Grigory Reinin

Socionics: Typology. Small Groups.

To my son Sasha

The two people without whom this book could not have been written are my teachers, Aušra
Augustinavičiūtė and Igor Kalinauskas. I have been admiring them for years.
I am deeply grateful to the late Dr. Vladimir Ganzen, a remarkable psychologist, former
professor of St.-Petersburg State University, for his live open discussions and for reviewing and
critiquing one of my earlier works, “The Theoretical Analysis of Typological Descriptions in
Psychology.”
My sincere gratitude to my colleagues: psychologists Elena Petrova and Eugeny Lisak. Working
together with them in Socionics workshops was for me personally, incredibly helpful and fruitful.
I would like to also thank Dr. Marina Najanova, the chancellor of the Samara Municipal
Najanova University, for her deep interest in my work and the opportunity to give a series of
lectures on Socionics for the university faculty.
Special thanks to Nina Volchek for the enormous responsibility of doing the work of transcribing
countless audio- and videotapes, her indispensable help during manuscript preparation, and for her
endless patience and readiness to work.
To my daughter Katia, to Peter Perlin, Olga Solokhina, Svetlana Reinin, Irina Sukhorukova – my
gratitude for their ready, reliable and timely help in preparing and editing texts.
My deep appreciation to Alexander Romanenko, without whom the publishing of the book would
have not been possible, and been postponed for an indefinite amount of time.
Grigory Reinin

Introduction
 Socionics is defined and taught in many different ways. To me, it is defined as the science of
types of individuals and their relationships. I would not separate it from psychology. It is the part of
personality psychology that deals with personality classification, the study of relationships and laws
of forming of groups with a wide spectrum of personality characteristics.
Psychologists practicing Socionics are often asked to analyze relationships in existing groups, to
build teams for certain tasks, or to review conflicts.
Socionics has a wide spectrum of application to different areas of psychology – from career-
guidance to family counseling and personal advice.
Socionics is one of the most effective tools of self-development useful for revealing personal
problems, determining strong and weak traits of one's personality and correcting behavior.
Socionics allows an individual to look at oneself from outside. I have a personal conviction that
every psychologist before he/she begins helping people with their problems should acquire clear
understanding of him/herself and have a professional attitude towards one's own personality.
Any expert's authority in a given sphere of knowledge depends on his/her skill of discernment of
objects in the given field of study. An experienced steel maker can tell the exact metal temperature
by simple observation; likewise an optic lens polisher who is an expert in his field can discern the
precision of polishing by touch, and etc.
A psychologist's expertise is revealed primarily in discerning people's characters, their motives,
problems, fears and behavioral reactions. I believe that Socionics helps its practitioners to
considerably progress in this direction and widen the horizons of psychology as a science in
general. On the other hand, Socionics – and here I absolutely agree with Igor Kalinauskas - is a
science of banalities. But the knowledge of the banal, behavioral stereotypes, of standard reactions
and standard scenarios in relationships, helps to sort through and set these things aside when
dealing with people and their problems.
What is Socionics? What are its origins? The basic principles of Socionics were developed from
K. G. Jung's notion of stable psychological types of personality. His book “Psychological Types”
was published in 1921, and its Russian edition forwarded by professor Ivan Ermakov was published
in 1924, the full Russian translation, being completed in 1929, in Zurich.
Already the core principles of that early work allowed the distinction between 16 different types
of personality, although Jung himself never went into great detail to describe each one of them. In
the late 1930, this typology drew the attention of Isabelle Meyers and other American scientists.
The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) gives the ability to define all the 16 types of personalities.
It was (and is still being) used for the purposes of career-guidance, crew building in the Navy,
forming of classes, etc.
During the mid-sixties in Lithuania, in the USSR, unaware of the fact that the works were
published in the US at that time, Aušra Augustinavičiūtė pursued the same field of research, which
she called 'Socionics'. She worked as a counselor-psychologist, and during the course of her
practice, she always came face to face with the same haunting question: “Why is it that between
two seemingly good people often develop bad relationships?” Why should they be in conflict at all?
What is the reason of their inability to live or work together? In the search for the answer to this
'resurfacing question', she then turned to Jung's works and his typology, and with time she came to
the conclusion that certain types of relationships develop between certain types of personalities
involved. Thus Aušra Augustinavičiūtė made a step from “personality psychology” to the typology of
“relationships between the types” (the results of studies in this area conducted in America were not
available for the soviet psychologists at that time). Working alone in spite of the absence of these
∗
other works published in the US, she developed and described the system of types, the socion ,
and outlined all possible intertype relationships. This undoubtedly was a completely new approach
within the USSR: neither Jung nor anybody else for that matter in psychology had previously
studied relationships between the types before she did.
Aušra Augustinavičiūtė saw the socion as a structural unity of human society containing within
itself all possible kinds of human personality qualities and relationships. For some time this
research was known only to a small group of enthusiast who supported Aušra Augustinavičiūtė's
ideas, later the Institute of Socionics was founded in Kiev. Today Socionics research groups exist in
Moscow, St.-Petersburg, Vorkuta, and Dnepropetrovsk where psychologists work on the application
and development of Socionics’ principles. Several colleges offer courses in Socionics: the Barnaul
Medical College, the St.-Petersburg Human Biology and Psychology Institute. Scientists at the St.-
Petersburg Military Medical Academy studied the predisposition of types to certain diseases in the
context of the known personality types. As a result, a highly accurate method of predicting potential
disorders was developed.


