CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Backgrounds
"Drying is an excellent way to preserve food and solar food dryers are an
appropriate food preservation technology for a sustainable world." Actually, solar
food drying is one of the oldest agricultural techniques related to food preservation,
but every year, millions of dollars’ worth of gross national product is lost through
spoilage. Reasons include, ignorance about preservation of produce, inadequate
transportation systems during the harvest season (mostly climate related), and the
low price the rural farmer receives for products during the harvest season.
Drying of crops can change this trend and is useful in most areas of the world,
especially those without a high humidity during the harvesting season. If drying of
produce were widely implemented, significant savings to farmers would be
achieved. These savings could help strengthen the economic situation of numerous
developing governments as well as change the nutritional condition in these same
countries.
Drying generally refers to the removal of moisture by evaporation rather than
by pressure or other physical means. The factures that are affecting the drying can
be identified as the temperature, humidity, pressure, velocity of air and the size and
the shape of the wet surface and the air moment with respect to it. There are various
mechanical drying methods that are available at present. Some of these are operating
utilize fans for air circulation, and electric or gas heater for heating of drying air. But
they are very expensive drying methods so we have introduced a high efficiency low
cost vegetable dryer for our advance topic in mechanical engineering module. This
dryer has been designed to construct from material available in the market at low
cost.

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 This especially to overcome the problems encountered in the sun drying such
as over drying occurs, low drying rate, risk of spoilage, contaminating with
impurities. It uses solar energy for heat generation. Evaluation of a prototype of this
dryer is important to reduce the drying losses and optimize the utilization. This dryer
consists of main parts namely the body of the dryer, the cabinet, chimney, and solar
unit.
Solar drying has been considered as one of the most promising areas for the
utilization of solar energy, especially in the field of food preservation. Open sun
drying is the most common method employed in tropical countries for the drying of
agricultural products, food stuffs, etc. The method is simple, as it does not involve
any costly equipment. The product to be dried is spread under sun, and the moisture
evaporates from it over a course of time. Even though the process is simple, it suffers
from disadvantages such as dust contamination, insect infestation, microbial
contamination and spoilage due to rains.
Product dried in this way is unhygienic and sometimes unfit for human
consumption. Solar drying can be most successfully employed as a cost-effective
drying technique. It has got several attractive features. For example, energy is
available at free of cost and can be harnessed in the site itself. Controlled drying is
also possible by this method, and it enhances the quality of dried product. Solar
drying systems must be properly designed in order to meet particular drying
requirements of specific crops and to give satisfactory performance with respect to
energy requirements. A wide variety of solar dryers have been designed by many
researchers. Drying conditions for different products will be different, and hence,
the solar dryer should be designed for their particular requirement.
A good design can help in producing high-quality products and hence bring
good returns to the farmers. India receives good amount of solar radiation in the
range of 4–7 kWh/m2 -day around 300–330 days in a year.
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 Thus, it is one of the most promising sources of energy. Unlike fossil fuels
and nuclear energy, it is an environmentally clean source of energy.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
1. To study about solar energy.
2. To obtain knowledge about industrial applications of solar dryers.
3. To Understanding the way of selecting required components.
4. To familiarize with the workshop environment.
5. To get Familiarize with the way of project presentation.
6. To get the maximum benefit of the teamwork.
7. To obtain knowledge about report writing.
1.3 Scope of the Study
The project is carried out in order to get outside knowledge and involve in
practical applications beyond in our day-to-day academic studies under in the
module of “Advanced Topics in Mechanical Engineering”. Designing of the solar
dryer minimizing shortcomings associated with than low efficiency, cost not
portable solar dryer.
1.4 Sun Drying
Food drying is a very simple, ancient skill. It is one of the most accessible and
hence the most widespread processing technology. Sun drying of fruits and
vegetables is still practiced largely unchanged from ancient times. Traditional sun
drying takes place by storing the product under direct sunlight.
Sun drying is only possible in areas where, in an average year, the weather
allows foods to be dried immediately after harvest. The main advantages of sun
drying are low capital and operating costs and the fact that little expertise is required.
The main disadvantages of this method are as follows: contamination, theft or
damage by birds, rats or insects; slow or intermittent drying and no protection from
rain or dew that wets the product, encourages mould growth and may result in a
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relatively high final moisture content; low and variable quality of products due to
over - or under-drying; large areas of land needed for the shallow layers of food;
laborious since the crop must be turned, moved if it rains; direct exposure to sunlight
reduces the quality (color and vitamin content) of some fruits and vegetables.
Moreover, since sun drying depends on uncontrolled factors, production of
uniform and standard products is not expected.
The quality of sun dried foods can be improved by reducing the size of pieces
to achieve faster drying and by drying on raised platforms, covered with cloth or
netting to protect against insects and animals.
1.5 Solar Drying
Solar food drying can be used in most areas but how quickly the food dries is
affected by many variables, especially the amount of sunlight and relative humidity.
Typical drying times in solar dryers range from 1 to 3 days depending on sun, air
movement, humidity and the type of food to be dried.
The principle that lies behind the design of solar dryers is as follows: in drying
relative and absolute humidity are of great importance. Air can take up moisture, but
only up to a limit.
When air passes over a moist food it will take up moisture until it is virtually
fully saturated, that is until absolute humidity has been reached. But, the capacity of
the air for taking up this moisture is dependent on its temperature. The higher the
temperature, the higher the absolute humidity, and the larger the uptake of moisture.
If air is warmed, the amount of moisture in it remains the same, but the relative
humidity falls; and the air is therefore enabled to take up more moisture from its
surrounding.
To produce a high-quality product economically, it must be dried fast, but
without using excessive heat, which could cause product degradation. Drying time
can be shortened by two main procedures: one is to raise the product temperature so
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that the moisture can be readily vaporized, while at the same time the humid air is
constantly being removed. The second is to treat the product to be dried so that the
moisture barriers, such as dense hydrophobic skin layers or long water migration
paths, will be minimized.
1.5.1 Overview
Drying preserves foods by removing enough moisture from food to prevent decay
and spoilage. Water content of properly dried food varies from 5 to 25 percent
depending on the food. Successful drying depends on:
(i) Enough heat to draw out moisture, without cooking the food;
(ii) Dry air to absorb the released moisture; and
(iii) Adequate air circulation to carry off the moisture.
When drying foods, the key is to remove moisture as quickly as possible at a
temperature that does not seriously affect the flavor, texture and color of the food.
If the temperature is too low in the beginning, microorganisms may grow before the
food is adequately dried. If the temperature is too high and the humidity too low, the
food may harden on the surface. This makes it more difficult for moisture to escape
and the food does not dry properly. Although drying is a relatively simple method
of food preservation, the procedure is not exact.
Food drying is a very simple, ancient skill. It requires a safe place to spread the
food where dry air in large quantities can pass over and beside thin pieces. Sun is
used to provide the hot dry air. Dry, clean air including dry cold air from any source
will dehydrate food. Draping food over branches or spreading it on wide shallow
baskets on the roof is an old widespread tradition still in use around the world. Many
other arrangements have been used to support a thin spread of food pieces
1.5.2 Applications
For centuries people of various nations have been preserving dates, figs,
apricots, grapes, bananas, pineapples, other fruits, herbs, cassava, yams, potatoes,
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corn, peas, onions, garlic, carrots, peppers, milk, coffee, meat, and fish by drying.
But drying is also beneficial for hay, copra (kernel of the coconut), tea and other
income producing non-food crops.
1.5.3 Benefits of Solar Dried Food
"Dried foods are tasty, nutritious, lightweight, easy-to-prepare, and easy-to-
store and use. The energy input is less than what is needed to freeze or can, and the
storage space is minimal compared with that needed for canning jars and freezer
containers.
"The nutritional value of food is only minimally affected by drying. Vitamin
A is retained during drying; however, because vitamin A is light sensitive, food
containing it should be stored in dark places. Yellow and dark green vegetables, such
as peppers, carrots, winter squash, and sweet potatoes, have high vitamin A content.
Vitamin C is destroyed by exposure to heat, although pretreating foods with lemon,
orange, or pineapple juice increases vitamin C content.
"Dried foods are high in fiber and carbohydrates and low in fat, making them healthy
food choices. Dried foods that are not completely dried are susceptible to mold.
"Microorganisms are effectively killed when the internal temperature of food
reaches 145 degrees Fahrenheit (F)."
1.6 Direct Absorption Dryers
Direct drying consists of using incident radiation only, or incident radiation plus
reflected radiation. Most solar drying techniques that use only direct solar energy
also use some means to reflect additional radiation onto the product to further
increase its temperature.
An example of direct absorption dryer is the hot box dryer as shown in Figure 1.
The aim of this type of a dryer is mainly to improve product quality by reducing
contamination by dust, insect infestation, and animal or human interference. It
consists of a hot box with a transparent top and blackened interior surfaces.
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Ventilation holes in the base and upper parts of slide walls maintained a natural air
circulation.

