional to the dosing level of
Nanoparticles in the diesel and optimum dosing level of 35ppm of
catalytic Nanoparticles was observed.

Peng Fu et. al. [12] the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of diesel
engine fuelled with corn stalk pyrolysis bio oil/diesel emulsions (CBDEs) with
Ce0.7Zr0.3O2 nanoadditives was studied. Meanwhile, the calorific value was
correspondingly reduced by 18.5%. Compared to diesel, lower specific fuel consumption
was achieved with the CBDE fuels at medium and high powers. This was attributed to
micro-explosion, which resulted in more thorough splitting of fuel droplets caused by the
instantaneous and intense vaporization of water, thereby significantly improving fuel
vaporization and combustion process. In addition, the addition of Ce0.7Zr0.3O2
Nanoparticles led to reduced ignition delay and rapid oxidation, thus resulting in more
complete combustion. The specific fuel consumption of CBDEs first decreased and then
increased in correlation to the increased bio-oil content, in which CBDEs with bio-oil
proportion of 20% showed the lowest and had the highest fuel saving rate close to 8.4%.
By comparison of diesel, the CBDEs with lower bio-oil proportion than 20% reduced
CO, HC and smoke emission, which were decreased by reducing bio-oil content.
Increasing bio-oil proportion led to the effective reduction of NOx emission.
Saba Jamil et. al. [13] Polyhedron cobalt oxide (Co3O4) is successfully synthesized by
microwave assisted method. Sharp peaks in XRD pattern shows that synthesized product
is highly crystalline. It is observed that cobalt ions are octahedral as well as tetrahedral
coordinated with oxygen atoms. This indicates that Co3O4 product possess spinal
structure in cubic unit cell. The bond lengths and bond angles are calculated. The
calculated values of structural parameters lie very near to that of standard values. This
shows that the polyhedrons are successfully synthesized. Synthesized polyhedrons
possess eight faces and six corners. These polyhedrons appear to be hollow from inside
due to entrapment of carbon dioxide gas. Cubic unit cells have started to arrange at
periphery of polyhedron and entrapped the gas. These polyhedrons have high potential
for catalytic applications. Only 1 wt % of catalyst has decreased the thermal
decomposition temperature of ammonium per chlorate by 100 °C. Moreover only 0.001
mg of catalyst has ability to reduce the 4-nitrophenol with apparent rate constant 0.319
min−1 . The calorific value of fuel is largely increased with addition of Nanoparticles due
to the remarkable surface properties of synthesized polyhedrons.

R. Sabarish et. al. [14] Major research is focused on fuel consumption and emission
reduction in the past few years. There is growing interest on alternative fuels due to
volatile fossil fuel price and depletion. Utilization of transition metal additive in
nanocrystalline form helps the combustion in molecular level and also reduces emissions
and fuel consumption values. To form a stable nano fluid metal oxide, additive is added
to biodiesel and ultrasonicated. The single cylinder, air cooled, and constant speed
Kirloskar engine is chosen for experimental study. The performance studies indicated the
increase in thermal efficiency of 1% and the emission reduction of oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), smoke and hydrocarbon (HC) are found lower for biodiesel. Almost 60%
reduction was observed in the emission characteristics, because the better mixing
resulting secondary atomization and the disruption of primary droplet containing additive
and burns completely. The nanocrystalline cobalt oxide is added as an additive to the
Jatropha biodiesel. The emission and performance characteristics were studied. Brake
specific energy consumption was reduced by the additive addition. Average reductions in
BSEC were 7.95% and 2.10% respectively, for B20-Co3O4 and B100-Co3O4 in the full
load condition. The results showed that at 75% load condition, B10 shows 1%
improvement in thermal efficiency compared to diesel and this is due to oxygen content
possessed by the biodiesel, which improves the combustion. The emission of NOx was
found higher for diesel compared to biodiesel. Nearly 60% emission reduction was
observed for 100% biodiesel at full load, because resulting of secondary atomization and
the complete mixing.
Ali Gharib et. al. [15] describes an efficient method for oxidation of alcohols to related
aldehydes and ketones by hydrogen peroxide as oxidizing agent, under reflux conditions.
Nano-graphene oxide (NGO) as a heterogeneous catalyst was used and had their activity
compared with other various catalysts. This catalyst was found to be an excellent catalyst
for oxidation of alcohols. The effects of various parameters, including catalyst type,
nature of the substituent in the alcohols and temperature, on the yield of the carboxylic
acids were studied. Nano-graphene oxide was synthesized by the oxidation of graphite
powders. The structural nature of the Nano-graphene oxide was characterized by a
variety of techniques including XRD, TEM, FT-IR and UV/Vis. The functional groups

on its basal planes and edges of Nano-graphene oxide play important role in catalytic
activity. This nanocatalyst was found to be highly efficient in this reaction and products
were obtained in good to excellent yields. The recovered nano-catalyst was successfully
reused for several runs without significant loss in its catalytic activity. The structure,
morphology and properties were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM).
Praveen et. al. [16] The performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a
single cylinder diesel engine by using Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel blend with
TiO2 nano particles and EGR were investigated. The following conclusions were
obtained from the experimental investigation. It is concluded that characterization of
TiO2 nano particles such as XRD, SEM and EDX analysis confirms the TiO2 nano
particles were in the anatine phase and average size in the range of 30– 40 nm. The brake
thermal efficiency of B2040TiO2, B2040TiO2 + 20% EGR fuels were increased by
3.1%, 2.5%, respectively, and decreased by 1.8% for B20 + 20%EGR fuel compared to
the B20 fuel sample at full load condition. The peak cylinder pressure was occurred for
the B2040TiO2 fuel compared to the other fuels at full load condition. The heat release
rate was higher for B2040TiO2 fuel compared to the other fuel samples at full load
condition. The CO emissions was reduces by 23% for B2040TiO2 fuel and increased by
14.7, 18.7% for B20 + 20%EGR, B2040TiO2 + 20% EGR fuels respectively compared to
the B20 fuel sample. The HC emissions were decreases by 12% for the B2040TiO2 fuel
sample and increases by 13% and 7% for the B20 + 20%EGR and B2040TiO2 +
20%EGR fuels than the B20 fuel sample. The NOx emissions were higher by 63ppm for
B2040TiO2 fuel and lower by 124, 22ppm for the B20 + 20%EGR, B2040TiO2 +
20%EGR fuel sample compared to the B20 fuel at full load condition. The smoke
emissions were decreases with the addition of TiO2 nano particles into the B20 fuel
sample and increases for the B20 + 20%EGR, B2040TiO2 + 20% EGR fuels compared to
the B20 fuel.
V. Dhana Rajua et. al. [17] the present experimental research work is focused on
enhancing the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a novel tamarind

seed methyl ester using Nanoparticles. Initially, the tamarind seed methyl ester is blended
with diesel at 10%, 20% and 30% concentrations by volume and all the fuel samples have
been tested in diesel engine for the selection of an optimum blend for Nanoparticles
addition. Then two nano additives namely alumina oxide and multi-walled carbon nano
tubes are doped with an optimum tamarind seed methyl ester blend at concentrations of
30 ppm and 60 ppm for a comparative analysis. The study revealed that the addition of 60
ppm of alumina oxide with tamarind seed methyl ester blend has shown 1.6% higher
brake thermal efficiency than that of tamarind seed methyl ester blend. The reformulation
of tamarind seed methyl ester blend by Nanoparticles addition has shown 15–51% and
24–68% reduction in carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon emissions
respectively. Further, oxides of nitrogen emission are reduced by 7–9% during
Nanoparticles addition with tamarind seed methyl ester blend. On the other hand, the
Nanoparticles addition with tamarind seed methyl ester blend is produced better
combustion characteristics compared to tamarind seed methyl ester-diesel blend.
Therefore, the present study showed that the diesel engine characteristics for tamarind
seed methyl ester blend operation could be improved with dispersion of Nanoparticles.
M. Ghanbari et. al. [18] the performance and the exhaust emissions of a diesel engine
operating on nano-diesel-biodiesel blended fuels has been investigated. Multi wall carbon
nano tubes (CNT) (40, 80 and 120ppm) and nano silver particles (40, 80 and 120ppm)
were produced and added as additive to the biodiesel-diesel blended fuel. Six cylinders,
four-stroke diesel engine was fuelled with these new blended fuels and operated at
different engine speeds. Experimental test results indicated the fact that adding nano
particles to diesel and biodiesel fuels, increased diesel engine performance variables
including engine power and torque output up to 2% and brake specific fuel consumption
(bsfc) was decreased 7.08% compared to the net diesel fuel. CO2 emission increased
maximum 17.03% and CO emission in a biodiesel-diesel fuel with nano-particles was
lower significantly (25.17%) compared to pure diesel fuel. UHC emission with silver
nano-diesel-biodiesel blended fuel decreased (28.56%) while with fuels that contains
CNT nano particles increased maximum 14.21%. With adding nano particles to the
blended fuels, NOx increased 25.32% compared to the net diesel fuel. This study also

presents genetic programming (GP) based model to predict the performance and emission
parameters of a CI engine in terms of nano-fuels and engine speed. Experimental studies
were completed to obtain training and testing data. The optimum models were selected
according to statistical criteria of root mean square error (RMSE) and coefficient of
determination (R2 ). It was observed that the GP model can predict engine performance
and emission parameters with correlation coefficient (R2) in the range of 0.93–1 and
RMSE was found to be near zero. The simulation results demonstrated that GP model is a
good tool to predict the CI engine performance and emission parameter.
Junjun Ma et. al. [19] an experimental study of port injected n-heptanes homogeneous
charge compression ignition (HCCI) in combination with in-cylinder diesel fuel direct
injection (DI) was conducted on a single cylinder diesel engine. By adjusting the
quantities of premixed n-heptanes as well as the direct injected diesel fuel, different
premixed ratios were obtained over a wide range of load conditions while the test engine
was kept at a constant speed. The effects of premixed ratio and direct injection timing on
HCCI-DI combustion characteristics and emissions were investigated. In order to
evaluate the traits of HCCI-DI combustion, the conventional diesel and HCCI engine
performances were presented to be compared with their results. Furthermore, special
emphasis was put on the combined combustion process analysis. It can be found that the
NOx emissions decreased dramatically with partial premixing and it exhibited a
descending trend as a function of rp increase when the rp was lower than 0.3, but it
showed a great tendency to increase when the premixed ratio was higher. The inherent
trade-off of NOx and soot was not obvious since the soot emissions remained at the same
level of the prototype diesel engine under the condition of lower rp. Moreover, the
influence of rp on the CO and UHC emissions was assessed. The results also revealed
that the HCCI-DI combustion could effectively improve the indicated thermal efficiency
of diesel engine at low to medium loads.
Chavan S. B. et. al. [20] in 2013, found that the Calophyllum oil exhibited good physio
chemical properties and could be used as a biodiesel feedstock and as an industrial
application. The way of reducing the biodiesel production costs is to use less expensive