The socion is a complete model of society in socionics. The socion consists of four quadras that include all the
16 types.
 The Kiev Socionics Research Institute is the largest Socionics research center on the territory of
the former USSR. In the USA the largest typology-oriented organization is The Association for
Psychological Type (APT) (*an international educational membership and organization certifying
professionals who use typology in their occupations and professional practices*) whose
membership of 6000 from 30 different countries are engaged in the further development and
application of Jung's typology. Every year about 4 million people are tested according to the
typology methods in the USA alone. In the West such methods are widely used for career-guidance
and family counseling.
Many statistical studies were conducted aimed at the correlation between person's
psychological type and occupation. The difference between the approach in the former USSR and
its American counterpart is in the Russian researchers focus more on giving precise definitions to
the types and the models detailing the characteristics of types, rather than on the practical use of
the theory of types.
In the social psychology, the use of typology for practical purposes was made possible by the
creation of the MBTI (Myers Briggs Type Indicator) developed by Isabel Myers and Katharine
Briggs in the 1930 (first edition published in 1942, with further development for several decades
following, culminated at the publication of the Form G in 1977).
Widespread research started in America after the Center for Applications of Psychological Type
(CAPT), under the direction of Mary McCauley, was founded in Florida in 1975.
In the MBTI, person's type is defined with the use of 4 orthogonal scales, each representing a
dichotomy:
1) Extroversion – Introversion
2) Thinking – Feeling
3) Sensoring – Intuition
4) Rationalizing/Judging – Irrationally/Perceiving (understood as opposition to a planned
disposition vs. the impulsiveness which is somewhat different from Jung's definition of the
criterion - originally he used the terms rationality/rationalizing – irrationality/irrationalizing)
The main spheres of the MBTI application are education, business and occupational
counseling.
A discipline only becomes a science with the development of a sound classification, as stated
by many outstanding scientists. Psychologists and psychiatrists, at different times and from different
countries, have offered several different types of classifications, so it is safe to conclude that the
existence of psychological types is a proven fact.
Socionics operates with 16 types of human personality. These types are the result of the
combination of four independent criteria, defined by K.G. Jung, and represented as the following
dichotomies:
1) Extroversion – Introversion (extroverts are facing the object, introverts are facing the
subject)
2) Logic – Emotions (inclination to logical analysis/decisions or emotional reactions)
3) Sensoring – Intuition ('intuitive' know more of the potential of an object and live in the past or
the future, they are less interested in the now; 'sensing types' are more present in the 'here
and now', in current situations and prefer to be guided by facts)
4) Rationality – Irrationality (rational types are more stable and consistent, irrational tend to be
more labile, unstable/flexible and changeable)

According to Jung, psychological types become apparent in early childhood, influencing

different aspects of the individual's activities and forming the personality's peculiarities.
Aušra Augustinavičiūtė's structural model of types became the key to the comprehensive
descriptions of each type, the modeling of relationships between the types, as well as to the ability
to predict the specifics of small groups with a certain spectrum of relationships between the types.
According to Socionics, the psychological type of a person does not change during their life, as
a rule. The type defines the person's emotional life, appearance and behavior under stress,
professional preferences and a number of other traits.
At the same time, due to the uniqueness of each person's individual personality, we find a wide
variety of behaviors within the limits of that type. Along with the type, other factors play a role –
social/psychological environment during one’s childhood, profession, age, circumstances, health
condition, personal history, variety of social roles – have their impact on the forming of a
personality. As it has been mentioned, Socionics is a science of mundane and banal traits in man,
of stereotypical patterns in people's behavior and perception.
Usually people interact within the limits of the 'mechanic' parts of their types, so the
understanding of these mechanisms is very important for those whose main field of interests or
work is in the realm of human relationships. On the other hand, types are tools given to us by
nature itself. One can learn to use this tool, understand its weak and strong points. It is possible to
notice pressure on one's weak traits and cope with it without negative emotions running wild.
Socionics is a science of human psychological types. Typological approach to the investigation
of human nature is ages old. But it is Socionics, which consistently develops the typological
instruments of psychology, giving new birth to the ideas of Hyppocratus, Galen, Avicenna and also
Jung of our modern times.
I believe that likened to the role of mathematics as the main instrument of physics, Socionics
will take the place it deserves among the instruments of modern psychology.

Lecture I

1. Types of Informational Metabolism.

2. Models and Methods of Socionics.
3. The Qualitative Structures Method.
4. Kalinauskas' Steering Wheel
 1. Descriptions of the Types of Informational Metabolism. (IM)

Aušra Augustinavičiūtė called psychological types the types of informational metabolism. The
term informational metabolism (IM) introduced by A. Kempinsky [9] denotes the process of intake
and processing of information by a person.
Socionics offers different ways of representing IM types. The first way, used by Aušra
Augustinavičiūtė, consists in picturing the characteristic features of types in vivid descriptions
without any uniform structure. This approach was chosen, for example, in E. Filatova's “Socionics
For All”, as well as in the works of B. Ovchinnikov, A. Bukalov, V. Gulenko, V. Stratievskaja, G.
Shulman and others.
Another option is figurative. Each type is represented by a set of photographs of different
people, men and women consisting of the same type, belonging to different social strata, in different
emotional states. This method is often used in training: examining these portraits, one
subconsciously picks out blaring features and develops a mental picture of the type image. After
that one becomes able to recognize the type of person, depending on the mental pictures, which
are developed during training.
Still another way of type description consists of arranging lists of well-known persons and
fictional characters belonging to the same type. Many celebrities, for example: well-known actors,
political figures, scientists; were assigned types by experts. It is rather easy to form clear images of
IM types on this basis. It is a tradition in Socionics that each type is associated with a prominent
person's or a fictional character's name. It has proved to be a very useful and compact method of
designations to types.
On the other hand, within the realm of literature, not all authors are able to create characters of
psychological types, which are vivid and easy to recognize. The only known novel where all 16
types are represented is Tolstoy's War and Peace, although not all of the types are equally
portrayed in detail. Some classical authors used to typically portray only two types; for example: in
Dreiser's novel, we find his own personal type and his counterpart (the dual). Russian author Anton
Chekhov also typically used to create characters of two countertypes and Jack London usually
created two or three. But in Dostoyevsky's novels, up to eight types could be found.
Nevertheless, in classic novels the characters created by author's imagination resemble real
people to a great extent. That is why it is no surprise that Dostoyevsky once wrote to his wife, that
when all is going well with the new novel, the work progresses fast, but often the characters act on
their own will. In the same way Pushkin wrote to Vjasemsky with amusement, "What a trick my
Tatiana played on me! She got married!" in reference to one of his poem's characters. Great
authors allowed their heroes to follow circumstances of their own 'life' instead of creating artificial
circumstances. Some contemporary authors, however, sometimes force their characters to act
unnaturally. So even with a thrilling plot, such novels cannot catch the reader's attention completely:
when, for example characters do not act, feel and look naturally, or do not resemble live persons.
Their character traits could not be found in real life. That is what separates the contemporary author
from the great, classical writers…
One more way to categorize is by structural description based on a model of deducing
characteristics of a character type from a respective functional structure.