Figure 1.1 Direct absorption dryers. (A) glass cover, (B) ventilation holes.
Arrows indicate airflow.
1.7 Survey
The customary way is to spread the material to be dried in a thin on the
ground. The disadvantages associated with this method are
(i) The process is slow.
(ii) The product is vulnerable to attack by insects, and
(iii) Dust gets mixed with the product.
The use of a solar dryer helps eliminate these disadvantages. Also, the drying may
be made a faster and controlled process, and a better-quality product can be
produced.
1.8 Types of Drying Method
Figure 1.2 show that solar dryers can be classified by two types, active and
passive mode. Passive dryers can be further divided into direct and indirect models.

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 A direct solar dryer is a system in which the food is directly exposed to the
solar radiations only in which the material to be dried are placed in a transparent
enclosure of glass or plastic or with reflected radiations such as box dryer. Reflected
radiations are used to increase the temperature in the box dryer.
In an indirect solar dryer, solar radiation do not falls directly onto the product
being dried, but preheater or collecter is used to raise the hot air temperature in the
dryer chamber. Passive dryers can be called natural convection in which the fluid
motion is generated by density differences in fluid occurring due to temperature
gradients. They can be constructed easily with inexpensive and locally available
materials. This is a simple and economical method to preserve food for a long period
of time storage Active dryers are required an external means such as fans or pumps.
It is used for moving the heated air from the collector area to the drying chamber.
The drying rate is higher compared with passive methods. However, for drying
operation in mixedmode solar dryer, the combination action process of solar
radiation incident on the material to be dried and the air preheated in solar collector
provide the heat required for the drying operation.

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 Figure 1.2 Classification of crop drying using solar energy
1.8.1 Open Sun Drying
Traditional drying methods use solar radiation to heat directly the products
and to natural air currents. Hence, products drying using solar energy is a method
that has been practiced for thousand of years. In traditional drying methods are also
known as open sun drying, the products are spread on the ground or platform, where
they are directly exposed to the sun and wind.
Despite of using the solar radiation that is freely available in an ambient
environment, a little capital cost and less labour are required. However, this method
produces low quality products and also results in considerable losses due to various
influences such as an animal attack, insect infestation and rain. Refer Figure 1.3 (a)
as an open sun drying.

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 Figure 1.3 (a) Open sun drying; (b) Working principle of open sun drying
Figure 1.3 (b) shows the working principle of open sun drying by using solar energy.
Chen et al. (2009) has noted that the short wavelength solar radiation energy falling
on the crop surface which is partly reflected and partly absorbed by depending the
color of the crops. The absorbed radiation will increase the crop temperature and
resulted the moisture of the crop surface to evaporate due to increase of air
surrounding. This result is lost through long wavelength radiation to the atmosphere
and through conduction to the ground surface.
1.8.2 Direct Solar Drying in Passive Mode
This type of dryer typically consists of a drying chamber that is covered by
transparent cover made of glass or plastic. Hence, the glass cover reduces direct
convective losses to the surroundings and increases temperature inside the dryer.
The drying chamber is a shallow, insulated box with holes in it to allow air to enter
and leave the box. The food is placed on a perforated tray that allows the air to flow
through it and the food as shown in Figure 1.4.