feedstock containing free fatty acids, such as non edible oils. With no competing food
uses, this characteristic turns attention to calophyllum inophyllum linn which grows in
coastal area of in our country. The production of biodiesel from this oil may provide a
valuable local, regional and national benefit. Calophyllum tree can be planted as an
ornamental tree like Pongamia pinnata in the gardens, on road sides, railway track. IBDC,
Baramati is working for plantation of these non-edible oil trees (diesel trees) through
NGO. To develop biodiesel into an economically important option in India, it is required
to work on biological innovations to increase the yield & minimize the gestation period
of Calophyllum inophyllum linn tree.
L. Jeryraj kumar et. al. [21] in 2016, found that the Callophyllum inophyllum biodiesel
(B100) having nearer Kinematic viscosity and Calorific value of the diesel values.
Callophyllum inophyllum biodiesel (B100) having lesser thermal efficiency as compared
with diesel. The Nano additives blended biodiesel shows that increase in thermal
efficiency slightly. The specific fuel consumption is decreases in the Nano additives
blended biodiesel. Titanium dioxide resulted that 70% reduction in 75% load. In Nox
emission Cobalt oxide and titanium dioxide shows that increase gradually at all loads as
compared with pure biodiesel. In CO emission the cobalt oxide blended biodiesel shows
30% reduction in CO emission at full load. Titanium dioxide blended biodiesel shows 25
% increase in CO emission at the full load condition. According to these Performance
and emission analysis, the brake thermal efficiency was increased with Nano additives. A
problem was found that high NOx emission. It was found the mixing of Nanoparticles
with biodiesel to be advanced and it has a lot of promise for the future. We can also try
different additives in calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel with different blends of diesel.
Prof. C. Srinidhi et. al. [22] in 2018, invested With Biodiesel and conventional diesel
blended base fuel, advancement of fuel injection timing increases the combustion time
and thereby high heat release rates are found for which the brake thermal efficiency
trends to increases. But with addition of Ni–O particles to NBE25 base fuel, brake
thermal efficiency found to increase further by 6.3%. This shows the presence of catalytic

activity by the Nanoparticles which act as source of secondary atomization. Also the
average reduction in BSFC for injection timing of 27°bTDC in comparison to 23°bTDC
for dosing levels of 25ppm, 50ppm, 75ppm and 100ppm were 5.29%, 6.91%, 7.13% and
7.86% for NBE-Nano fuels respectively. NBE25 containing Ni–O particles when used
with advanced fuel injection timing of 27°bTDC proved to be a suitable for higher
thermal NOx. Another advantage is of significant reduction in emissions of HC and CO
by the usage of NiO particles in the base fuel. Even it was found that CO2 emission
improved drastically. Thus advancement of fuel injection timing and with presence of
Nanoparticles improves the performance and reduces harmful emissions of the engine.
B. Ashok et. al. [23] in 2018, investigated the effects of Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl
ester/n-octanol blends on the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a
single-cylinder, DI diesel engine. Five different fuel blends of CIME/n-octanol have been
studied at various engine loads and the following conclusions are made. The blending of
n-octanol with CIME leads to a better combustion and performance output due to the
presence of higher oxygen content in the n-octanol. The BTE has improved with the
increase of n-octanol fraction up to 30% and then slightly decreased with further increase
of n-octanol fraction. The fuel blends exhibit longer ignition delay when compared to
CIME because of the presence of n-octanol in the blend having a lower cetane number.
This effect has enhanced the premixed mode of combustion, which results in the increase
of peak in-cylinder pressure with the increase of n-octanol in blends. The increase of the
fraction of n-octanol in the fuel blend increases the CO emission and the results are
reversed in HC emission. The addition of n-octanol in low percentages with CIME
reduces the NOx emission and increases during higher fractions of alcohol addition.
P. Jayanthi et. al. [24] in 2016 concluded that B20 is having lower efficiency and higher
energy consumption due to these results in lower heat value. The addition of Nano fuel
additives there is a significant increase in thermal efficiency compare to biodiesel without
additives. The reduction in CO emission by using B20+80ppm has observed when
compare with diesel. The HC emissions are obtained minimum for B20+80ppm when

compared with diesel and other biodiesel Nano-fuel additives. NOx emissions are
decreased for all biodiesel Nano fuel additives when compare to biodiesel without
additives.
C. Srinidhi et. al. [25] in 2017, observed the brake thermal efficiency was seen highest
for B20 with NiO 40ppm dosing level. Also Brake thermal efficiency increased with
usage of Nanoparticles at they provided an energy promoter for secondary atomization
and improved the quality of burning. It is observed that the rise in brake thermal
efficiency due to Nano particles was on average of 6.2% with respect to original base
blends (i.e. B10, B20 and B30). The rate of specific fuel consumption was lowest for B20
blend of Diesel-palm oil methyl ester and NiO Nanoparticles dosing level of 40ppm. The
usage of Nanoparticles produced an average reduction of brake specific fuel consumption
of 5.6% with respect to their base blends. The addition of Nanoparticles decremented the
BSEC values and for B20 blend with 40ppm dosing level of NiO Nanoparticles was
found to be low. Similarly the usage of Nanoparticles depreciated the brake specific
energy consumption by 5.119% with respect to their base blends. From these above
observations B20 blend with Nickel Oxide Nano fuels with dosing level of 40ppm proved
a better alternative to conventional fuel for diesel engine.
Hariram Venkatesan et. al. [26] in 2017, Based on the review, it is understood that the
addition of Nanoparticles plays a major role in improving the fuel properties and
enhancing the performance of CI engine as well as reducing the exhaust emissions.
Addition of Nanoparticles increases BTE which depends upon the base fuel used, amount
of Nanoparticles added, how well they are mixed with the base fuel, and operating
condition of the CI engine. Nanoparticles like Al2O3, Al, CNT and CeO2 shows good
results as additives with diesel and biodiesel blends in all aspects. ZnO also gives better
results but, more amount of ZnO should be added than other Nanoparticles to get an
equivalent performance and the use of ZnO as fuel additive increases the cost of fuel. The
performance enhancement cannot be achieved with every amount of Nanoparticles
addition. Therefore, selecting optimal range of Nanoparticles addition is a key to get
good results on enhanced performance and reduced emission in a CI engine. Some

Nanoparticles gives good results with every base fuel with which it is added, but in some
cases it fails to improve neither performance nor emissions.
P. Jaya Prakash et. al. [27] in 2016, concluded that the Brake thermal efficiency of the
Diesel engine was increased significantly by adding Nano additives with the biodiesel
compare with only biodiesel, and also the Brake specific energy consumption is
decreased by adding Nano additives with the biodiesel compare with only biodiesel. The
exhaust emissions like HC, CO, NOx and Smoke level so of the Diesel engine was
majorly reduced by adding Nano additives with the biodiesel compare with only biodiesel
M. Pranoba karthikeyan et. al. [28] in 2015, this report deals with biodiesel obtained
from neem oil which are mono alkyl esters produced by using ‘Two step
transesterification’ process. The major advantage of the neem oil is improved lubricity,
high cetane number and cleaner emissions, highly available, but also within the
limitations. However, this oil alone will not solve the dependence on foreign oil, because
of its high viscosity, high density, high flash point and low calorific value, high sulphur
content. The properties of the neem biodiesel can be improved by the addition of neem
biodiesel with suitable Nano additives there by to overcome the drawbacks found in the
neem oil as an alternate fuel when compared to ordinary diesel fuels. Using neem
biodiesel leads to low environmental impact, ease of handling, and possibility of use
without need for major adjustment of existing engines.
Jaswinder Singh et. Al. [29] this reviews and discusses the waste type pyrolysis process
and the applications of the derived products. The study reports the characteristics of used
type materials and methods of recycling, types and principles of pyrolysis, the pyrolysis
products and their composition. Pyrolysis is considered as a useful technique for
recycling of scrap tyres by using which liquid, gases, carbon black and steel wires are
obtained. This technology could not only reasonably and effectively dispose waste tyre
and tube without pollution, but also is effective in producing fuel that can reduce energy
crisis. The primary and secondary applications of oil, char, gas and steel wires are
discussed.

R. Prakash, R. K. Singh, S. Murugan [30] Bio oil from pyrolysis is considered as an

alternate fuel for diesel engine. The exhaust gas temperatures of different WPO diesel
emulsions are higher than diesel fuel operation. This is due to more oxygen availability in
the pyrolysis oil and increased combustion duration. The NO emissions are lower for
WPO diesel blend due to more water content in the wood pyrolysis oil which reduces the
combustion temperature and with DEE addition operation due to improved combustion
rate the NO emissions are high. The CO emissions of WPO-diesel emulsions are slightly
higher than diesel fuel due to poor atomization of the emulsion. The unburnt hydrocarbon
emissions are more in the case of WPO diesel emulsions due to more water content and
incomplete combustion.
Kanika Mathur, et. Al. [31] there has been an ever increasing global demand for energy
in recent years. The demand especially from liquid fuels is very high and the limited
resources of fuel production has created bottleneck leading to an energy crisis. Being a
non-degradable source, plastics disposed off in the open environment as wastes pose a
threat to the environment. Most of the waste plastics end up as landfills. It can instead be
used as a source for making fuel. The work describes an attempt to use the waste plastic
to synthesize potential fuel called ‘Pyrolysis Oil’ since the process used in order to obtain
the oil is Pyrolysis. The Pyrolysis process was carried out Grade 5 type of plastic
materials. 1.65lt. of oil is obtained by using 1.5 Kg of plastic. Quantity and quality of oil
can be varied by using different quantity of plastics of various grades.
B.L. Maharana, Dr. H. Chnadra [32] this study shows that the performance of diesel
engine was satisfactory with the use of biodiesel in contrast to pure diesel. Continuously
growing industrialization, motorization and civilization of the world has led to a sudden
increase in the demand of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels resources are continuously depleting
and these fixed reserves are very much concentrated in definite regions of the world.
From the results obtained, it is understood that the thermal efficiency is slightly less with
biodiesel when compared with pure Diesel. This is due to addition of oxygen atoms with
increase in value of blending. And specific fuel consumption is slightly higher with bio-
diesel when compared with pure diesel due to the lower calorific value of the biodiesel. It