Models and Methods of Socionics

The first model – "A Model" – was created by Aušra Augustinavičiūtė in the early 1970s and
outlined in detail in two works on interpersonal relationships and psychology of personality, which
were published in the late 1970s – The Theory of Interpersonal Relationships [1] and About the
Dual Nature of Man (originally titled The Nature of Erotic Feelings) [2]. These books provide original
interpretation of Jung’s theory of psychological types. As it was mentioned above, Aušra
Augustinavičiūtė combined the concept of human psychological types with A. Kempinsky's theory of
intake, processing and sharing of information [9]. Aušra Augustinavičiūtė’s research was
independent of the US socioanalysts’ work, which became available in the former USSR only in the
early 1980s.
Aušra Augustinavičiūtė created special graphic symbols to illustrate the IM types. Each type is
marked by two symbols, which correlate with first two leading functions.
Today there are over a dozen of different models used to illustrate the functioning of IM types.
We will use a simple and, in my opinion, very effective functional model based on the qualitative
structures method developed by Igor Kalinauskas.
 The Qualitative Structures Method (QSM) and the IM Functional Model, Kalinauskas'
Steering Wheel

Igor Kalinauskas developed a method of analysis of integral objects, which he called “the
qualitative structures method" (QSM) [7, 8]. The description of IM type below includes:
1. Description of semantic fields of IM basic elements.
2. Description of IM type functional model structured according to QSM, the Kalinauskas'
Steering Wheel.
3. Summary description of the features in the structure of IM type.
4. Description of the key to actual arrangement of the elements in the functional model of
any type.

Basic Elements of Informational Metabolism

To describe the IM process Aušra Augustinavičiūtė divided it into eight elements, together
they reflect the variety of ways a human being communicates with the world. The number of
elements does not contradict the general scientific informational concept of all communication
types studied in terms of information, energy, space and time.
Now let us examine the elements of informational metabolism; we will be using symbols
developed by Aušra Augustinavičiūtė. These symbols proved to be rather convenient and are
widely used by socionists.

The semantic fields of IM elements could be described as follows:

- Subjective logic. It is my own logic, my understanding, explanation, description,

concept, and theory of things. It is my hierarchy of notions of the things that are closer
or farther, higher or lower. It is what I was taught, my view of this world, my world
outlook. It includes my education, i.e. the system of my ideas and my schooling.

- Objective logic. Logic of the objective world - objective circumstances, facts.

Example: the day began and it started raining. Systems, statistics. Event queue.
Example: “I am late for work because the bridge collapsed". Laws, political policies of
the government, stamps in the passport, traffic laws, prices, private summerhouse
property, my territory, and design drawing of a unit. Thinking objectively people usually
ask: “I want to know the reality of the matter.”

- Subjective intuition. The inner harmony. A state, a mood, and a sense of time.
Personal evaluation of events, of people's actions and morals.

- Objective intuition. The order of events from the beginning to the end, i.e. the
sets of events known beforehand, the schedule. Potential opportunities. Behavior
program, the way of life, the rhythm of life. Scenario of any action, acting in accordance
to predetermined scenario.

- Subjective sensoring. My inner feelings: gustatory sense, tactile sensoring, and

sexual sensoring. State of health. Ability to discern between the pleasant and the
unpleasant.

- Objective sensoring. It is the form, the action, the motion, the act, the
appearance, the gestures and the mimics. It is the person’s will.

- Subjective ethics. It is my attitude to people. It is the liking/disliking of

people/things. It is the emotions I experience.
 - Objective ethics. It is the external relationship, the relationships between other
people and their attitude towards me. It is the emotions of other people.

These are the semantics of the eight basic elements of informational metabolism. And
now let us turn to Table 1.

Table 1

Pseudonyms and Corresponding Comprehensive Names of IM Types

Pseudonyms Labeling by leading function Symbols

Don Quixote Intuitive - logical extrovert

Dumas Sensory-ethical introvert
Hugo Ethical-sensory extrovert
Robespierre Logical -intuitive introvert
Maxim Logical - sensory introvert
Hamlet Ethical -intuitive extrovert
Tutankhamon Intuitive - ethical introvert
Zhukov (Makedonski) Sensory - logical extrovert
Napoleon Sensory -ethical extrovert
Balzac Intuitive - logical introvert
Jack London Logical -intuitive extrovert
Dreiser Ethical - sensory introvert
Dostoevsky Ethical -intuitive introvert
Shtirlitz Logical - sensory extrovert
Gaben Sensory - logical introvert
Huxley Intuitive - ethical extrovert

Psychological functions are the particular abilities of a person to understand certain aspects
of the world. The specific character of each type is defined by the arrangement of the abilities
(functions), by their hierarchy in the informational metabolism of the person. The specific
manifestation of the function depends on its "material" which is the elements of IM described
above.

Labeling of types was done according to first two leading functions. The first symbol
describes the first function – the principle of existence. The second symbol - the second
(creative) function. Detailed descriptions of all 8 functions see below.

The Functional Model of IM Type – Kalinauskas' Steering Wheel

The model, named after its author, The Kalinauskas' Steering Wheel helps to easily
visualize and analyze the qualities of each IM type. The Steering Wheel proved to be
extremely useful in revealing conflict-generating areas in relationships between different types
of people and also it proved to be helpful in mending of those relationships. The qualitative
structures method (QSM) used in the model is a heuristic principle of examining any integral
object, it studies the four basic aspects of any whole: structure, functioning, coordination and
communication.
In Socionics human psyche is traditionally described with the use of an eight-function
structure based on the model suggested by K. G. Jung in his Psychological Types. Each
function has a specific role in the IM type structure. When describing the structure of a specific
IM type each function is correlated to different elements of IM.
 Here below is the graphic representation of functions (resembling an eight-spoked
steering wheel of a boat):
!!! PICTURE!!!
Fig. 1. The functional model of IM type

Each function has a comprehensive description. In general the psychological description

of a type is determined by the placement of the IM elements on the spokes of the steering
wheel (i.e. each element corresponds to a psychological function of the type).
The key explained below rules the allocation of elements in this chart. First of all let us do
a detailed study of the spokes (functions) on the Steering Wheel.