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 Figure 1.4 Cabinet dryer
1.8.3 Indirect Solar Drying In Passive Mode
In indirect dryer typically consists of a drying chamber and collector chamber.
A solar energy is collected in a separate equipment called as solar collector that is
covered by transparent cover made of glass or plastic. A collector chamber is used
for solarenergy collection for heating of entering air into the drying chamber that
connected separately where the product is placed. The heated air is allowed to flow
through wet products.
Here, the heat from moisture evaporation is provided by convective heat
transfer between the hot air and the wet crop. The drying is basically by the
difference in moisture concentration between the drying air and the air in the vicinity
of crop surface. The product is not directly exposed to solar radiation because to
minimize discoloration and cracking on the surface of the products. Figure 2.4 shows
the simple of the indirect solar dryer and working principles of indirect solar drying.

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Figure 1.5 (a) indirect solar dryer; (b) Working principle of indirect solar drying
1.8.4 Mixed-Mode Solar Drying
In the mixed mode type of drying system, the heated air from the separate
solar collector is passed through a drying chamber and the same time, the drying
chamber will absorbs a solar energy directly through a transparent cover. The
product is dried simultaneously by both radiation with conduction of heat through
the transparent cover and the convection of the heat from the solar air heater.
Moradi and Zomorodian (2009) have developed a solar dryer that suitable for
drying the cuminum cyminum grains. Experiments have been carried out to evaluate
the best drying method by using two drying states (mixed and indirect) from natural
and forced convection. The dryer was operated with a load of 70-80 grams grains
with 43 % average initial moisture content. They reported that the solar dryer is more
efficient using natural convention method for mixed mode drying state compare to
forced convection.
After 90 min of drying, 43.5 % to 4.95 % of moisture contents was reduced
using the passive mixed mode drying method. On the other hand, mixed mode solar
drying can be further classified into two types which is natural convection (passive)

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and forced convection (active). This type of solar dryer has less moisture content
and drying rate compare with the others. Figure 1.6 shows the two modes of mixed-
mode solar dryer

Figure 1.6 Mixed-mode solar dryer (a) active mode; (b) passive mode
1.8.5 Indirect Solar Drying In Active Mode
Active solar dryers or known as forced convection dryer is designed
incorporating external means, like fans or pumps, for moving the solar energy in the
form of heated air from the collector area to the drying beds. The external devices
are used for air circulation. The heated air is forced onto the drying chamber where
it will increase the drying rate as well as thermal efficiency and decreased of drying
time.
It's more effective dryer and suitable used for large scale in food processing
industry. Figure 1.7 shows the active solar convective dryer. Solar dryer using forced
convection system integrated with gravel as heat storage material for chili drying
that have been investigated by Mohanraj and Chandrasekar (2009) and tested at
Pollachi, India. The system consist basically of a flat plate solar air heater connected
to a drying chamber. The blower was connected on the one side of the collector and
sand mixed with aluminum scrap was filled which is to store the heat.

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 The experiment result shown that after 24 hours of drying , the systems were
reduced 72.8 % moisture content to 9.1 % at the bottom tray and 9.8 % at the top
tray. The heat storage material in the solar dryer was conducted for 8 hours during
sunshine hours and continues to drying for 4 hours during sunset.

Figure 1.7 Active solar convective dryer

1.9 Non-technical aspects

A huge advantage of solar dryers is the fact that different types of fruits and
Vegetables can be dried. The quality of products dried in this way is excellent, due
to the fact that the food is not in direct sunlight (cabinet or in house dryer), and due
to a shorter drying process - up to a 1/3 of the time in comparison to traditional sun
drying.
The drying operation must not be considered as merely the removal of
moisture since there are many quality factors that can be adversely affected by
incorrect selection of drying conditions an equipment. The desirable properties of
high-quality, e.g. for grains, include.

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 1. low and uniform moisture content
2. minimal proportion of broken and damaged grains
3. low susceptibility to subsequent breakage
4. high viability
5. low mould counts
6. high nutritive value
7. Consumer acceptability of appearance and organoleptic properties.
Even where there is a demand for loss reducing technical changes, farmers may
find it difficult to adopt recommended technologies, because of cash flow problems,
labour constraints, or lack of materials. Small farmers and traders often find it
difficult to obtain credit at reasonable interest rates, since formal financial
institutions consider loans to them be too risky.
1.10 Drying behavior
Apart from weather conditions the drying behavior of agricultural crops during
drying depends on the
1. Product
2. Size and shape
3. Initial moisture content
4. Final moisture content
5. Bulk density
6. Thickness of the layer
7. Mechanical or chemical pre-treatment
8. Turning intervals
9. Temperature of grain
10.Temperature, humidity of air in contact with the grain
11.Velocity of air in contact with the grain