is concluded that the biodiesel can be used as alternative fuel in the Diesel engine without
any engine modifications.
Bhagwat Prasad Dwivedi, et. Al. [33] the aim of the present paper is to do a
comprehensive review of engine performance and emissions using biodiesel from
different feedstock and to compare that with the diesel. From the review it is found that
the use of biodiesel leads to the substantial reduction in PM, HC and CO emissions
accompanying with the imperceptible power loss, the increase in fuel consumption and
the increase in NOx emission on conventional diesel engine with no or fewer
modification. However, many further researches about modification on engine, low
temperature performance of engine, new instrumentation and methodology for
measurements, etc., are recommended while using biodiesel as a substitute of diesel.
After reviewed this research we can say that the Jatropha oil is economical and efficient
for the diesel engine, it has low carbon emission comparison than pure diesel used in CI
engine.
Jayashri N Nair, et. Al. [34] Biodiesel is a renewable diesel replacement fuel that is
manufactured from domestically produced oils such as soybean oil, recycled cooking
oils, or animal fats. Biodiesel mixing with diesel improves most of the fuel properties and
can be used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. They have lower emissions and high
flash point (usually >300F), hence they are safer. It is also biodegradable and free from
sulphur and aromatics, making it safer to handle and transport. Biodiesel runs in any
conventional, unmodified diesel engine. Addition of even 2% biodiesel helps in
significant improvement of lubricity of diesel.
S. Kiran Kumar [35] studied the experimental investigation of Isobutanol as an additive

to the diesel - biodiesel blends. Experiments were done on a 4-Stroke single cylinder
diesel engine by varying percentage by volume of Isobutanol in diesel-biodiesel blends.
The effect of Isobutanol on brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption,
cylinder pressure, heat release and exhaust emissions were studied. It was found that

brake thermal efficiency is increased with increase in blend percentage both with 5% and
10% Isobutanol. Addition of Isobutanol shows negative impact on Brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) which decreased with blend percentage while it increases with
Isobutanol percentage.CO emissions and smoke capacity decreased significantly while
NOx emissions decreased marginally with the increase in Isobutanol percentage.
Mr. Sudhir et. Al. [36] the aim of this research was to study the pyrolysis oil production
from municipal plastic waste of Kolhapur city. A pyrolysis experiment is done on the
municipal LDPE plastic waste of 150 grams. A series of tests were carried out at a
temperature range of 300- 350 0C with all other parameters being same. Under pyrolysis
conditions plastic waste was decomposed into three types: producer gas, oil and solid
residue. The obtained result shows that the properties of the pyrolysis oil are closely
similar to that of diesel. Hence it can be used as alternative fuel for compression ignition
engines. The total amount of plastic waste collected from Kolhapur city is 18 Tones/day.
This can be converted into 12000 liters of pyrolysis oil per day. The running cost of
pyrolysis plant ranges from Rs. 14 to Rs. 18 per liter while the market price of oil is Rs.
40 per liter.
Lei Zhonga (2018) [37] concluded that In the FCC upgrading process of bio-oil, catalyst
is easy to deactivate due to the deposition of carbonaceous materials. This paper proposes
a novel method to co-upgrading with kitchen waste oil by improving olefins and
aromatics contents and the H/C off ratio of products. It obviously increases the upgrading
bio-oil yield and decreases the coke and gas yield. The kitchen waste oil mixed in raw
bio-oil significantly reduce the oxygen content and increase the olefins and aromatics
hydro carbons yield in upgrading bio-oil. The reaction pathway of co-upgrading is
proposed, and the deactivation catalysts are analyzed by TGFTIR and SEM. Added the
kitchen waste oil with high H/C into raw bio-oil via co-catalytic cracking process can
effectively improve the olefins and aromatics contents in bio-oil. In addition, this process
can also be used for kitchen waste oil recycling. This study would provide encouraged
further research for optimizing the upgrading process and targeted product yield.

Arvind Kumar Madheshiya [38] in 2018 Conclude that it was also found that the
tested biodiesels offer competitive energetic performance as diesel fuel. The increment in
heat loss due to cooling water was highest (5.5%) for WCO30 at full load and 2000 RPM
whereas for M30 the highest losses in cooling water were 5.2%. The losses in exhausted
were also the maximum for WCO 30 and M 30. The statistical analysis revealed that B.P.
is influenced most by the load, followed by the type of oil and speed has the least effect.
Biodiesel is the best alternative in terms of renewable resources and minimizes the
exhaust. Hence, biodiesel may be considered as a future fuel and will be popular when
petroleum will overexploit to null. The study of energy analysis of biodiesel fuelled
engine can be verified by neural networks. This will help in finding out the correlation
between actual performances of the diesel engine over the theoretical performance.
G. Abdulkareem Alsultan [39] in 2018 found that, waste cooking oil could be a viable
and sustainable feedstock for FAME production due to its low cost. Nevertheless, the
category of this feedstock is considered as low grade oils due to the presence of
impurities such as moisture and high FFA content (> 1%). Conventional catalytic system
(homogeneous catalyst) is another problem facing the commercialization of biodiesel
production due to its separation and other environmental related problems after the
reaction. The homogeneous catalyst system forms soap on high FFA feedstock and
therefore reduces the biodiesel yield at the end of the reaction.
Heterogeneous solid base catalysts are only suitable for low grade feedstock containing <
3% FFA, otherwise, multiple steps transesterification reaction process is necessary. Solid
acid catalyst is also far from perfection as it can only convert triglycerides to biodiesel
under severe reaction conditions (high temperature and long reaction time).

CHAPER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Biodiesel Production
WASTE COOKING OIL
FILTERATION
SETTLING
DEMOISTURISATION
ESTERIFICATION
TRANS-ESTERIFICATION
SETTLING
SEPARATION
GLYCERINE IMPURE BIODIESEL
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS HOT WATER WASHING
DEMOISTURISATION
PURE BIODIESEL

3.1.1 Identification of feedstock

Huge quantities of waste cooking oils and animal fats are available throughout the world,
especially in the developed countries. Management of such oils and fats pose a significant
challenge because of their disposal problems and possible contamination of the water and
land resources. Even though some of this waste cooking oil is used for soap production, a
major part of it is discharged into the environment. The Energy Information
Administration in the United States estimated that some 100 million gallons of waste
cooking oil is produced per day in USA, where the average per capita waste cooking oil
was reported to be 9 pounds. The per capita waste cooking oil production in Canada may
be somewhat similar to that of the United States, hence for this study, it is assumed that
the per capita waste cooking oil production to be 9 pounds per year. Statistics Canada
estimated the total population of Canada to be 33 million. Hence, the total waste cooking
oil produced in Canada could be approximately 135,000 tons/year. In the EU countries,
the total waste cooking oil production was approximately 700,000-1,000,000 tons/yrs.
The UK produces over 200,000 tons of waste cooking oil per year. As large amounts of
waste cooking oils are illegally dumped into rivers and landfills, Energies 2008, 1 5
causing environmental pollution, the use of waste cooking oil to produce biodiesel as
petro diesel substitute offers significant advantages because of the reduction in
environmental pollution. Diesel fuel consumption significantly contributes to the
formation of greenhouse gases (GHG) and other global pollutant emissions. Klaus
pointed out that petroleum diesel is also the major source for the emission of NOx, SOx,
CO, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Emission of such
pollutants not only has negative impacts to the global environment but also severe
impacts in human health due to their persistence in the environment. It is reported that
Canada alone utilizes approximately 23 million tons of diesel annually and 46% of this is
utilized in the transportation sector. The global consumption of diesel fuel per year is
approximately 934 million tons per year and the United States alone consumes 178
million tons of diesel fuel annually. If Canada plans a 5% mix in the total diesel
consumption as a renewable portfolio standard (RPS) requirement, which is,

approximately 1.15 million tons per year, a substantial portion of this requirement can be
replaced by using biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil. The use of waste cooking
oil as a biodiesel source has a potential to reduce CO2, particulate matter and other
greenhouse gases as the carbon contained in biomass-derived fuel is largely biogenic and
renewable. Waste cooking oil, which is otherwise wasted, is one of the most economical
choices to produce biodiesel. Since one of the major concerns on biodiesel production is
the price of feedstock, utilization of waste cooking oil significantly enhances the
economic viability of biodiesel production.
3.1.2 Selected Specifications of WCO
The methods used for biodiesel production from used cooking oil are similar to that of
conventional transesterification processes. Selection of a particular process depends on
the amount of free fatty acid and water content of the used cooking oil. It is reported that
the feedstock such as refined vegetable oil, crude vegetable oil , used cooking oil ,animal
oil and trap greases generally contain 0.05%, 0.3%– 0.7%, 5%–30% and 40%–100% of
free fatty acid respectively .
Fig. 3.1 Sources of main liquid biofuels for automobiles

Most biodiesel production processes can tolerate up to 1% water in the feedstock, even
this small quantity of water will increase soap formation and measurably affect the
transesterification process. At present, production of vegetable oil and animal fat
worldwide is not sufficient to replace liquid fossil fuel use. There are a few
environmental groups who protest the increased amount of farming and the subsequent
over-fertilization, increased pesticide use, and land use conversion necessary to produce

the additional vegetable oil. Waste vegetable oil has been proposed by many as the best
source of oil to produce biodiesel. Here too, the available supply is far less than the
quantity needed to replace the amount of petroleum-based fuel that is burned for
transportation and home heating in the world. According to the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), restaurants in the US produce about 300
million US gallons (1,000,000 m³) of waste cooking oil annually. For a genuinely
renewable energy source, plants would have to be considered. Plants convert solar energy
into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Biodiesel ultimately stores this chemical
energy and releases it on combustion. The carbon dioxide and water produced can
participate in the photosynthetic cycle, so that plants can offer a sustainable oil source for
biodiesel production. The rate of oil production is different for each plant. As a biofuel,
plant oils will always be preferable to animal fats.
Fuel property Waste vegetable oil Biodiesel from Commercial diesel

waste vegetable oil fuel
Kinematic viscosity 36.4 5.3 1.9–4.1
(mm2/s, at 313 K)
Density (kg/L, at 0.924 0.897 0.075–0.840
288 K)
Flash point (K) 485 469 340–358
Pour point (K) 284 262 254–260
Cetane number 49 54 40–46
Ash content (%) 0.006 0.004 0.008–0.010
Sulfur content (%) 0.09 0.06 0.35–0.55
Carbon residue (%) 0.46 0.33 0.35–0.40
Water content (%) 0.42 0.04 0.02–0.05
Higher heating 41.40 42.65 45.62–46.48
value (MJ/kg)
Free fatty acid (mg 1.32 0.10 -
KOH/g oil)
Iodine value 141.5 - -
Table 3.1 Comparison of properties of waste cooking oil, biodiesel from waste
cooking oil and commercial diesel fuel.