General Characteristic of Functions in the Structure of IM Type

Function number one.

The level of personality organization, or the principle of existence. "Good"

This area of psyche is rather conservative and could hardly be changed. In the area of the
first function lies person’s self-confidence. Here the question 'Do I exist or do I not exist?” is
answered. The first function covers everything that I am confident about, everything I know
about myself. This sphere is very important, deliberate and guarded. Actually it is the system of
values. We label it with the word "good".
Cartesian principle, Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I exist”) is actually valid perhaps
for only two types whose subjective logic corresponds to the first function (i.e., Maxim and
Robespierre). For other types different principles of existence can be valid: “I am loved, therefore
I exist”, “I am healthy, therefore I exist”, “I feel, therefore I exist”, “The world is in order,
therefore I exist”, “I act, therefore I exist”.
Usually in the area of the first function a person demonstrates good grasp and
management of the situation. Here people rely on their own authority and have deep
subconscious confidence that they are right: “I have a good grasp of this area of life”
If this function is "under attack" (for example, someone declares doubts in one's basic
values), the person demonstrates aggression because the area of his life has been invaded
where lies the criterion which determines whether he/she exists or not.
As a rule the person ignores the feedback in the area of the first function. Therefore,
facing a situation requiring to change something pertaining to the first function an individual
tries to change as little as possible or not to do it at all. Any attempt to influence the level of
personality organization is perceived as an attack on the principle of existence, an attempt to
destroy ME.

Everyone needs positive feedback on the first function. It helps a person to think that
everything is all right. It is not difficult to do a competent infusion through the fourth function if
you do a simultaneous positive feedback on the first function.

Function number minus-one.

Area of ignoring. Minus values. "Bad"

The area of ignoring. Here an individual demonstrates uncertainty. This part of reality a
person does not recognize, he ignores it; therefore his psychological space is limited. If
elements of this area become apparent in person’s life they are perceived as objective evil.
Each type ignores a certain part of reality, it bars it from consciousness. Usually it does not see
it.

Function number two.

Creative function. The level of functioning. " Necessary"
 It is the area where an individual acts as a functional system. The second function is also
labeled as the risk zone because in this area a person may take a risk, i.e. has a lot of freedom
for self-realization. Here it is possible to take physical or intellectual risk, or risk in the internal
state. Each IM type has its own risk zone.
The second function could be labeled "it is necessary", or "I need to", because it consists
of means and conditions helpful in self-expression, demonstration of one’s potential &
creativity. There is place for both creation and destruction. A lot of internal freedom to chose
strategy leads to making very “radical” decisions.
Specific character of verbal behavior is in many ways connected with the second function.
The second function means creativity, demonstration of opportunities and things 'that I can do',
and at the same time it is the most easily rationalized sphere.

Function number minus-two.

Area of behavioral norms, standards, stereotypes. "Unnecessary"

Here a person demonstrates conservatism, in this area he is not creative, here the 'self-
evident norms' and most rigid patterns exist. Maintaining of these patterns takes efforts, and
behavior of other people who break these norms irritates him.

Function number three.

Principle of self-appraisal. Area of least resistance. "Problems"

This is the function by which a person estimates him/herself. Psychology has a concept of
a reference group - a group of significant people in one's life (first of all parents, then – other
respected people) who evaluate him: “you are good” or “you are bad”. Thus he receives
energy from the society. Gradually interiorization takes place, i.e. a kind of virtual 'transfer' of
the reference group into the psyche. Psychologically this group of important adults turns into
one of the blocks of one's evaluation thinking, the self-estimation block. When it becomes a
part of our consciousness, there is no place to hide any more.
People subconsciously organize their behavior in order to secure positive feedback on
this function. Positive self-appraisal is an enormous energy source for a person. When an
individual perceives himself as “good”, he or she gets enough enthusiasm, inspiration, and
energy for further performance. Function number three provides reasons for good or bad
attitude to oneself; therefore it can become a source of various neuroses and psychosomatic
disorders (self-justification neuroses in particular). In short, it is a double-edged social
weapon.
This area can be labeled 'the zone of problems'. It is of great significance to a person and
therefore it is a problem. Here people do not understand humor, they are simply not ready to
joke about these issues. As a rule, these jokes cause somatic reflex of autonomic
nervous system, frustration, and stress. People tend to simplify and clarify to the maximum
a situation when possible. There is no place for taking risks. Usually situation is made clear
through simplification: better “in a minus” but clear. Simplification of situation according to
function number three is a psychological shield, which compensates lack of discernment in this
sphere. Here people are very attentive, they demonstrate increased uneasiness. In this sphere
conflicts are not infrequent; petulance is often demonstrated because according to the third
function people need freedom and assurance of psychological safety. Impacting a person
through the third function as a rule causes inadequate (in others' opinion) behavior.
People constantly protect their third function; each person has his own strategy. There are
two kinds of protective devices: "in plus” and “in minus”. Thus, answering a question regarding
one's health someone can say: “I am absolutely healthy” or, on the contrary: “I am so unwell, it
is a surprise I can still walk”. If external relations prevail on the third function, the negative
defense may look as follows: “Yes, I am bad, I am even worse than you think”. It is at least
clear: “I am the worst”. Positive defense is displayed when a person basically could not stand
any exacerbation and tries to sort out attitudes: “Do you love me?” or, “Did I offend you? I did
not mean to. Let's sort it out. I am a good person worthy of your love”. People put a lot of effort
in putting up a defense around vulnerable areas. If the logic of the objective world prevails here
then I should know precisely whether this territory is mine or not, whether this job is mine or
not, i.e. to know definitely where the borders of the social structure are.
 As it has already been said, the third function is a place in the structure of personality type
through which the individual gets energy from the society. The constant negative self-appraisal
is unbearable for anyone. People go to extreme measures to deny the bad traits in
himself/herself. It is interesting to examine the development of neuroses from the point of view
of putting up a defense according to the third function when self-justification leads to an
“escape to illness”. Trying to avoid the judgment of his/her consciousness: “there is nothing
good in me”, a person begins to justify him/ herself: “There is nothing wrong with me, I am just
ill”. Then the block of self-estimation starts to work in not-so-strict mode making allowance for
the illness, and in order to validate the allowance the person 'supports' the illness. The analysis
of the third function helps to better understand the neurotic mechanisms of escaping from
reality.
The more we protect the third function the more we detach ourselves from the world and
the more 'reasons' we have for various disorders. Any defense in this area leads to fixing
boundaries, to dividing, splitting the whole world into parts and areas. Any splitting causes
inner contradictions and eventually results in the inability to adapt, loneliness and illness. The
result is not always dramatic, but this mechanism works, and such scenario can be observed
quite often.
If a person is successful in the sphere of the third function he or she may flaunt and seek
for approval of close ones, because success is a reason for good self-esteem. According to
the third function people are in need of clear confirmation that “they are all right”. “People really
admire me, they need me” (Don Quixote and Zhukov). “This is in fact my territory, and my
soldiers are loyal to me” (Napoleon). “I truly understand this all, and my understanding is
confirmed by experts and authorities in the area” (Dumas). If suddenly something goes wrong,
efforts are made to clarify the situation. For an onlooker these actions seem superfluous, not
adequate at all to the situation. Uncertainty, ambiguity in issues pertaining to the third function
is subjectively experienced as a loss of energy, that is why this area takes person's close
attention and becomes a favorite topic for discussions. If only people realized how much time
they spend supporting psychological comfort according to the third function!