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1.11 Weather conditions
The performance of solar dryers is significantly dependent on the weather
conditions. Both the heat required for removing the moisture as well as the electricity
necessary for driving the fans are generated in the most cases by solar energy only.
In addition to the pre-treatment of the product, the weather conditions have the
biggest influence on the capacity of product that can be dried within a certain time
period.
The drying time is short under sunny conditions and accordingly extended
during adverse weather conditions. The difference in drying capacity between dry
and rainy season has to be taken into consideration for the calculation of the yearly
capacity of the dryer.
The utilization of solar energy as the only energy source is recommended for
small-scale dryers where the risk of spoilage of big quantities of crops due to bad
weather is low. If large-scale solar dryers are used for commercial purposes it is
strongly recommended to equip the dryer with a back-up heater to bridge periods
with bad weather
1.12 Storage
For small farmers the main purpose in storing grains is to ensure household
food supplies. Farm storage also provides a form of saving, to cover future cash need
through sale, or for barter exchange or gift-giving. Grain is also stored for seed and
as inputs into house hold enterprises such as beer brewing, or the preparation of
cooked food.
There is an ongoing debate about whether farmers are forced to sell because
of debt and economic dependence on others, or whether they sell because they regard
storage as
1. Too costly (in terms of time)
2. Too risky (given the risk of losses and unpredictability of future prices)
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 3. Unprofitable in relation to other investments such as cattle.
4. There is no single answer to the debate, since there is much variation in the
circumstances under which individual farmers operate, both within and
between nations.
1.13 Capacity
The capacity of a solar dryer mainly depends on the crop itself and the shape.
On the one hand, it should not be too big to ensure that the preparation (washing,
slicing and pre-drying processing) of the product to be dried can be completed within
a certain time period. On the other hand it should be big enough to enable the user
to generate income and thus to create new jobs.
1.14 Selection, cleaning and pre-treatment
A process similar to the following seven steps is usually used when drying fruits and
vegetables (and fish, with some modifications)
1. Selection (fresh, undamaged produce)
2. Cleaning (washing & disinfection)
3. Preparation (peeling, slicing, etc.)
4. Pre-treatment (e.g. sulfurizing, blanching, salting)
5. Drying
6. Packaging
7. Storage or sale
Only fresh, undamaged food should be selected for drying to reduce the
chances of spoilage and to help to ensure a quality product. After selection, it is
important to clean the produce. This is because drying does not always destroy micro
organisms, but only inhibits their growth. Fruits, vegetables, and meats generally
require a pre-treatment before drying.
The quality of dried fruits and vegetables is generally improved with one or
more of the following pre-treatments: anti-discoloration by coating with vitamin C,
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de-waxing by briefly boiling and quenching, and sulfurization by soaking or
fumigating. Fish is often salted. A small amount of chemical will treat a large amount
of produce, and thus the cost for these supplies is usually small. However, potential
problems with availability and the complexity of the process should be considered.
After selection, cleaning, and pre-treatment, produce is ready to place in the
dryer trays. Solar dryers are usually designed to dry a batch every three to five days.
Fast drying minimizes the chances of food spoilage. However, excessively fast
drying can result in the formation of a hard, dry skin a problem known as case
hardening. Case hardened foods appear dry outside, but inside remain moist and
susceptible to spoiling. It is also important not to exceed the maximum temperature
recommended, which ranges from 35 to 45°Cdepending upon the produce. Learning
to properly solar dry foods in a specific location usually requires experimentation.
For strict quality control, the drying rate may be monitored and correlated to the food
moisture content to help determine the proper drying parameters.
After drying is complete, the dried produce often requires packaging to
prevent insect losses and to avoid re-gaining moisture. It should cool first, and then
be packaged in sanitary conditions. Sufficient drying and airtight storage will keep
produce fresh for six to twelvemonths. If possible, the packaged product should be
stored in a dry, dark location until use or sale. If produce is to be exported, it must
meet the quality standards of the target country. In some cases this will require a
chemical and microbiological analysis of dried samples in a laboratory.
Food drying requires significant labour for pre-treatment (except for grains),
and minimal involvement during the drying process such as shifting food to insure
even drying. Solar drying equipment generally requires some maintenance.

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1.5 Grain specific considerations
• Wheat
The most critical decision in harvesting is not the degree of mechanization but
the timing of the harvest. If the harvest starts late, the grain becomes too dry and rate
of grain shattering is high. The longer a ripe crop is left in the field or on the threshing
floor, the higher will be the loss from natural calamities including hailstorm, fire,
birds, or rodents. The moisture content of the grain will be high, making drying
difficult if the harvest start too early.
• Rice
Field drying of the harvested paddy (rice), if it is not a shattering variety,
should be practiced moderately during the dry season only. If hand harvested by
sickle the grip size bundles are better laid out separated rather than stacked to achieve
greater aeration rather than stacked. Stacking of moist paddy will cause heating up
of the paddy, increasing the activity of micro- organisms and initiate a major
deterioration in quality. A safe way is to thresh the paddy immediately after
harvesting.
Two-stage drying consisting of flash or high-temperature short-exposure or
fast drying to 18 % during the first stage and low-temperature and slow drying or
sun drying to 14 % during the second stage is another technique to save a large
volume of wet grain. Paddy at 18 % moisture content can be stored for two weeks.
However, re-wetting of the grain should be avoided to prevent cracking or fissuring
which will have telling effects in milling.
• Drying of Seed Grain
If grain is destined for use as seed then it must be dried in a manner that
preserves the viability of the seed. Seed embryos are killed by temperatures higher
than 40-42°C and therefore low temperature drying regimes must be used.

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 Seed grain may be dried in any type of dryer provided that it is operated at a
low temperature and preferably with higher air flow rates than generally used. It is
essential that batches of grain of different varieties are not mixed in any way and
therefore the dryers and associated equipment used must be designed for easy
cleaning. In this respect simple flat-bed dryers are more suitable than continuous
flow dryers.
Noted that seed paddy can be sun dried at depths of up to 30 mm but that the
final stages of drying to 12 % moisture should be conducted in the shade to avoid
overheating and kernel cracking. Flat-bed dryers can be used with bed depths of up
to 0.3 m, air temperatures not exceeding 40 °C, and airflows of 1.3 - 1.7 m³/s per
tonne of grain. Cross-mixing between batches of different varieties can be avoided
by drying in sacks in a flat-bed dryer although care must be taken in packing the
loaded sacks in the dryer to ensure reasonably even distribution of airflow.
Specialized tunnel dryers in which sacks or portable bins are individually placed
over openings in the top of the tunnel have been developed.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Excel (1979) worked vat the Asian institute of technology and built a rice
dryer to be constructed by the local farmers at low cost using indigenous materials.
In this dryer sunlight passed through the clear plastic sheet and warmed the air inside
aided by a layer of burnt rice hunks that covered the ground below to absorb the
radiation. The warm air passed through the bad off the paddy and dried it. The
chimney provided a tall column of warm air that increases the flow of heat through
the bad by natural convection. The air inlet when faced the wind direction increase
the flow further.