3.2 Production process

3.2.1 Esterification and transesterification Process
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is produced by chemically reacting
a vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol. The reaction requires a
catalyst, usually a strong base, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide, and produces new
chemical compounds called methyl esters. It is these esters that have come to be known
as biodiesel. Transesterification is otherwise known as alcoholics. It is the reaction of oil
with an alcohol to form esters and glycerin. A catalyst is used to improve the reaction rate
and yield. Transesterification is the process wherein using an alcohol (e.g. methanol,
ethanol or butanol), in the presence of a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide, to break the molecule of the raw renewable oil chemically into methyl or ethyl
esters of the renewable oil, with glycerol as a byproduct. Biodiesel, defined as the mono-
alkyl esters of fatty acids derived from vegetable oil or animal fat, in application as an
extender for combustion in diesel engines, has demonstrated a number of promising
characteristics, including reduction of exhaust emissions. Transesterify, renewable oils
have proven to be a viable alternative Diesel engine fuel with characteristics similar to
those of Diesel fuel.
Fig. 3.2 Transesterification Setup

3.3 Transesterification reaction

The major components of vegetable oils and animal fats are Triglycerides. To obtain
biodiesel, the vegetable oil or animal fat is subjected to a chemical reaction termed
transesterification.
Oil or Fat Alcohol Glycerin Biodiesel

3.3.1 Filtering
Filter the vegetable oil to remove solid particles from it. You may have to warm it up a
bit first to get it to run freely; 35°C should be enough. A Cartridge filter is used for the
same.
3.3.2 Removing the Water
Heat the oil first to remove the water content. Vegetable oil will probably contain water,
which can slow down the reaction and causes saponification (soap formation). Raise the
temperature to 100°C, hold it there and allow water contents to boil off. Run the agitator
to avoid steam pockets forming below the oil and exploding, splashing hot oil. Or drain
water puddles out from the bottom as they form, you can save oil that comes out with the
water later. When boiling slows, raise the temperature to 130°C for 10 minutes and allow
cool to it.
3.4 Acid Catalyst Reaction
Oil feedstock containing more than 4 % Free Fatty Acids go through an acid
Esterification process to increase the yield of biodiesel. This feedstock’s are filtered and
preprocessed to remove water and contaminants, and then fed to the acid Esterification
process. The catalyst, sulfuric acid, is dissolved in methanol and then mixed with the
pretreated oil. The mixture is heated and stirred, and the Free Fatty Acids are converted
to biodiesel. Once the reaction is complete, it is dewatered and then fed to the
transesterification process.

Some feedstock must be pretreated before they can go through the transesterification
process. Feedstock with less than 5 % Free Fatty Acid, do not require pretreatment. When
an alkali catalyst is added to the feedstock’s (With FFA > 5 %), the Free Fatty Acid react
with the catalyst to form soap and water as shown in the reaction below:
Fatty Acid Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Soap Water
Up to about 5% FFAs, the reaction can still be catalyzed with an alkali catalyst but
additional catalyst must be added to compensate for that lost to soap. The soap created
during the reaction is either removed with the glycerol or is washed out during the water
wash. When FFA level is above 5 %, the soap inhibits separation of the glycerol from the
methyl esters and contributes to emulsion formation during the water wash. For these
cases, an acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid can be used to esterify the FFAs to methyl
esters as shown in the following reaction.
O O
+ H2O
Fatty Acid Methanol Methyl Ester Water

In this process, the feedstock is reacted with an alcohol (like methanol) in the presence of
a strong acid catalyst (Sulfuric Acid), converting the Free Fatty Acids into biodiesel. The
remaining triglycerides are converted to biodiesel in the transesterification reaction.
3.5 Base catalyzed reaction
Oil feedstock’s containing less than 4 % Free Fatty Acids are filtered and preprocessed to
remove water and contaminants and then fed directly to the transesterification process
along with any products of the acid Esterification process. The catalyst, potassium
hydroxide, is dissolved in methanol and then mixed with and the pretreated oil. If an acid
Esterification process is used, then extra base catalyst must be added to neutralize the

acid added in that step. Once the reaction is complete, the major co-products, biodiesel
and glycerin, are separated into two layers.
The base catalyzed production of biodiesel generally occurs using the following steps:
3.5.1 Mixing of alcohol and catalyst
The catalyst is typically sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide
(potash). It is dissolved in the alcohol using a standard agitator or mixer.
The alcohol/catalyst mix is then charged into a closed reaction vessel and the oil or fat is
added. The system from here on is totally closed to the atmosphere to prevent the loss of
alcohol. The reaction mix is kept just above the boiling point of the alcohol (around 160
°F) to speed up the reaction and the reaction takes place. Recommended reaction time
varies from 1 to 8 hours, and some systems recommend the reaction take place at room
temperature. Excess alcohol is normally used to ensure total conversion of the fat or oil to
its esters. Care must be taken to monitor the amount of water and free fatty acids in the
incoming oil or fat. If the free fatty acid level or water level is too high it may cause
problems with soap formation and the separation of the glycerin by-product downstream.
3.5.2 Separation
Once the reaction is complete, two major products exist: glycerin and biodiesel. Each has a
substantial amount of the excess methanol that was used in the reaction. The reacted mixture
is sometimes neutralized at this step if needed. The glycerin phase is much denser than
biodiesel phase and the two can be gravity separated with glycerin simply drawn off the
bottom of the settling vessel. In some cases, a centrifuge is used to separate the two materials
faster.
3.5.3 Alcohol Removal
Once the glycerin and biodiesel phases have been separated, the excess alcohol in each
phase is removed with a flash evaporation process or by distillation. In others systems,
the alcohol is removed and the mixture neutralized before the glycerin and esters have
been separated. In either case, the alcohol is recovered using distillation equipment and is
Reused. Care must be taken to ensure no water accumulates in the recovered alcohol
stream.
3.5.4 Glycerin Neutralization

The glycerin by-product contains unused catalyst and soaps that are neutralized with an
acid and sent to storage as crude glycerin. In some cases the salt formed during this phase
is recovered for use as fertilizer.
In most cases the salt is left in the glycerin. Water and alcohol are removed to produce
80-88% pure glycerin that is ready to be sold as crude glycerin. In more sophisticated
operations, the glycerin is distilled to 99% or higher purity and sold into the cosmetic.
Fig. a Demoisturization fig. b Esterification
Fig. c Trans-esterification
Fig.3.3 Actual set of Esterification & Transterification Process

3.5.5 Methyl Ester Wash

Once separated from the glycerin, the biodiesel is sometimes purified by washing gently
with warm water to remove residual catalyst or soaps, dried, and sent to storage. In some
processes this step is unnecessary. This is normally the end of the production process
resulting in a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to petro diesel. In some
systems the biodiesel is distilled in an additional step to remove small amounts of color
bodies to produce a colorless biodiesel. Additional assurances and confidence that
biodiesel purchased form a Certified Biodiesel Marketer will meet ASTM specifications.
3.5.6 Drying
Removal of water from Methyl ester by heating at 100°C temperature. Finally we get pure
biodiesel.
Fig.3.4 drying of biodiesel

3.5.7 Organization of dissertation
Biodiesel, an alternate fuel has attracted considerable attention during the past decade as
a renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic fuel. As a future prospective fuel, biodiesel has
to complete economically with petroleum diesel fuels. One way of reducing the biodiesel
production cost is to use the less expensive feed stock containing fatty acid. The
availability and sustainability of sufficient supplies of less expensive feed stock will be a
crucial determinant delivering a competitive bio diesel price. Recent food v/s fuel

controversy makes edible oil not an ideal feed stock for biodiesel production. In this
competition the non-edible oil sources are preferred as fed stock for the production of
biodiesel. The oil from the seeds of the weed plant like Waste cooking oil can become the
main source of feedstock due to profuse growth and availability of the plant the economic
viability of biodiesel depend on the price of the feed stock used for biodiesel production.
In a recent study biodiesel was synthesis from Waste cooking oil seed oil having more
than 3% FFA in a single step sodium met oxide catalyzed transterification in 90% yield
since sodium met oxide is corrosive, keeping in view the industry, an attempt is made
here with crystalline manganese carbonate a non corrosive, versatile & low cost catalyst
which bring about 90% conversion of oil to fatty acid methyl ester. In much research
publication, biodiesel is produced from the refine edible oil using methanol alkaline
catalyst. Alkaline hydroxides are the most effective transterification catalyst as compare
to acid catalyst. However, the problem with alkaline catalyzed transesterification of
vegetable oil is possible only if the acid value oil is less than 4. High percentage of free
fatty acid in the oil reduces the yield of Esterification process; such oil are mainly used
for making low cost soap. Therefore, it is considerably more costly to separate the
catalyst from the produced monoesters. It is difficult to transesterify these higher FFA
vegetable oil using common alkaline catalyst. The purpose of the this study is to develop
of a method for transesterification of high FFA vegetable oils as it is consider as potential
feedstock for biodiesel production.
Heterogeneous pure manganese carbonate base catalyst has many advantages in bio
diesel production, with vegetables oils containing high FFA. Petroleum sourced fuel is
now widely known as nonrenewable due to fossil fuel depletion and environmental
degradation. Renewable, carbon neutral, transport fuels are necessary for environmental
and economic sustainability. The rising prices of petroleum fuels, depletion of oil
reserves and stiff regulations on exhaust emissions have necessitated the substitution of
fossil fuel with the less polluting and easy available renewable fuels for the use of
internal combustion engines.

CHAPTER 4
ENGINE ANALYSIS
Fig. 4.1 Experimental setup
T1 The temperature of cooling water at the inlet to the engine.

T2 The temperature of cooling water at the outlet of the engine
T3 The temperature of cooling water circulated through calorimeter at the inlet.
T4 The temperature of cooling water circulated through calorimeter at outlet.
T5 The temperature of exhaust gas at calorimeter inlet.
T6 The temperature of exhaust gas at calorimeter outlet.
F1 fuel flow to engine kg/sec.
F2 air flow kg/sec.
F3 A flow of water in lit/hour circulated to engine cooling.
F4 A flow of water in lit/hour circulated through the calorimeter.