Function number minus-three.

Zone of problem solving.

This function suggests ways to solve problems of a particular IM type.

Function number four.

Suggestive function. The principle of "place assessment". Motives. "I want to"

This is a function through which a suggestion might be done most easily. In the fourth
function area an individual is open for external influences. Depending on which type the person
belongs to; different outer signals have more or less impact on him or her. It is often thought
(often confirmed at public hypnosis sessions) that 7 to 10 % of people yield to hypnosis
while others do not. I believe that it is just not so. Each person is subject to suggestive
psychotherapy. The problem is that the techniques of trance induction used at public
sessions work effectively only with one or two out of sixteen types, the rest of the audience
does not respond.
While the first function is about "things I have sufficient knowledge about", the fourth
function is about "what other people know". Here a person is prone to be guided by others, to
lean on external authority. In practice of suggestive psychotherapy and hypnosis a concept
of rapport is used: the concept of connection between the hypnotist and the object of hypnosis.
Each type has a 'built-in' rapport with the external world. This is the core of the fourth function.
Here the person is most gullible and open for external information, he takes it in without
discernment.
Each IM type has an area open for suggestion, so everyone has this breach for gullibility.
And I believe it would be good for people who are, so to speak, interested in inner their
mechanics, to know about this feature of their type. It is useful to know what happens when the
external world somehow manipulates you. It is good to be on guard be able to detect,
recognize and correct such influences, it does not mean you are on defense (in my opinion, it
is not good to be on defense from the external world); it means that your behavior is
conscious.
Good knowledge of one's fourth function is very important from the point of view of
increase of one's level of awareness. As a rule, in this area people are hypochondriacal.
Strange things happen here. For example, other people know whether I am ill or healthy.
Others tell me whether I am in love or not. In this sphere a person is not discerning. As a rule
he/she simply does not pay attention to a suggestion. It might be recognized later, when
experiencing a new quality of state. Usually it is not recognized at all. However, when I know
this trait of my personality, I have a chance to discern an attempt to manipulate me at an
earlier stage. And as soon as the attempt is discerned, it is not unconscious any more. Then I
am in control, allowing or blocking certain influences. It is a very interesting research – learning
about the areas where I am open, hypochondriacal or unprotected. To begin with when
exposed to certain influences pay attention to your automatisms.
Usually people are unaware of the fourth function, and are prone to create situations
where 'programming' occurs. Often such behavior appears to be a process of collecting of
strategies, estimations, and information processing techniques. And in the same area
uneasiness and anxiety are frequent. Even gross flattery and obvious disinformation presented
through the channels of the fourth function have good chances to pass without criticism.
If the active set of stereotypes and habitual reactions in this sphere is extensive enough,
the person may look rather effective in corresponding area. Unlike the situation with the
second function, this efficiency is discrete – when facing unusual, non-standard environment
all efficiency may disappear.
The subject matter of the fourth function is often used as the criteria for assessing a
place, for example: “I am loved here, so the place is good ” (Maxim). Here person's motivation
("I want to") is detected: “I want to be loved”.
The third and fourth functions affect the choice of the social niche. As a rule, we look for a
place in a society where these functions would be protected in one way or another. It happens
instinctively.
Why do I need to know the fourth function of the type? The better I know the
programming channels, the less I am exposed to external influences. It is a challenge for
everyone with any IM type.

Function number minus-four.

Area of fears. " I do not want to"

The opposition to "I want to …" is "I do not want to …" ("I am scared"). This is the zone of
fears. As a rule, people tend to avoid these disturbing and strange issues. Although there is
nothing that a human cannot know or understand.
It is interesting to examine career orientation from the point of view of this function. For
many occupations there are lists of desirable personal qualities. It is important that important
qualities do not fall in the zone of fears or in the zone of negative values. Of course, people are
more than an IM type, they can master any trade. (In Soviet Russia slogans like “No one is
irreplaceable”, “If you do not know how – we will teach you, if you do not want - we will force
you” were very popular.) But people of different types pay a different psychological price: for
some an occupation may be a source of enormous energy, for others – a cause of a heart
attack!

People subconsciously seek for an occupation, which can satisfy the needs of their type
so that the second function is fulfilled, the third function is protected as much as possible and
the fourth function is satisfied. There is no exact conformity, we cannot say: this job is for that
type, and that profession – for another one. Nevertheless, type analysis provides an
interesting perspective for a research in this area.

Today the subject of work classifies occupations. For example, person - person, person -
nature, person – sign occupations. Into the last category fall both a typist and a mathematician.
In my opinion, occupations should be classified according to types and psychological traits of
character best suited for the job. Motives and aspirations, strong and weak traits of character
of certain type should be examined with the reference to professionally important and
professionally unwanted qualities. Of course, the same occupation could be quite suitable for
people of different types.
Currently a study of occupations with reference to types is conducted. Knowing their type
people can make better decisions when choosing a trade or a profession.
Certainly, any person can be engaged in any activity, but as we have already said the
psychological price of the activity would be different. Napoleon, for example, is well suited for
the role of a leader, he constantly gets additional energy, psychological rewards from the job,
and he is the right man in the right place. For Don Quixote, on the contrary, the psychological
price of the job would be devastating simply because of the manipulations implied in area of
his third function and the zone of fears. Therefore, as a rule, Don Quixote tries to avoid leading
positions; he looks for a place of a consulting expert or something of the kind.