Djokoto et al developed and tested solar tunnel dryer for drying weight at
international rise research institute (IRRI) Philippines. The dryer consisted of a
collector and tunnel drying chambers arranged parallel to each other. A centrifugal
blower with backward curved drying air through the collector.
Gomez (1981) conducted experimental on a number of vegetables to see the
effect of drying on vitamin c and carotene content. Four selected species were
subjected to solar dehydration with and without photo protection. Two treatments,
steams blanching and sulphating were applied and Carton relation in the resulting
dried product was evaluated. A control study was conducted with ambient
temperature shade dried material subjected to the same pre-treatment. Mango and
papaya were similarly subjected to blanching citric acid, and sucrose pre-treatment
respectively to find out the cartone and vitamin C.

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 Fazal-ur-rehman (1988) developed a simple technique for producing, at
village level sun-dried apples. Development of pink discoloration in apples during
sun drying was adequately controlled.

Tyuirn et al (1989) designed and developed a simple solar powered dryer for
fruits. A layer of produce was spread in a solar heated chamber on a lattice through
which air was forced. Roof ventilators regulated inside temperature and humidity
within 6 days, grapes could be dried sufficiently for further processing, whereas
onions were dried within 24 hours.

Hauser et al (1993) designed, fabricated and tested a tunnel type solar dryer
for fruit and vegetables in morocco. The installation was used for drying “canino”
Apricots, which were first cut in half and de-stoned, then immersed for 10 minutes
In solution of 6% Na2S2So5 to preserve their colour and guarantee their storage life.
The apricot halves were then arranged on the dryer grill in a single layer with the
internal flesh uppermost at 750-1000- halves per m2 once the dryer was closed the
fans were switched on. The maximum drying temperature was selected 65 ۬C to
avoid significant quality losses. The performance of the dryer was examined and it
was found that 60 kg of dry apricots could be obtained forma harvest of 3000 kg.

Sharma et al (1994) carried out an experimental investigation on three type

of solar dryers (2 natural and forced convection) for fruit and vegetable drying during
the summer in southern Italy. Mushrooms, green chilies and tomatoes were used in
the experiment and weight at 2 hours intervals during drying. Drying as much faster
using the in directed forced convection dryer than with the cabinet or multi-stacked
natural convection dryer particularly on cloudy days. There was no significated that
the cabinet type natural convection dryer is suitable for drying a small quality a small
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quality of the fruit or vegetables on a household scale, the integrated solar collector-
cum-drying system is suitable for drying a limited crop volume on frames, and the
in directed multi shelf forced convection dryer is suitable for industrial use.

Because et al (1977) described the design development optimum working

condition and economic consideration of a solar energy with forced ventilation
developed for use in sahelian countries for drying for product (such as meat, fish,
and fruit).

Kamilov and nazarov (1990) developed a radiation convection solar energy

unit which consisted of an air heater and accumulator (filled with pebbles) and a
drying chamber. The drying chamber was wooden cabinet with trays inside,
arranged in 4 tiers. The temperature in the drying chamber was 55-60۠ C and air
velocity 0.6-1.3 m/s. Result of tests showed that the drying time. In comparison with
natural drying as 1.2-2.0 times shorter and the drying quality was better. The unit
could be used in field conditions also.

Fuller et al (1994) developed and tested a solar rotary tray system for use in
solar tunnel dryer. The system was designed to replace and overcome the main
limitation which occurred with stacked try system. The system offered advisor even
drying and easy on and off loading compared with stacked trays. The anther pointed
out that trials conducted in 1989 shoed uneven exposure of the bottom trays, solar
radiation attenuation was approximately 70%, 30%, 10%, and 5% respectively.

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 Abidov et al (1990) designed and tested a solar fruit-drying unit with a solar
chamber divided into three section with heat-insulated walls. The internal walls were
colour black. Convention was provided by holes and intensified by a ventilation
pipe. In the period of passive radiation the outlet holes were closed.

Battcock [1990] gave an overview of the method and problems of solar drying
in developing countries. Structures for solar drying eliminated some of the problems
of product quality, dust contamination, damage from sudden rainstorms, animals or
birds, etc. such structures include the brace dryer for fruits and vegetable drying.
Chimney dryes for rice tent dryer for fish and forced convention dryer for red
pappers.

Horibe et al (1990) studies the performance of the greenhouse in order to

improve the efficiency of a solar drying system for grain drying. A black or blue
vinyl sheet was out on the floor inside the greenhouse as heat-collection surface.
Radiation characteristics, changes of temperature and humidity in the air inside the
greenhouse, and the black vinyl sheet was most efficient for heat collection.

Miah [1993] reviewed the present situation regarding grain-drying

technology in Bangladesh. Various drying methods were discussed including sun
drying and drying rooms with ceiling fans, and a recently developed batch dryer was
also mentioned briefly. It was concluded that while arterial dryers were not cost-
effective during sunny wither, they were found essential during prolonged period of
rain.

24
 Nile and Rumsey [1994] formulated, developed and a model that described
the sun frying of a cylindrical slab of constant section obtained from a cassava tuber.
The model considered the resistance to internal migration of water as the rate-
determining factor. The influence of resistance of radiation intensity, ambient drbulb
temperature. Relative humidity, wind velocity and mass of material per unit try area
[loading] on the sun drying rate of cassae chips were investigated. The factors that
directly influenced the internal temperature inside the food were low, such that a
simple lumped-capacity models that predicted a uniform internal food temperature
inside the food were low, such that predicated a uniform internal food temperature
could be used in combination with the moisture field. Modern variations are of dry
to build special enclosed drying racks or cabinates to expose the food to a flow of
dry air heated by electricity, propane or solar radiation are a modern variation. These
are refinements not essential to the basic process but handy, particularly in the humid
tropics or when the rainy season coincides with the harvest.