4.1 Engine Specifications
Sr. No Description Specification

1. Engine. Kirloskar engine setup 1 cylinder,
4 stroke CI engine.
2. Power Rating 3.5 KW
3. Engine Speed 1500 RPM
4. Cylinder bore 87.50mm
5. Stroke Length 110mm
6. Swept volume 661.45cc
7. Coolant type Water cooled
8. Compression ratio VCR
9. Dynamometer Type eddy current water cooled,

with loading unit.
10. Load indicator Digital, supply 230 AC
11. Rotameter Engine cooling 40-400LPH,

Calorimeter 25- 250 LPH
12. Software “Engine soft LV” Engine
performance analysis software
13. Pump Type Monoblock
14. Overall Dimension W2000* D2500 * H1500 mm
Table 4.1 Engine specifications

4.2 Actual Engine setup
Fig.4.2 Engine setup

4.2.1 Precautions for trial
 Use clean and filtered water; any suspended particle may clog the piping.
 Circulate dynamometer and engine cooling water for some time after shutting down
the engine.
 Piezo Sensor Handling:
 While engine is running ensure cooling water circulation for combustion pressure
sensor / engine jacket.
 Diaphragm of the sensor is delicate part. Avoid scratches or hammering.
 A long sleeve is provided inside the hole drilled for Piezo sensor. This sleeves
protecting the surface of the diaphragm. While removing the sensor, this sleeve may
come out with the sensor and fall down or loose during handling.

4.3 Compression ratio adjustment
The standard available engine (with fixed compression ratio) can be modified to VCR by
providing additional variable combustion space. There are different arrangements by
which this can be achieved. Tilting cylinder block method is one of the arrangements
where the compression ratio can be changed without changing the combustion geometry.
With this method the compression ratio can be changed within designed range without
stopping the engine. The clearance volume of the combustion chamber is changed by
tilting the cylinder block. As the clearance volume is changed and swept volume is
constant the CR changes. The diagram explains the principle. At different CR the engine
power shall change marginally. However it is recommended to load the TV1 engine up to
12 kg (i.e. 3.5 KW at all CRs)
Fig. 4.3 Compression ratio adjustment

4.3.1 Procedure for Compression ratio adjustment
 Unload the engine completely, if it is in running condition.
 Slightly loosen 6 Allen bolts provided for clamping the tilting block.

 Loosen the lock nut on the adjuster and rotate the adjuster so that the compression
ratio is set to “maximum”. Refer the marking on the CR indicator.
 Lock the adjuster by the lock nut.
 Tighten all the 6 Allen bolts.
 You may measure and note the center distance between two pivot pins of the CR
indicator.
 After changing the compression ratio the difference can be used to know new CR.
4.4 Exhaust gas Analyzer
Model – AVL DITEST CDS 450
AVL DITEST CDS (CDS: Compact Diagnostic System) is a stand-alone exhaust
measurement system for latest generation gasoline and diesel engines. It features the
following:
 Quick availability and quick procedures.
 Universal, integrated speed and oil temperature measurement for gasoline and
diesel engines.
 Wireless Bluetooth connection of OBD module.
 Low-maintenance turbidity measurement chamber AVL DiSmoke 480 BT with
wireless.
 Bluetooth connection Clear, quick and intuitive operation.
 Low maintenance effort (once-yearly maintenance, AVL DITEST Gas 1000 can
be taken out of the AVL DiTEST CDS as a component) Ready for future
requirements (legal requirements, high-precision turbidity measurement, etc.)
 Network connection (as NW client)
 Connection to various workshop networks.
4.4.1 Technical specifications
Nominal Voltage 230VAC
Voltage range 230V±10%
Frequency 47-63 Hz
Consumption Max 125 W
display 12,1” TFT-LCD module
Display resolution XGA 1024x768
weight Appr. 16 kg
dimension 380 x 460 x 280 mm (W x H x D)
Table 4.2 Technical Specification of Exhaust gas Analyzer

Fig. 4.4 Exhaust Gas Analyzer

Measurand Measuring Resolution Accuracy
Range
CO 0-15% vol. 0,01 % vol. < 10.0 % vol.: ±
0,02% vol., ± 3% o.
M. ≥ 10.0 % vol: ± 5
% o. M.
CO2 0-20% vol. 0,01 % vol. < 16.0 % vol.: ± 0, 3
% vol., ± 3 % o. M. ≥
16.0 % vol: ± 5 % o.
M.
HC vol. 0-30ppm vol. ≤ 2.000: 1ppm < 2000ppm vol.:
±4ppm vol., ±3% o.
M. ≥ 5000ppm vol.:
±5% o. M.
≥10000ppm vol.:
±10% o. M
O2 0-25% vol. 0,01 % vol. ± 0,02 % vol. ± 1 % o.
M.
NO (optional) 0-5ppm vol. 1ppm vol. ± 5ppm ± 1 % o. M.
vol.
Lambda 0-9.999 0,001 Calculated from CO,
CO2, HC, O2
Table 4.3 measuring range of exhaust gas analyzer

4.5 Engine Testing Procedure

The engine was started and allowed to run for 15-20 minutes to get stabilized using pure
diesel fuel and baseline data for B00 was generated. Compression ratio was set at 16:1
and 18:1. Performance parameters were noted using I.C. engine software. The exhaust
gas emission parameters like HC, CO2, CO, O2 were recorded by pelting the probe of
gas analyzer in the exhaust pipe. Then the load on the engine was further increased from
0 kg to 3 kg, 6 kg and 9 kg. The engine was run for sufficient time duration to ensure that
the diesel fuel phase is over and the engine has started running with mixture of
cottonseed, thumb biodiesels and diesel fuel as a hybrid fuel. The entire process was
repeated while engine running with different blends of hybrid biodiesel as a fuel and
various performance and emission parameters were noted.
Fig 4.4 Actual experimental setup

4.6 Blends
Sr. no. Blends Detailed description
1 B100 Pure biodiesel
2 B15% + 60ppm AL2O3 + 150 ml of Waste cooking oil+60ppm
Diesel AL2O3+ 850 ml of pure diesel
3 B20% + 25ppmCNT + 200ml of biodiesel+25ppm CNT+800 ml of
diesel Pure diesel
4 B20% + 50ppm CNT + 200 ml of biodiesel+50ppm CNT+800 ml of
Diesel pure diesel
5 B30% + 25ppm AL2O3 + 300 l of biodiesel+25ppm of AL2O3+25ppm
25ppm CNT + Diesel of CNT + pure diesel
Table 4.4 prepared blends
Fig. 4.5 Blends prior testing

Fig. 4.5 Blends prior testing

CHAPTER 5
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
5.1 Test report by company

5.2 Performance parameter
The engine performance parameters such as brake power (BP),Indicated power (IP),
Friction power (FP), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), Brake Thermal Efficiency
(BTE), and Mechanical Efficiency (ME),Volumetric efficiency (VE), obtained with
different blends were discussed in the following sections.
5.2.1 List of formulae
2πNT
I. Brake power(BP) =
60000
Where,
Brake power in kW,
N = speed in RPM,
T = Torque in N-m = load (kg) × 9.81 × dynamometer arm length (0.185 m)
Brake power
II. Brake thermal ef iciency (ɳBTH) =
mf×Cv
Where,
mf is mass of fuel consumed in kg/sec,
CV is the calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg
III. BSFC =
Where,
BSFC is brake specific fuel consumption in kg kW -1 hr-1
×
IV. Volumetric efficiency (ɳvol) π
× × × ×ρ ×
Where,
Airflow in kg/hr,
D is a bore diameter in m,
L is stroke length in m,
ρa is a density of air in kg/m3
V. Indicate power (IP) = Pm * ALn / 60000
Where,

IP = Indicated power in KW
Pm = Mean effective pressure.
A = c/s area
L = stroke length
n = no. of cycle in rpm
VI. Friction power. (FP) = IP-BP
Where,
FP = Friction power in KW
BP = Brake power in KW
VII. Mechanical efficiency (ME) =BP/IP
Where,
ME = Mechanical efficiency in %
BP = Brake power in KW
5.3 Observation Table
5.3.1 Brake Power
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
load in kg B00 M AL2O3 M CNT M CNT CNT
0 6.63 6.49 1.39 1.34 1.49
3 6.97 6.57 1.87 1.83 1.95
6 7.48 6.85 2.24 2.18 2.15
9 8.03 7.33 4.63 2.46 2.61
By analytical method
Brake power(BP) =
2πNT
60000

T = load × 9.81 × arm length = 6 × 9.81 × 0.185 = 10.88 Nm

2 × π × 1500 × 10.88
Brake power(BP) = = 1.71 kW
60000
5.3.2 Indicated power
B30+25PP
M AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 6.63 6.49 1.39 1.34 1.49
3 6.97 6.57 1.87 1.83 1.95
6 7.48 6.85 2.24 2.18 2.15
9 8.03 7.33 4.63 2.46 2.61
By analytical method for B00 and load 6
IP = Pm*A*L*N/60000
IP = 3.46 KW
5.3.3 Friction Power
B30+25PP
M AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 6.52 6.38 4.3 4.46 1.38
3 6.07 5.64 3.42 1.39 1.05
6 5.71 5.06 1.09 0.88 0.45
9 5.36 4.77 0.96 0.51 0.3
By analytical method for load 6

FP = IP – BP
FP = 3.46- 1.71
FP = 1.75 KW

5.3.4 Brake thermal efficiency
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 2.91 2.79 2.72 2.53 2.54
3 14.5 13.16 11.58 13.11 12.66
6 22.15 19.38 18.26 19.04 19.33
9 26.96 24.47 25.33 23.59 23.78
Brake power × 100

Brake thermal ef iciency (ɳBth) =
mf × Cv
-4
Mf = 1.44kg/hr= 4×10 kg/sec
CV = 37000 KJ/kg for SOME
Brake thermal ef iciency (ɳBth) = 11.55 %
5.3.5 Mechanical Efficiency

B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 1.68 1.73 2.5 1.6 1.7
3 12.91 14.1 16.7 13.4 15.3
6 23.58 26.07 28.1 25.2 27.4
9 33.18 34.96 37.6 35 36.8
By analytical method for load 6

ME = BP / IP
ME = 1.71 / 3.46
ME = 49.42%

5.3.6 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 2.94 3.07 3.15 3.39 3.38
3 0.59 0.65 0.74 0.65 0.68
6 0.39 0.44 0.47 0.45 0.44
9 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.36
By the analytical calculation for load 6 for B00
BSFC =
BSFC = 0.842 kg/kW hr