The key to the functional model of IM type

Here is the key to building Kalinauskas' steering wheel for each IM type. The system of
∗
sixteen functional models represents a well-structured description of all types of socion .
Having learned all the signs and semantics of eight elements of informational metabolism
and semantics of eight functions we can easily put together the steering wheel itself. Consider
now the so-called Socionics cube in detail (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. The evolving of lateral surfaces of the Socionics cube

This cube contains everything: Kalinauskas' steering wheel in all variants, hyperstructure
of a socion, the whole table of relationships between the types, and all the small groups. This
model is all that one should memorize for practical work. As Montaigne once said, “Well-
structured brains are much more valuable than well-filled ones”. The table of type
relationships is a 16X16 matrix, i.e. it consists of 256 elements. Is it possible to remember? Of
course!
(*!!!* пояснения к картинке!!!*)
How do we use it?
Take the type of a Napoleon (sensory-ethical extrovert, ) for example. On each
∗
side of the cube (a square) the functions of all 4 types of one quadra (there are four quadras:
alpha, beta, gamma and delta) are located in the square corners. The type alias is put close to
∗
the type's first function sign ( ); the other three functions of the type are determined by the
succession shown by the arrow ( , , ). All minus-functions are found on the big
diagonals of the cube in the positions opposite to the corresponding functions.
Having set up a correspondence of IM elements and functions, it is possible to draw the
functional model of a type, and analyze the IM type and relationships between all types
involved. This will be all we need for a project.
Let's take another type, Maxim. First function here is subjective logic ( ). It is impossible
to make this type change their opinion: “The world is, as I understand it”. This mentality ignores
objective logic: “If the world is not the way I understand it, too bad for the world”.
The second creative function is objective sensing ( ). This means physical action,
working with a physical form or an object. A lot of people of this type are good craftsmen; it is
also typical for them to collect various items as a hobby.


see note on the page …

quadra - a group of 4 personality types sharing one system of values. Within the quadra the intertype
relationships are those of duality , activation, and mirror (see Lecture …).

The "correspondence of an IM element to a function" means that the definite manifestation of the function
depends on its "material", or the field of its "application" which is defined by the IM element. In short, we say
something like "the first function is subjective logic", or, "the third cofunction is objective sensoring", etc.
 The third function deals with the integrity of internal state (subjective intuition,  ). To
reach self-realization “I need integrity”, therefore people search for a social niche, which
guarantees that integrity. For example, some need a position that does not require decision-
making. They often search for self-fulfillment in a rigidly structured organization (army, religious
organization, mafia, etc.) or – on the contrary – in a place completely detached from the real
life of society.
The fourth function - objective ethics ( ). “I want to be loved; I want to be treated well”. If
I am loved here it means the place is good. This person will do his/her best to keep peace at
all costs with people who love him/her is loved and will be rather guarded in the company of
strangers.
The fourth co-function, the zone of fear, subjective ethics ( ) – this is my attitude to
other people. For example, fear of offending another person, or fear of sharing my feeling of
love with another person. It is a big issue for Maxim. It is hard for Maxim to express his
feelings. This type will try to avoid a situation; he would rather do something to prove his love
than talk about it.
The second co-function – subjective sensing ( ). We can say that people of this type
are masochists in a sense, i.e. they can carry out physical actions even through pain and care
less. The sphere of feelings is rather normative.

The cube gives you an idea (a good detailed and structured description) of the IM type if
you are familiar with the semantics of the elements of the informational metabolism and
functions of the steering wheel.

Let us examine one more type, Huxley. The first function is the integrity of the external
situation ( ). The second creative function is the subjective ethics ( ) – my attitude to the
objective reality: "I like it - I do not like it, it is pleasant - it is not pleasant"). The third function is
the logic of the objective world ( ). And the fourth function is the subjective sensoring ( )–
my feelings.
The co functions are located on the big diagonals, on the opposite edge of the cube.
The first co function is the integrity of the internal situation ( ). It is person’s
unwillingness to search himself, do a self-analysis. It is rather difficult for people of this type to
analyze their psychological state. For Hamlet, for example, it is easy to search himself, but
Huxley does not know how to search or does not even see a reason for that.

In the area of the first co function there is no confidence: “Let things be as they are”. Any
phenomenon of this area perceived as objective evil. It is hard for a person to understand or
change anything.

Let us go back to the second function: these people have a way with words. Caustic
sarcasm and paradoxical thinking are distinguishing traits of the personality. Is not Oscar Wild
like that?
And the second co function is the zone of standards and relationships ( ). In their
relationships people of this type are often rather formal, except in their attitude to their close
friends.
The third function: logic of the external world ( ). It is the search for ideal objects, for the
ideal picture of the world. For example Huxley expects his close friend to fit into a certain
frame, which, by the way, almost never happens. Therefore his life is full of major lingering
conflicts.
The fourth function - subjective sensoring ( ). Huxley (like Don Quixote, who shares
the same fourth function) is very hypochondriacal about his/her health condition. This type is
not good at discerning his /her feelings and symptoms. Here this type is most vulnerable to
suggestion.
 And, at last, the fourth co function, the area of fears: activity, motion, deed. There we
have ultimate fear, fear of conduct. This type finds it difficult to bring anything to completion:
remodeling, writing a thesis, etc.

Let us study the cube again. Do you remember how we use it? If the type is the intuitive -
logical extrovert, then turning the cube around step by step we find the first, the second, the
third and the fourth functions. On the big diagonals we find the counterparts for each function.
This approach works best if you are able to instantly visualize the entire cube at any given
moment of time.
The model is simple and well structured; it is easy to remember. It has the key to the
description of a type as well as the table of relationships between the types. Later when we get
to it you will easily find needed information on the face of the cube.
In the following lectures we will examine each of the sixteen IM types with the help of
Kalinauskas' steering wheel.