Hii et al. have shown that sun drying is economical, but the product obtained
by it is of lower quality due to contamination by dust, insects, birds, pets and rain.
Also, loss of vitamins, nutrients and unacceptable colour changes due to direct
exposure to ultraviolet rays.

Umogbai et al. made a comparison between sun drying and solar drying and
obtained that solar dryers generate higher temperatures, lower relative humidity,
lower product moisture content and reduced spoilage during the drying process than
sun drying .Rajeshwari and Ramalingam have demonstrated that the drying time in
case of solar dryers compared to open air drying reduced by about 20 % and produces
better quality dried products.

25
 Gornicki et al shows by studying of the orange fleshed sweet potato with
different pretreatment and by testing vitamin degradation in the same product dried
in three different dryers. The reason for this could be the great variation in size and
shape of the pieces, different pretreatment, temperature, time, exposure to light and
oxygen.

Yusuf Abdullahi et al designed a model of a box type adjustable and

collapsible natural convection solar food dryer, capable of drying 16.52kg of fresh
groundnut with maximum moisture content of 35%, was designed and constructed
using locally available materials.

R. VidyaSagarRaju et al constructed laboratory dryer based on preliminary

investigations of drying under controlled conditions. The designed dryer with a
collector area of 1m2 is expected to dry 20kg fresh vegetables from 89.6% to 13%
wet basis in two days under ambient conditions during harvesting period from
February to March.

Diemuodeke et al experimented the direct natural convection solar dryer was

designed and fabricated to dry tapioca in the rural area.

A. Madhlopa et al. developed an indirect type natural convection solar dryer

integrated with collector storage and biomass-backup heaters. The major
components of the dryer were biomass burner (with a rectangular duct and flue gas
chimney), collector storage thermal mass and drying chamber.

26
 A.A. El-Sebaii designed an indirect type natural convection solar dryer. The
system consists of a flat plate solar air heater connected to a cabinet acting as a
drying chamber.

I.N. Simate developed a comparison of optimized mixed-mode and indirect-

mode natural convection solar dryers for drying maize. The models are run under
variable solar conditions in order to optimize the dryers and compare their
performance.

A.Balasuadhakar et al reviewed the various passive solar dryers for

agricultural products.It has been identified from the review of literature that the
passive solar dryer has not been designed with energy storing material. In the present
research, low-cost indirect-type solar dryer will be fabricated with gravel as an
energy storing materials the performance of the dryer has been measured in the form
of moisture removal rate and dryer efficiency.

27
 CHAPTER 3
EXISTING SYSTEM

3.1 Working Principle of Solar Dryer

 The absorber plate receives the heat from solar radiation and gets heated
because of greenhouse effect. While the air passing over of absorber plate, it
absorbs the heat energy and gets heated. As the air passes through the flat
plate collector it absorbs more heat from the absorber plate and modified
absorbing system.
 Atmospheric air enter the cabinet, it’s converted into hot air.
 One side using open type door in glass cover by using insert and remove the
things.
 Due to passing of hot air and direct solar energy, the moisture in the food
grain’s/fruits & vegetables are dried faster.
3.2 Design Procedure for a Solar Based Natural Convection Dryer
A complete theoretical design consideration for design of solar based natural
convection type fruit and vegetables drier is given. The dryer requirements like
initial and final moisture content of product to be dried, the optimum temperature
and air flow rate required for drying, a step by step procedure for flat plate collector
of matching capacity is follows.
3.3 The Design of The Air Heater Depends Upon
* Drying requirements of things.
* Climate factor.
* Availability of materials of constructions.
3.3.1 Drying Requirements
This is the most important among all which includes the temperature and air
flow rate for a particular product being dried. Different temperature range for
28
different products is recommended but corresponding air flow rates are not there.
Care should be taken to avoid case hardening. So the air should have enough flow
rates that are sufficient for removal of moisture in specified time. It includes initial
and final moisture content of the crop and its specific heat.
Most of the fruits and vegetables have higher moisture content up to 90% and
they are dried up to 15-20% and even sometimes less than 3-4%.
The energy required for drying of a particular product can be divided into three sub
groups.
 Energy required raising the product temperature up to air temperature in the
form of sensible heat.
 Latent heat of vaporization for removal of moisture.
 Losses which depend upon various numbers of factors like, thermal
insulation, area in contact of drying air and can be predicted accordingly.
It is important at this point that all of these help for preliminary calculation, selection
of product decides the temperature for which the air should be heated.
3.3.2 Climatic Factors
It is also an important role and under these factors come are ambient air
temperature, ambient relative humidity, solar intensity and wind velocity, during
time of operation. It is always better to design for the worst condition.
Ambient relative humidity is more during winter season and low during
summer. Similarly wind velocity’s more during summer and less during winter
season. There should be compromise among all these factors as during one season if
one thing is favorable the other may not be. For example during summer season the
availability of solar insulation is more which is favorable but at the time wind
velocity is also more dose not suit, so it is very important to decide a suitable values
for these parameters.

29
3.3.3 Material of Construction
It includes the selection of various available material, like aluminum sheet,
polythene etc., for covers, aluminum square rod, metal sheets for absorber plate and
suitable material for insulation etc.
Keeping in view the cost and durability these materials are selected as
polythene is cheaper but not durable. Aluminum sheets and aluminum rods etc.
selection of insulation material is also dependent upon its cost, availability, thermal
conductivity, transportability etc.