CHAPTER 6
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Performance Parameters
6.1.1 Mechanical efficiency (16 CR)
B30+25PP
M AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50P 25PPM
load in kg B00 M AL2O3 M CNT PM CNT CNT
0 1.68 1.73 2.5 1.6 1.7
3 12.91 14.1 16.7 13.4 15.3
6 23.58 26.07 28.1 25.2 27.4
9 33.18 34.96 37.6 35 36.8
mean 14.27 19.215 21.225 18.8 20.3
% 100 134.65 148.73 131.74 142.256
%increase\decrease 34.65 48.73 31.74 42.25
Table 6.1.1 Mechanical efficiency for 16CR
LOAD VS ME IN CR16
40
35 B00
30
25
ME IN %
B15+60PPM AL2O3
20
15
10 B20+25PPM CNT
5
0 B20+50PPM CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
CNT
Graph 6.1.1 Load v/s ME
The mechanical efficiency goes on increasing as the load increases and it is getting higher
at B20+25ppm CNT. CNT helps to improve combustion characteristics of fuel. the

mechanical efficiency always increases with the use of biodiesel when compared with the
pure diesel.
6.1.2 Mechanical efficiency (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 7.06 6 7.96 8.16 7.36
3 45.33 46.5 51.55 53.08 50.4
6 70.76 76.8 74.64 80.3 78.6
9 89.73 85.4 86.87 94.64 95.03
mean 53.22 53.675 55.255 59.045 60.6
% 100 100.85 103.82 110.94 112.73
%increase\decrease 0.85 3.82 10.94 12.73
Table 6.1.2 Mechanical efficiency for 18CR
LOAD VS ME IN CR 18
100
90 B00
80
70
60 B15+60PPM AL2O3
ME IN %
50
40 B20+25PPM CNT
30
20
10 B20+50PPM CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
CNT
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.2 Load v/s ME
In case of 18 CR the mechanical efficiency increases as compared to the diesel fuel but it
is slightly less when compared with the 16 CR. The maximum mechanical effieciency

obtaine at B30+25ppm CNT+25ppm Al2O3 and it Is 12.73% more than that of diesel
fuel.
6.1.3 Brake Thermal efficiency (16 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 2.91 2.79 2.72 2.53 2.54
3 14.5 13.16 11.58 13.11 12.66
6 22.15 19.38 18.26 19.04 19.33
9 26.96 24.47 25.33 23.59 23.78
mean 13.304 14.95 14.4725 14.5675 14.5775
% 100 112.37 108.78 109.49 109.57
%
decrease\Increase 12.37 8.78 9.49 9.57
Table 6.1.3 Brake thermal efficiency for 16CR
LOAD VS BTE IN CR16

30 B00
25 B15+60PPM AL2O3
20
BTE IN %
B20+25PPM CNT
15
B20+50PPM CNT
10
5 B30+25PPM AL2O3+
25PPM CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.3 load vs. BTE
In case of 16CR as the load increases the BTE goes on decreases. But as far as overall
performance is concern it is increases with the load and occurs maximum at B15+60ppm
Al2o3.

6.1.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 2.64 2.65 2.72 2.41 2.69
3 13.11 13.22 14.16 13.42 12.99
6 20.79 20.51 21.18 20.9 20.14
9 25.22 25.23 25.45 25.65 25.91
mean 15.44 15.4025 15.8775 15.595 15.4325
% 100 99.75 102.83 101 99.95
% decrease\Increase -0.25 2.83 1 -0.05
Table 6.1.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency for 18 CR
LOAD VS BTE IN CR 18
30
25
B00
20
B15+60PPM AL2O3
BTE IN %
15
B20+25PPM CNT
10
B20+50PPM CNT
5
0 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM

CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.4 load vs. BTE

In case of CR 18 as the load increases the BTE comes in concurrent with the diesel fuel.
There is no much variation is observed in between the entire blend. Here in this case the
BTE comes nearer to one another.

6.1.5 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (16 CR)
B30+25PPM
AL2O3+
B15+60PPM B20+25PPM B20+50PPM 25PPM
load in kg B00 AL2O3 CNT CNT CNT
0 2.94 3.07 3.15 3.39 3.38
3 0.59 0.65 0.74 0.65 0.68
6 0.39 0.44 0.47 0.45 0.44
9 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.36
mean 0.848 1.1275 1.1825 1.2125 1.215
% 100 132.95 139.44 142.98 143.27
%
increase\decrease 32.95 39.44 42.98 43.27
Table 6.1.5 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption for 16 CR
LOAD VS BSFC IN CR16

4 B00
3.5
BSFC IN KG/KW-HR
3 B15+60PPM AL2O3
2.5
2 B20+25PPM CNT
1.5
1 B20+50PPM CNT
0.5
0 3 6 9 12 CNT
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.5 Load vs. BSFC
For compression ratio 16 as load increases the BSFC decreases. But as far as the overall
performance is concern the BSFC is higher for all the blends as compared to diesel fuel.

6.1.6 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 3.25 3.24 3.15 3.55 3.19
3 0.65 0.65 0.61 0.64 0.66
6 0.41 0.42 0.4 0.41 0.43
9 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.33
mean 4.65 4.65 4.5 4.93 4.61
% 100 100 96.77 106.02 99.13
%
increase\decrease 0 -3.23 6.02 -0.87
Table 6.1.6 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption for 18 CR
LOAD VS BSFC IN CR 18
4 B00
3.5
3 B15+60PPM AL2O3
BSFC IN KG/KW-HR
2.5
B20+25PPM CNT
2
1.5 B20+50PPM CNT
1
0.5 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.6 LOAD VS BSFC
In case of 18 CR as the load increases the BSFC decreases for higher load. The BSFC is
similar to the diesel fuel for all blends. For blend B20+50PPM CNT which is increases
up to 6 % by the addition of CNT.

6.1.7 Indicated power (16 CR)

B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 6.63 6.49 1.39 1.34 1.49
3 6.97 6.57 1.87 1.83 1.95
6 7.48 6.85 2.24 2.18 2.15
9 8.03 7.33 4.63 2.46 2.61
mean 5.822 6.81 2.5325 1.9525 2.05
% 100 116.97 43.49 33.53 35.21
% increase\decrease 16.97 -56.51 -66.47 -64.79
Table 6.1.7 Indicated power for 16 CR
LOAD VS IP IN CR16
9 B00
8
7
6 B15+60PPM AL2O3
IP IN KW
5
4 B20+25PPM CNT
3
2
1 B20+50PPM CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12 B30+25PPM AL2O3+
25PPM CNT
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.7 load vs. IP
The Indicated power for 16 CR decreases for all load as compared to diesel fuel. The
indicated power decreases up to 66 % for blend B20+50PPM CNT and increases up to
16% by the addition of AL2O3.

6.1.8 Indicated Power (18CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 1.58 1.5 1.41 1.33 1.51
3 1.98 2.28 1.85 1.75 1.82
6 2.53 2.4 2.39 2.25 2.96
9 2.89 2.57 2.98 2.79 3.18
mean 2.245 2.1875 2.1575 2.03 2.3675
% 100 97.43 96.1 90.42 105.45
% increase\decrease -2.57 -3.9 -9.58 5.45
Table 6.1.8 Indicated Power for 18 CR
LOAD VS IP IN CR 18
3.5 B00
3 B15+60PPM AL2O3
2.5
B20+25PPM CNT
IP IN KW
2
1.5 B20+50PPM CNT
1
B30+25PPM AL2O3+
0.5
25PPM CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.8 LOAD VS IP
For compression ratio 18 the Indicated Power decreases for all blends except
B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT the indicated power increased by 5.45%. In case of
B30 blend the indicated power first decreases and then increases at a sufficient level.

6.1.9 Friction Power (16CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 6.52 6.38 4.3 4.46 1.38
3 6.07 5.64 3.42 1.39 1.05
6 5.71 5.06 1.09 0.88 0.45
9 5.36 4.77 0.96 0.51 0.3
mean 5.915 5.4625 2.4425 1.81 0.795
% 100 92.34 41.29 30.6 13.44
%increase /decrease -7.66 -58.71 -69.4 -86.56
Table 6.1.9 Friction Power for 16CR
LOAD VS FP IN CR 16
7 B00
6
B15+60PPM AL2O3
5
FP IN KW
4 B20+25PPM CNT
3
2 B20+50PPM CNT
1
B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
0
CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.1.9 Load Vs FP
Frictional Power For 16CR decreases for all blends. For blend B20+25PPM CNT the
friction power decreases up to 58.71 %. For blend B20+50PPM CNT friction power
decreases up to 69.4 %. For blend B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT friction power
decreases up to 86.56%. This is why the evidence of the biodiesel sustains the properties
of lubrication at specific level.

6.1.10 Friction Power (18CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 1.47 1.34 1.29 1.22 1.4
3 1.08 1.29 0.9 0.82 1
6 0.74 0.77 0.61 0.44 0.65
9 0.3 0.32 0.39 0.15 0.26
mean 0.8975 0.93 0.7975 0.6575 0.8275
% 100 103.62 88.88 73.16 92.2
%increase /decrease 3.62 -11.12 -26.84 -7.8
Table 6.1.10 Friction Power for 18CR
LOAD VS FP IN CR18
1.6
1.4 B00
1.2
1 B15+60PPM AL2O3
FP IN KW
0.8
0.6 B20+25PPM CNT
0.4
0.2 B20+50PPM CNT
0
0 3 6 9 12 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
LOAD IN KG CNT
Graph 6.1.10 Load Vs FP
In case of 18 CR the friction power decreases for blend B20+50PPM CNT up to 26.84
%. The friction power for CR18 as compared to CR 16 the CR 16 is efficient for all
blends. Friction power is very less in 16CR as compared to 18CR.

6.2 Emission Parameters

6.2.1 Nitrogen oxide (16 CR)
B30+25P
PM
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 19 23 33 38 37
3 66 71 92 92 87
6 151 187 174 168 165
9 252 230 210 211 231
Mean 122 127.75 127.25 127.25 130
% 100 104.71 104.3 104.3 106.55
%
increase\Decrease 4.71 4.3 4.3 6.55
Table 6.2.1 Nitrogen oxide for 16 CR
LOAD VS N0X IN CR 16
268 B00
218 B15+60PPM AL2O3

NOX IN PPM
168
B20+25PPM CNT
118
B20+50PPM CNT
68
B30+25PPM AL2O3+
18 25PPM CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.1 LOAD VS NOx
The variation of nitrogen oxide along with the load is as shown in above figure. For
blends B30+25ppmAL2O3+25ppm CNT at high load the nitrogen oxide is decreases as
compared to the diesel fuel. In case of diesel fuel initially nitrogen oxide goes on

decreases and with increase it goes on increases. Alumina is responsible for more NOx
emission.
6.2.2 Nitrogen oxide (18 CR)

B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PPM B20+25PPM B20+50PPM 25PPM
load in kg B00 AL2O3 CNT CNT CNT
0 50 47 46 52 31
3 99 89 99 102 91
6 196 183 192 190 201
9 299 299 285 265 284
mean 161 154.5 155.5 152.25 151.75
% 100 95.96 96.58 94.56 94.25
%
increase\Decrease -4.04 -3.42 -5.44 -5.75
Table 6.2.2 Nitrogen oxide for 18 CR
LOAD VS N0X IN CR 18
325
B00
275
225 B15+60PPM AL2O3

NOX IN PPM
175
B20+25PPM CNT
125
B20+50PPM CNT
75
25 B30+25PPM AL2O3+
25PPM CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.2 LOAD VS NOx
In case of 18 CR the NOx emission is sufficiently reduced up to 6% for all the blends as
compared to diesel fuel. In case of NOx emission B30 is an effective blend.