Lecture 2
Descriptions of α- (alpha) and β- (beta) Quadra Types

The α- quadra: Don Quixote, Dumas, Hugo, Robespierre

The intuitive - logical extrovert - Don Quixote

Celebrities: these are mostly people with a scientific turn of mind, border-lining theory
and practice. Miguel Cervantes's fictional character Don Quixote, Louis XIII, Peter the
Great, Carl Marx, Frederic Joliot-Curie, Charles Darwin, Abraham Lincoln, Winston
Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, Dmitry Mendeleyev, Albert Einstein, Alexander Suvorov,
Constantine Tsiolkovsky, Sigmund Freud, George Plehanov, Michael Lermontov, Michael
Saltykov-Schedrin, Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Emille Zolya, Andre Mauro, Erve Bazen,
Albert Schweitzer, Peter Tchajkovsky, Mark Shagal, Janosh Korchak, Louis De Funes,
Indira Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi, Edith Piaf, John Lennon, Mirelle Matie, Aušra
Augustinavichiute, Igor Kalinauskas.

Function #1– objective intuition ( ): integrity of the external situation. The world
should be always harmonious and complete – this is the principle of existence of this type. A
wide spectrum of variants may exist according to the first function, though Don Quixote
considers the world to be in order and harmony which are manifested in different ways. People
of this type often create illusions for themselves that “everything will always be as it is now,
that they will never die or be sick”: "Nothing will ever happen to me”.
A Don Quixote’s first function might be one of the possible reasons for aggression. People
of this type do not plan ahead (unlike, for example, Holmes), but are acutely aware of the
beginning of one period and the ending of another. Don Quixote is governed by this feeling.
Think of a Don Quixote leaving for work in the morning. He is late, but he is planning on cutting
a corner to be on time. He knows he will be five minutes late, but the boss will be five minutes
late also. Anyway he will make it! At this moment his wife (Dreiser) says: “Listen, you are late
anyway, take out the garbage on your way out”. This statement may provoke aggression,
which Dreiser does not expect. But the boss’ reprimand “Why are you late?” will not cause
aggression. Well, I am late, but I have had objective reasons to be late. It is normal. But this
type will not tolerate when someone attempts to destroy the integrity of the external situation.

Function #-1 – subjective intuition ( ): ignoring the integrity of internal situation. This
is the lack of ability to plunge in thought. A Don Quixote finds it hard to plunge deep into
him/herself and search the inner mechanisms of the soul. "What do you mean, 'analyze the
internal situation'?" Hamlet enjoys this creative area of self, but a Don Quixote runs from it. He
knows nothing about it.
 This is a potential area for problems. When a Don Quixote is asked to look inside of
him/herself, he is lost because he/she does not think this way. They do not understand what is
required of them because their IM structure ignores this area completely. Relationships with
other people come easy for them. It is easy for them to deal with other people’s problems. But
their inner world is beyond their understanding.
Function #2, creative function – subjective logic ( ): explanation, understanding. A
Don Quixote produces original understanding and explanation of things. A Don Quixote feels
that everything can be explained in a number of ways. Representatives of other types are
amazed at the ease with which a Don Quixote is able to explain anything. For example, a
Holmes is surprised and irritated: “What are you teaching me?! I am interested in the reality
and the actual mechanics of things. Do you have experimental data, a method? Where did you
study?”
The excitement of a research is more important for a Don Quixote; he invents his own
methods of research if needed. This IM type excels independently of their education and
training. They have a strong research reflex. The sphere of risk is the intellect. They are busy
creating new techniques and approaches, solving the unsolved, drawing ideas and concepts
from other areas. As a result they can offer an explanation of external relationships, i.e. their
“second function is about the third”.
Anyone is capable of changing their own worldview, but a Don Quixote will pay a lower
psychological price for the change than a Robespierre, a Maxim or a Holmes, they are not
creative in this area. Don Quixote is not conservative here, he/she needs unexplained, tasks
unfulfilled, problems that have not been solved or even put into words. Why quite a few of the
Don Quixotes become scientists? In the sphere of science this type is realized as a functional
system. Many Don Quixotes look a bit paranoid: at the extreme it is a scientist who lays his life
down for his ideas, neglects his family and physical health.
By the way, running a step forward, have a look at a Don Quixote's third function. We
have a plus in the area of the third function. Public recognition is a source of energy for a Don
Quixote. When he denies himself for the sake of his work and achieves success he often gets
public recognition, people’s attention is centered on him, he thinks he is useful and needed in
the society. There are two types – a Don Quixote and a Zhukov - whose public interests often
coincide with their individual interests.

Function #-2 – objective logic ( ): the zone of norms and standards, of law and order.
“I don’t think a whole lot about the order, but since I live here, I naturally obey it”. The logic of
the external world, laws, indisputable circumstances - in short, everything that does not require
interpretation, falls in the category of standards. Traffic rules, criminal code, other social
conventions go without saying for a Don Quixote. This area is not creative. For example, his
wife says that it is time to remodel the apartment. A Don Quixote does not see this as
something absolutely necessary, but complies anyway. “Just thinking of all the work that
needs to be done makes me sick… We should wait another year to remodel. Why should we
do it now? Why should I change my plans? How irritating! It messes up the integrity of my
situation. I was going to channel my energy into something more important than remodeling for
example I was going to try and explain some external relationships". Working in an office is
hard for a Don Quixote because of a need to complying with an externally set schedule. He
always struggles with social requirements, especially if they don’t make any sense. However,
he understands that it is necessary to go through the basic training, so to speak, to get a
permission to do the “free program”. So he has to waste time and energy on writing a thesis
before he gets to do the real thing. A Don Quixote type is least adapted to social competition.
Function #3 – objective ethics ( ): a Don Quixote's self-worth is based on other
people’s attitude and their relationships. Perhaps for this very reason Aušra Augustinavičiūtė
(a Don Quixote) developed socionics as a precise tool for the analysis of intertype
relationships.
Why did they give that look to me? What did they say? Did I hurt somebody’s feelings?
How can I say “no”? This sort of questions constantly disturbs a Don Quixote. For this reason
he is a bad leader. His third function is constantly suffering in a position of power. The
psychological price of the job for a Don Quixote often seems to be too high. As a rule, he does
not seek to be a leader; he thinks it is a burden (a Napoleon does not think so, for him it is a
place of ideal realization).
The principle of Don Quixote's self-assessment is this: “If they love me, appreciate me,
then I am a good person”. Positive feedback is a source of considerable increase of energy
(may lead to euphoria). But when something goes wrong, relationships turn sour then his
spirits are lower, the energy evaporates, everything looks terrible, and joy of life is quenched. If
the negative outlook on life is lingering, low self-esteem leads to an illness (a neurosis). In the
basis of this neurosis lies the mechanism of subconscious self-justification: “I am good in
general, it is just now I am ill”. It is a way to avoid negative feedback from one’s reference
group. Protecting the third function a Don Quixote tends to reason (“you misunderstood me")
and mend broken relationships. He does not seek to change partners. People of this type tend
to blend into the background of their social group; they do not like to impose their will on
others.
However, sometimes they chose to rely on the “minus-defense”: “I am so bad, worse than
you can imagine, no one can approach me or talk to me. Accept me just as I am". Then it is
easier to deal with this type.