30
 CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Though food preservation is the main objective of the solar dryers, diversified
shortcoming can be observed which are associated with them. The following are the
shortcomings.
 Low efficiency.
 High cost.
 Not portable enough.
But, the solar dryer model, which we suggest, has overcome the above shortcomings.
4.1 Construction of the Solar Dryer
The materials used for the construction of the solar dryer are cheap and easily
obtainable in the local market. The essential features of the dryer, consisting of the
solar collector (air heater), the drying cabinet and drying trays.
4.2 Collector (Air Heater)
The heat absorber (inner box) of the solar air heater was constructed using
0.05 mm thick aluminum plate, painted black, is mounted in an outer box built from
aluminum square rod (3/4 inch) and wood plate (1/4 inch).
The solar collector assembly consists of air flow channel enclosed by
transparent cover. An absorber mesh screen midway between the glass cover and the
absorber back plate provides effective air heating because solar radiation that passes
through the transparent cover is then absorbed by both the mesh and back-plate.
4.3 Drying Tray
The drying trays are contained inside the drying chamber and were
constructed from a double layer of fine chicken wire mesh with a fairly open
structure to allow drying air to pass through the food items.

31
4.4 The Orientation of the Solar Dryer
The flat-plate solar collector is always tilted and oriented in such a way that it
receives maximum solar radiation during the desired season of used. The best
stationary orientation is due south in the northern hemisphere and due north in
southern hemisphere. Therefore, solar collector in this work is oriented facing south
o o
and tilted at 17.5 to the horizontal. This is approximately 10 more than the local
o
geographical latitude (Ado-Ekiti a location in Nigeria, 7.5 N), which according to
Adegoke and Bolaji (2000), is the best recommended orientation for stationary
absorber. This inclination is also to allow easy run off of water and enhance air
circulation.
4.5 Operation of the Dryer
Fig. 4.1 shows the isometric drawing of the mixed-mode solar dryer. The
dryer is a passive system in the sense that it has no moving parts. It is energized by
the sun’s rays entering through the collector glazing. The trapping of the rays is
enhanced by the inside surfaces of the collector that were painted black and the
trapped energy heats the air inside the collector. The greenhouse effect achieved
within the collector drives the air current through the drying chamber. If the vents
are open, the hot air rises and escapes through the upper vent in the drying chamber
while cooler air at ambient temperature enters through the lower vent in the collector.
Therefore, an air current is maintained, as cooler air at a temperature T a enters

through the lower vents and hot air at a temperature Te leaves through the upper vent.

When the dryer contains no items to be dried, the incoming air at a

temperature ‘Ta’ has relative humidity ‘Ha’ and the out-going air at a temperature

‘Te’, has a relative humidity ‘He’. Because Te >Ta and the dryer contains no item, Ha

>He. Thus there is tendency for the out-going hot air to pick more moisture within

32
the dryer as a result of the difference between Ha and He. Therefore, insulation

received is principally used in increasing the affinity of the air in the dryer to pick
moisture.
In this work the solar dryer has been designed considering various system
parameters such as inlet temperature of air, humidity, moisture carried by air per
minute and outlet temperature of air. The materials are considered for various parts
of the dryer and dryer is fabricated by various processes.
4.6 Design Features of the Dryer
The solar dryer has the shape of a home cabinet with tilted transparent top.
The angle of the slope of the dryer cover is 15º for the latitude of location. The dryer
is set on casters to make it mobile. It is provided with air inlet and outlet holes at the
front and back, respectively. The outlet vent is at higher level. The vents have sliding
covers which control air inflow and outflow. The movement of air through the vents,
when the the dryer is placed in the path of airflow, brings about a thermo siphon
effect which creates an updraft of solar heated air laden with moisture out of the
drying chamber. The source of air is natural flow.
4.7 Solar Dryer Design Considerations
A solar dryer was design based on the producer described by Ampratwum
(1998) for drying dates (a cabinet type) and procedure described by Basunia and Abe
(2001) for drying rough rice (natural convection a mixed-mode type). The size of
the dryer was determined based on preliminary investigation which was found to be
2.6kg per m2 (tray loading). The sample thickness is 3mm as recommended by Bret
for solar drying of mango slices. The following points were considered in the design
of the natural convection solar dryer system:
1) The amount of moisture to be removed from a given quantity of wet mango.
2) Harvesting period during which the drying is needed.

33
 3) The daily sunshine hours for the selection of the total drying time.
4) The quantity of air needed for drying. e- Daily solar radiation to determine
energy received by the dryer per day.
5) Wind speed for the calculation of air vent dimensions.
4.8 Design procedure
The size of the dryer was determined as a function of the drying area needed
per kilogram of pulp of fruit. The drying temperature was established as a function
of the maximum limit of temperature the fruit might support. From the climatic data
(meteorological station, Shambat, Khartoum North) the mean average day
temperature in April is 30ºC and RH is 15 %. From the psychrometeric chart the
humidity ratio is 0.0018kg H2O/kg dry air. From the result of preliminary
experiments on the crop, the optimal drying temperature was 70ºC and final moisture
content of mango for storage is 10% w.b. the corresponding relative humidity is
51%(sorption isotherms equation).
4.9 Modelling Of Solar System
CAD modeling software is dedicated for the specialized job of 3D-modeling.
The model of the solar system structures also includes many complicated parts,
which are difficult to make by any of other CAD modeling as well as Finite Element
software. CAD modeling of the complete solar system structure is performed by
using PRO-E software. PRO-E is having special tools in generating surface design
to construct typical surfaces, which are later converted into solid models.
Solid model of all parts of the structures are then assembled to make a
complete structure. The process of assembly is very much analogous to general
process of fabricating structures while real production. The CAD model of single
and solar system used for FE Analysis during assembly is shown in figure. The
assembled CAD model has been prepared from various part modeling drawings.

34
4.8 Software Tools

4.8.1. Pro-E

 The part modeling environment in which the extrude command is used for the
modeling of the solar system and the stiffeners are made using the glide command.
 The parameters required for the modeling of solar system are contour dimensions
height, length, fillet radius, hole diameter.
 Holes were made using surface trim command. The 3D SOLID is prepared by
thickness in the third dimension provided after selecting the 2-D shell element.