6.2.3 Oxygen (16CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 19.27 19.13 19.26 19.24 19.31
3 18.14 18.09 18.28 18.13 18.28
6 17.34 17.28 17.74 17.63 17.65
9 16.47 16.69 17.25 17.24 16.96
mean 14.244 17.7975 18.1325 18.06 18.05
% 100 124.94 127.29 126.79 126.72
% increase\Decrease 24.94 27.29 26.79 26.72
Table 6.2.3 Emission of oxygen for 16CR
LOAD VS O2 IN CR16 B00

19.5
B15+60PPM AL2O3
19
18.5 B20+25PPM CNT
O2 IN %
18
17.5 B20+50PPM CNT
17
B30+25PPM AL2O3+
16.5 25PPM CNT
16
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.3 Load vs. Oxygen
The oxygen emission increases with the increase in load and occurs maximum at B30
blend. The more emission of oxygen does not have any adverse effect on environment.

6.2.4 Oxygen (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 19.25 19.3 19.24 19.06 20
3 18.18 18.27 18.14 17.99 19.47
6 17.47 17.59 17.39 17.76 17.64
9 16.81 17.03 17.01 17.2 16.94
mean 17.927 18.0475 17.945 18.0025 18.5125
% 100 100.66 100.09 100.41 103.26
% increase\Decrease 0.66 0.09 0.41 3.26
Table 6.2.4 Emission of Oxygen at 18 CR
LOAD VS O2 IN CR 18
20.5 B00
20
B15+60PPM AL2O3
19.5
19 B20+25PPM CNT
O2 IN %
18.5
B20+50PPM CNT
18
17.5 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
CNT
17
16.5
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.4 Load vs. oxygen
In case of 18 CR there is a proper combustion taking place inside the engine cylinder so
due to this the oxygen emission becomes less as compared to 16 CR. initially it is higher
in case of pure diesel and then decreases with the increase in load.

6.2.5 Carbon dioxide (16CR)

B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 1.27 1.3 1.13 1.21 1.17
3 2 2.05 1.89 1.94 1.88
6 2.54 2.51 2.28 2.31 2.3
9 3.04 2.95 2.71 2.57 2.74
mean 2.212 2.2025 2.0025 2.0075 2.0225
% 100 99.54 90.5 90.73 91.41
%
increase\Decrease -0.46 -9.5 -9.27 -8.59
Table 6.2.5 Emission of Carbon dioxide at 16 CR
LOAD VS CO2 IN CR 16
3.5 B00
3 B15+60PPM AL2O3
2.5 B20+25PPM CNT

CO2 IN %
B20+50PPM CNT
2
1.5 CNT
1
0 3 6 9 12 #REF!
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.5 LOAD VS CO2
The carbon dioxide is decreases up to 9.5% for all blends. The carbon dioxide gas can be
toxic and very harmful for the humans. It increases the temperature of earth atmosphere.
It also causes the global warming effect on the earth. By using CNT we reduced the

emission of the carbon dioxide. For blend B20+25PPM CNT the carbon dioxide is
reduced up to 9.5%.
6.2.6 Carbon Dioxide (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 1.23 1.22 1.18 1.44 0.89
3 1.96 1.91 1.96 2.19 1.16
6 2.43 2.36 2.38 1.65 2.49
9 2.76 2.74 2.74 1.54 2.65
mean 2.095 2.0575 2.065 1.705 1.7975
% 100 98.21 98.56 81.38 85.79
% increase\Decrease -1.79 -1.44 -18.62 -14.21
Table 6.2.6 Emission of Carbon dioxide for 18CR
LOAD VS CO2 IN CR18

B00
3
2.5 B15+60PPM AL2O3
2
CO2 IN %
B20+25PPM CNT
1.5
B20+50PPM CNT
1
0.5 CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.6 LOAD VS CO2

The carbon dioxide maximum reduced for 18 CR up to 18.62%. For blend B30+25PPM
AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT is reduced by 14.21% and for blends B20+50PPM CNT is
reduced by 18.62%. Here by using AL2O3 and CNT which helps to combustion process
and reduced the carbon dioxide.
6.2.7 Carbon monoxide (16CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04
3 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06
6 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05
9 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05
mean 0.0525 0.06 0.0625 0.055 0.05
% 100 114.28 119.04 104.44 95.23
% increase\Decrease 14.28 19.04 4.44 -4.77
Table 6.2.7 Emission of Carbon monoxide for 16CR
LOAD VS CO IN CR16
0.09
B00
0.08
0.07 B15+60PPM AL2O3
CO IN %
0.06
0.05 B20+25PPM CNT
0.04
B20+50PPM CNT
0.03
0 3 6 9 12 B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM
LOAD IN KG CNT
Graph 6.2.7 LOAD VS CO

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-irritating, and

poisonous gas produced when carbon based fuels burn incompletely. Complete
combustion of carbon and oxygen produces carbon dioxide. Here by using blend
B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT the amount of carbon monoxide is reduced by 4.77
%.
6.2.8 Carbon monoxide (18 CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01
3 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
6 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03
9 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
mean 0.0375 0.0375 0.0375 0.035 0.025
% 100 100 100 93.33 66.66
% increase\Decrease 0 0 -6.67 -33.34
Table 6.2.8 Emission of Carbon monoxide for 18CR
LOAD VS CO IN CR 18
B00
0.06
0.05 B15+60PPM AL2O3
CO IN %
0.04 B20+50PPM CNT

0.03
B30+25PPM AL2O3+
0.02 25PPM CNT
0.01
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.8 LOAD VS CO

For compression ratio 18 the amount of carbon monoxide is reduced up to 33.34% by

using AL2O3 and CNT additives. For blend B20+50PPM CNT the carbon monoxide is
reduced by 6.67% and for blend B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT the amount of
carbon monoxide is reduced by 33.34%.
5.2.9 Hydrocarbon (16CR)
B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 33 35 15 20 11
3 37 35 20 19 15
6 39 40 16 18 17
9 42 42 17 17 17
mean 37.75 38 17 18.5 15
% 100 100.66 45.03 49 39.73
% increase\Decrease 0.66 -54.97 -51 -60.27
Table 6.2.9 Emission of Hydrocarbon for 16 CR
LOAD VS HC AT CR 16
45
40 B00
35
HC IN PPM
B15+60PPM AL2O3
30
25
B20+25PPM CNT
20
15
B20+50PPM CNT
10
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG CNT
Graph 6.2.9 LOAD VS HC

Hydrocarbons are having the adverse effect on environment as well as on human health.
For blend B20+50PPM CNT is reduced by 51%. For blend B20+25PPM CNT is reduced
by 54.97%. For blend B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT is reduced by 60.27%.
6.2.10 Hydrocarbon (18 CR)

B30+25PP
M
AL2O3+
B15+60PP B20+25PP B20+50PP 25PPM
0 11 10 13 11 6
3 11 11 11 12 11
6 13 13 15 13 12
9 17 13 14 12 9
mean 13 11.75 13.25 12 9.5
% 100 90.38 101.92 92.3 73.07
% increase\Decrease -9.62 1.92 -7.7 -26.93
Table 6.2.10 Emission of hydrocarbon at 18 CR
LOAD VS HC AT CR 18
18 B00
16
B15+60PPM AL2O3
14
HC IN PPM
12 B20+25PPM CNT
10
B20+50PPM CNT
8

0 3 6 9 12 CNT
LOAD IN KG
Graph 6.2.10 Load vs. Hydrocarbon (HC)

Hydrocarbon are having harmful affect on human being as it causes very dangerous
diseases so that we need to control it before gets emitted into atmosphere. Here HC is

getting sufficiently reduced by the use of biodiesel and nano-additive in suitable

proportion. In case of HC we get the better results from the B30 blend and by this blends
it is reduced by 26.93%.
Fig.6.1. Actual image while taking the readings

6.3 Bharat Stage-IV norms

https://www.araiindia.com/pdf/Indian_Emission_Regulation_Booklet.pdf
Table 6.3.1 Emission norms BS-IV
Bharat stage emission standards {BSES} are emission standards instituted by

the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion
engines and Spark-ignition engines equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards
and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under
the Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change
On November 15, 2017 The Petroleum Ministry of India in consultation with Public Oil
Marketing Companies decided to bring forward the date of BS-VI grade auto fuels in
NCT of Delhi with effect from April 1, 2018 instead of April 1, 2020. In fact, Petroleum
Ministry OMCs were asked to examine the possibility of introduction of BS-VI auto fuels
in the whole of NCR area from April 1, 2019. This huge step was taken due the heavy
problem of air pollution faced by Delhi which became worse around this year. The
decision was met with disarray by the automobile companies as they had planned the
development according to roadmap for 2020.
While the norms help in bringing down pollution levels, it invariably results in increased
vehicle cost due to the improved technology & higher fuel prices. However, this increase
in private cost is offset by savings in health costs for the public, as there is lesser amount
of disease causing particulate matter and pollution in the air.

CHAPTER 7
NOVELTY OF PROJECT
7.1 Selection of Biodiesel
We have selected the waste cooking oil as a biodiesel because it can be easily available
anywhere and it does not incur more cost than any other biodiesel. We have selected the
biodiesel extracted from sunflower plant and the domestic feedstock is better than
restaurant because of its yield and quantity. The waste cooking oil can be easily recycled
to turn waste into energy. The amount of WCO generated by homes and restaurants are
increasing rapidly due to tremendous growth in a human population. The increment of
food consumption has also contributed to the production of huge amount of WCO. Some
of the quantities of WCO are listed below country wise;
Country Quantity (million Source of oil

tones/year)
India 4 Soya bin , palm
United States 10 Soybean oil
China 4.5 Salad oil, animal fat
European 0.7–10 Rapeseed oil, sunflower oil
Japan 0.45–0.57 Soybean oil, palm oil,
animal fat
Taiwan 0.07 Soybean oil, palm oil, beef
oil, lard oil
Malaysia 0.5 Palm oil
Canada 0.12 Animal fat, canola oil
England 1.6 Soybean oil, canola oil
Ireland 0.153 Rapeseed oil
Table 7.1 Quantity of WCO generated in various countries around the world.

7.2 Selection of Nano-additive

Biodiesel is an ecofriendly renewable alternative fuel and it is made by Trans
Esterification of vegetable oils. In order to overcome the problem associated with
biodiesel use of chemical substances like fuel additives derive from the organic inorganic
metals were used. Nanoparticles accelerate the combustion process and promote
complete combustion Nanoadditives generally improves the combustion efficiency and
reduced the pollution. Another important advantage of Nanoparticles is its size because
there is no chance for fuel injector and filter clogging as in the case of micron size
particles. Due to presence of additive in the blended fuel the temperature inside the
cylinder during combustion Is reduced. We have selected two nanoadditives such as
aluminium oxide (AL2O3) and carbon nanotubes (CNT) in suitable proportion
7.2.1 Advantages of Alumina (AL2O3)

i. Flash point and calorific value increase with the dosing of AL2O3.
ii. Heat release rate decreases with AL2O3.
iii. Rapid combustion in the premixed phase and to reduced peak pressure.
iv. Considerable improvement in BTE.
v. CO and HC reduce.
7.2.2 Advantages of CNT

i. Improves the cetane number.
ii. Promote clean burning.
iii. CNT leads to reduce the NOx emission.
iv. It is non toxic.
v. Increase in octane number.
vi. Non inflammatory.

7.3 Preparation of blends

The fashion of production of biodiesel is emerging exponentially owing to greater
disquiet about environmental protection and diminution of fossil fuel reservoirs.
We have prepared the blends by considering the existing blends form by the researchers
with suitable proportion of biodiesel, pure diesel and nanoadditives. We have adjusted the
proportion by considering the performance characteristics and emission parameters. We
have prepared the blends as follows:
Sr. no. Blends Detailed description
1 B100 Pure biodiesel

2 B15% + 60ppm AL2O3 150 ml of Waste cooking oil + 60ppm AL2O3
+ Diesel + 850 ml of pure diesel
3 B20% + 25ppmCNT + 200ml of biodiesel + 25ppm CNT + 800 ml of
diesel Pure diesel
4 B20%+50ppm CNT + 200 ml of biodiesel + 50ppm CNT + 800 ml
Diesel of pure diesel
5 B30% + 25ppm AL2O3 300ml of biodiesel + 25ppm of AL2O3 +
+ 25ppm CNT + Diesel 25ppm of CNT + pure diesel
Table 7.2 prepared blends

7.4 Novelty of the Project

7.4.1 Emission of NOx
LOAD VS N0X
325
B00
275
B15+60PPM AL2O3
NOX IN PPM
225
175
B20+25PPM CNT
125
B20+50PPM CNT
75
25 B30+25PPM AL2O3+
25PPM CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG
In case of 18 CR the NOx emission is sufficiently reduced up to 6% for all the blends as
compared to diesel fuel. In case of NOx emission B30 is an effective blend.
7.4.2 Emission of CO2
LOAD VS CO2
3.5
B00
3
B15+60PPM AL2O3
2.5
CO2 IN %
B20+25PPM CNT
2
B20+50PPM CNT
1.5
1 CNT
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG

The carbon dioxide is decreases up to 9.5% for all blends. The carbon dioxide gas can be
toxic and very harmful for the human being. It increases the temperature of earth
atmosphere. It also causes the global warming effect on the earth. By using CNT we
reduced the emission of the carbon dioxide. For blend B20+25PPM CNT the carbon
dioxide is reduced up to 9.5%.
7.4.3 Emission of hydrocarbon
LOAD VS HC
45
B00
40
35
HC IN PPM
B15+60PPM AL2O3
30
25
B20+25PPM CNT
20
15
B20+50PPM CNT
10
0 3 6 9 12
LOAD IN KG CNT
Hydrocarbons are having the adverse effect on environment as well as on human health.
For blend B20+50PPM CNT is reduced by 51%. For blend B20+25PPM CNT is reduced
by 54.97%. For blend B30+25PPM AL2O3+ 25PPM CNT is reduced by 60.27%.

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
A single cylinder engine was run using waste cooking oil with different blends.
Performance and emission parameter were measured at different engine loads of 0, 3, 6, 9
and engine speed of 1500 rpm. Mechanical efficiency, volumetric efficiency, BSFC,
BTE, indicated power, Brake power were measured. And in emission parameters NO X,
HC, CO, CO2, O2 were measured.
Following conclusions can be summarized by using following data.
Considering NOx emission
1. at CR 16:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: NOx is increased by 4.71%

 B20+25PPM CNT: NOx is increased by 4.3%
 B20+50PPM CNT: NOx is increased by 4.3%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: NOx is increased by 6.55%
2. at CR 18:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: NOx is decreased by 4.04%

 B20+25PPM CNT: NOx is decreased by 3.42%
 B20+50PPM CNT: NOx is decreased by 5.44%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: NOx is decreased by 5.75%
Based on table
 At compression ratio 16 blend B20+25PPM CNT & blend B20+50PPM CNT

emits less % of NOx.
 At compression ratio 18 blend B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT emits less %
of NOx.
Based on Graph
 At compression ratio 16 blend B20+25PPM CNT emits less % of NOx.

 At compression ratio 18 blend B20+50PPM CNT emits less % of NOx.
Considering HC emission
1. at CR 18:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: HC is decreased by 9.62%
 B20+25PPM CNT: HC is increased by 1.92%
 B20+50PPM CNT: HC is decreased by 7.7%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: HC is decreased by 26.93%
2. at CR 16:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: HC is increased by 0.66%

 B20+25PPM CNT: HC is decreased by 54.97%
 B20+50PPM CNT: HC is decreased by 51%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: HC is decreased by 60.27%
Based on table
 At compression ratio 16 blends B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT emits less %

of HC.
of HC.
Based on Graph

of HC.
of HC.
Considering CO2 emission
1. at CR 18:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: CO2 is decreased by 1.79%

 B20+25PPM CNT: CO2 is decreased by 1.44%

 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO2 is decreased by 14.21%
2. at CR 16:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: CO2 is decreased by 0.46%

 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO2 is decreased by 8.59%
Based on table
 At compression ratio 16 blend B20+50PPM CNT emits less % of CO2.

Based on Graph

Considering CO emission
1. at CR 18:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: CO is decreased & increased by 0%

 B20+25PPM CNT: CO is decreased & increased by 0%
 B20+50PPM CNT: CO is decreased by 6.67%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO is decreased by 33.34%
2. at CR 16:
 B15+60PPM AL2O3: CO is increased by 14.28%

 B20+25PPM CNT: CO is increased by 19.04%
 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO is decreased by 4.77%

Based on table

of CO.
of CO.
Based on Graph

of CO.
of CO.
Considering O2 emission
1. at CR 18:

 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO is increased by 26.72%
2. at CR 16:

 B30+25PPM AL2O3+25PPM CNT: CO is increased by 3.26%
Based on table
 At compression ratio 16 blend B15+60PPM AL2O3 emits less % of O2.

 At compression ratio 18 blend B20+25PPM CNT emits less % of O2.

Based on Graph
 At compression ratio 16 blend B15+60PPM AL2O3 emits less % of O2.

of O2.

CHAPTER 9
FUTURE SCOPE
The biodiesel based on non-edible oil stocks has been emerging as a technically feasible,
economically competitive, environmentally sustainable and socially beneficial substitute
automotive fuel for diesel. Comparing the results and stating best blend that gives higher
efficiency. Significantly in next coming year’s petroleum diesel will replace by biodiesel.
In comparison with individual biodiesel, the performance of hybrid biodiesel was better.
But in its performance was found slightly poor than diesel fuel at higher loads while its
gives optimum outputs at higher CR. The performance was get down due to the higher
viscosities and masses of biodiesels as well as its respective blends. The further research
work was planned to reduce these physical parameters with the help of chemical
additives such as n-butanol and ethanol. They can be blended with biodiesel and diesel
fuel in some extent. As they are well known used as a fuel itself and has higher calorific
values than biodiesel. So that it will help to improve the performance parameters such as
BP, BTE, SFC and VE etc.
Advantages of biodiesel in future are:

 It’s safer to handle and has virtually the same energy efficiency as petroleum
diesel.
 In addition it has lubricity benefits that fossil fuels do not.
 Biodiesel blends as low as B20 have been found to significantly reduce the
amount of toxic carbon-based emissions.
 Bio fuels produce less greenhouse gases overall than fossil fuels when they are
burned. Alternative sources to fossil fuels allowing for greater fuel security for
countries with little or no oil reserves of their own.

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Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 2015 Course

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Country Quantity (million

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biodiesel in conventional diesel engines results in substantial reduction in the broadcast

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1.1 Available alternative fuels

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1.1.3 Algae-based fuels

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1.1.5 Alcohol fuels

1.1.7 Carbon-neutral and negative fuels

Carbon neutral fuel is fuel such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel

1.1.8 Compressed natural gas fuel

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1.2 Energy Scarcity

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1.3 Environmental Issues

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human property in the form of agricultural crops or man-made structures. We

Pollutant Natural Source Anthropogenic Source Environmental

Nitrogen oxides Lightning’s, High temperature fuel Primary pollutants

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Particulates Forest fires, Combustion of biofuels Reduced

Sulfur dioxide Volcanic Coal combustion, ore Acid rain. Human

Ozone Lightning, Secondary pollutant Damage to plants,

Carbon monoxide Unnoticeable Rich & stoichiometric Human health

Carbon dioxide Animal Fossil fuel and wood Most common

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Non-methane Biological Incomplete combustion, Primary pollutants

Methane Anaerobic Natural gas leak and Greenhouse gas

Chlorofluorocarb None Solvents, aerosol Destruction of

Table 1.2 Air Pollutants, Their Sources, and Effects

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1.4 Supply Chain

1.4.1 Ethanol Production and Distribution

Fig. 1.1 Ethanol productions and distribution

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1.4.2 Biofuel supply chain

Fig. 1.2 biofuel supply chain

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1.5 Market Rates

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A. Prabu [4] the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of Nanoparticles

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1. Significant improvement in brake thermal efficiency is observed for Nanoparticles

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