Figure 4.1 Dryer

35
Figure 4.2 Top view

Figure 4.3 front view

36
 The body of the dryer is a locally constructed by simple design with portable
size. Because main parts of the body such as cabinet, solar unit can be separated. UV
stabilized polythene is used to cover the whole the dryer body externally. Frame of
the body is made of Aluminium.
4 .8 The Cabinet
This cabinet consists of four walls. One wall is opened into the solar collector.
Which bring air into the cabinet and is moved up through the chimney and out the
vent at the side. Air circulation is of utmost importance, as the moisture must be able
to escape the cabinet, and the entire product must be exposed to circulation, in order
for proper drying. There are four trays in the cabinet so capacity of the dryer is high.
And there is a 12” height top of the cabinet and it is help to the natural convection
process of the dryer. Instead of normal bend, used smoothes bend to increase the
flow rate of air inside the cabinet as shown in Figure No: 4.3
4.8.1 Trays
The frames of the four trays which is 12”x12”, made by using steel rod(1/4”)
and net and bolt mesh fixed into it.

Figure 4.4 Trays

4.8.2 Solar Unit
The frame of the solar unit is made using aluminium sheet (0.05) and it is
covered with UV stabilized polythene all sides. Both of them, one side which air
entering side is covered with a wire mesh in order to avoid entering numerous
particles and insects. Other side is connected to the cabinet using two spring locks.
Here the joint is sealed with rubbers in order to minimize the leakage of the airflow

37
to the environment. Black colored Aluminium plate is located middle in the solar
unit. Due to this the solar unit absorbs more amount of solar energy. There is an
inclination of about 2º for the purpose of gather solar energy throughout the day.

38
 CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTATION

5.1 Test Procedure

* The absorber plate receives the heat from solar radiation and gets heated because
of greenhouse effect.
* While the air passing through the absorber plate, it absorbs the heat energy.
* It absorbs heat efficiently compare to the ordinary flat plate collector.
* Efficiency of the collector is improved.
* It is proved with the following observation.
During the drying process the humidity ratio changes from 0.0104 to 0.0140
i.e. about 0.0036 kg of vapour per kg of dry air is absorbed. Now by using solar
energy, the air is heated to 45ºC with a relative humidity of 17 per cent and is passed
over drying material. During the drying process, this air is cooled adiabatically along
the 24ºC wet bulb line, and then the final humidity ratio will be 0.0189. thus the
moisture evaporated with the heated air will be 0.0075 kg of vapour per kg of dry
air which is almost double the water evaporated compared to when air was too
heated.
The initial moisture content, the final moisture content and the maximum
temperature at which product should be dried are very important and the values for
a variety of products are given in Table.

39
Table 5.1 Maximum temperature allowable for drying and the initial and final
moisture contents of various products.

Product Moisture content (%) Maximum temperature

allowable for the drying ( oC )
Initial Final
Rice 24 11 50
Carrots 70 5 75
Green 70 5 75
beans
Onions 80 4 55
Potatoes 75 13 75
Chilies 80 5 65
Pineapple 80 10 65
Yams 80 10 65

40
 Table 5.2 Tabulation of three variable surface readings: (temperature difference)

S. No Time Time Solar Dryer Solar Dryer Solar Dryer

Interval Variation Fin Stone Convection
Temperature Temperature Temperature
ºc ºc ºc
1 10.00 30 min 73 70 67
AM
2 10.30 30 min 75 71 69
AM
3 11.00 30 min 78 73 70
AM
4 11.30 30 min 80 75 71
AM
5 12.00 30 min 83 78 73
AM

5.2 Model Calculation

Volume flow rate of air, Qa = (Cd X π X da2X 2g Ha)0.5
4
Where
Cd – 0.64 (assumed) normally it varies from 0.6 to 0.65 for orifice
do – diameter of orifice = 50 mm
ha- height of air column.
Normal black surface temperature = 67+69+70+71+73
5
= 70oc

41
Black stone surface temperature = 70+71+73+75+78
5
= 73.4oc
Black fin surface temperature = 73+75+78+80+83 = 77.8oc
5
5.3 Observation
Table 5.3 observation of the experiment

SL.NO DESCRIPTION CONVENTIONAL NEW DESIGN

METHOD METHOD
(fin &stone)

1 Temperature Less temperature More temperature

2 Performance Less High

3 Cost More Less

04 Handling Critical Easy

05 Efficiency Less More

42
Figure 5.1Dryer conventional

Figure 5.2 Dryer With Stone

43
Figure 5.3 Dryer With Fin

44
 CHAPTER 6
RESULT ANALYSIS

X-axis Time in min

Y-axis Temperature in = oc

Figure 6.1 Solar dryer convection temperature

6.1 Advantages & Limitations
A.) Advantages
1. Much less time is required for drying as compared to direct drying because of
black body.
2. Protection of the drying products from insects but also from birds, dogs,
especially for drying meat and fish.
3. The product is hygienic because microorganisms, insects and flies are killed
4. Protection of rain. 5. Protection of pollution by dust etc.

45
6. Protection of the wind which can blow away the food
B.) Limitation
1. Not workable at night.
2. Efficiency decreases to a large extent on cloudy days.
3. Overheating may occur if regular attention is not paid.
4. Due to overheating, it can decrease the quality of food.
5. Change in taste and flavour of food may occur if regular monitoring is not done.
6. We cannot get the accurate amount of sun rays and heat.

46
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS
In this project we introduce fin and stone over conventional dryer. Out of these
by using of fin type dryer high efficiency compare to others. Because of the more
surface area. They are of little use during cloudy weather. During fair weather they
can work too well. Although solar dryers involve an initial expense, they produce
better looking, better tasting, and more nutritious foods, enhancing both their food
value -and their marketability. They also are faster, safer, and more efficient than
traditional sun drying techniques.

47
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PHOTOGRAPHY

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