Function #-3 – subjective ethics ( ): problem solving. It is typical of a Don Quixote to

fall in love with someone. He/she is inclined to idealize the object of the affection, admiring
his/her merits or skills. However, when it seems impossible to protect the third function and a
problem in the sphere of relationships arises anyway, and then a Don Quixote begins to
diligently search him/herself. The closer the person is the more painful the changes are in this
area. When another type would typically cut you off a Don Quixote often forgives, especially if
it is a close friends.

Function #4 – subjective sensoring ( ): my feelings. "A good place is a place where I

feel good". Suggestion through subjective sensoring is possible through the use of a Don
Quixote's hypochondria. When a Don Quixote’s health is mentioned, he begins to think about it
a lot and seems to find various new disorders in his body. Correctly approached these people
are the easiest to treat because they trust other people’s opinion in the issues of health. The
fourth function is the knowledge of other people. And a Don Quixote relies on other people’s
knowledge in the area of health. People of this type have wild imagination and often imagine
they have an illness which in reality they do not have, then we have a key to treating the
imaginary disease. This is widely used by shamans, extrasensory individuals, hypnotists. The
effect depends upon downloading correct information in the client’s system of beliefs.

Function #-4– objective sensoring ( ): A Don Quixote's zone of fears covers activity,
deed, perfection. This type finds it difficult to finish a task. A lot of his projects remain
unfinished. Only when pressed for time a Don Quixote is able to obtain a result. Aware of the
trait a Don Quixote may want to set a dead line for his project to avoid procrastination. Usually
a Don Quixote needs a major external power pulse to finish a task.
There is always room for improvement! For example, a factory design office has a task to
design an engine. Two teams get an assignment: a Don Quixote is a leader of one of the
groups, and a Jack London is leading the other group. The Don Quixote's group develops a
marvelous draft, a lot of innovations are introduced, constantly new improvements are made.
Soon their engine has more functions than expected in the customer order, and they continue
to invent more new functions. The deadline is approaching, funds are spent but the project is
still not ready. Their manager should keep in mind that this type gets carried away and
procrastinates, they need to be reminded about the dead lines otherwise the task will never be
finished, the project will freeze while interesting ideas, friendships and creativity flourish in their
design office.)
The leader of the second team, a Jack London, asks his engineers: “We have a month to
work on the project: I will see all the improvements you have to offer and after one month we
will begin design drawing. Best is the enemy of Good. We have done a good enough job if we
spend more time working on improvements we will not finish the task in time”. And they meet
the deadline, although their machine performance characteristics are worse than the
unfinished project offered by the Don Quixote's team. But their prototype is on display while
the other one is still in drawing.
A Don Quixote might write and rewrite a book or a dissertation several times; it takes him
several years to remodel a house. At times they seem indecisive and struggle even with small
things. They struggle over a pair of shoes at the store, for example.
However, in an emergency situation a Don Quixote steps in and begins leading and
making decisions, he keeps cool under pressure. He enjoys this particular quality, first of all,
due to his strong first function ( ), it 'slows down the time for him', and second of all he
receives a powerful surge of energy through the third function.

The sensory-ethical introvert – a Dumas

Celebrities of this type: Alexander Dumas-father, Porthos, a character from Dumas'

Three Musketeers, Peter-Paul Rubens, Pierre, Augusts Renoir, Martin due Guard,
O'Henry, Ivan Ivazovsky, Alexander Hamilton, Grigory Kotovsky, Nikita Khrushchev,
Michael Sholokhov, Charlie Chaplin, Oleg Tabakov, Eugeny Leonov, Alexander Kalyagin,
Leonid Kuravlyov, Natalia Gundareva, Leonid Bronevoj, Jury Nikulin, Eldar Ryazanov,
Alexander Shirvindt.

(*Drew BARRYMORE (actress, US), Claudia CARDINALE (actress, Italy), Ornella MUTI
(actress, Italy), Elvis PRESLEY (singer, US), Britney SPEARS (singer, US), Mena SUVARI
(actress, US), Elisabeth TAYLOR (actress, US), Sherilyn FENN (actress, US), Goldie HAWN
(actress, US), Silvio BERLUSCONI (politician, Italy), Lech WALESA (politician, Poland),
Mikhail GORBACHEV (politician, Russia), Lyndon JOHNSON (politician, US), Catherine II
(monarch, Russia), Ernst ROEHM (politician, Germany, 3rd Reich), Dmitry ROGOZIN
(politician, Russia), Mikhail SAAKASHVILI (politician, Georgia), Mikhail TUKHACHEVSKY
(army commander, Russia), Gaius Julius CAESAR (monarch, ancient Rome), Jacques
CHIRAC (politician, France), Gerhard SCHROEDER (politician, Germany).*)

The first function – subjective sensoring ( ): the area of confidence. A Dumas

knows his feelings well and is aware of his weaknesses. A Dumas knows well what is wrong
with his/her body and does not need other's opinion. “I don’t need to hear about my health, I
can tell you about your health, even though I am not a doctor”. He tells the doctor what to
prescribe and how to treat the sickness.
A Dumas craves sensations: gustatory, tactile, etc. “My feelings are my life. If I don’t feel
anything then I am dead. I feel, therefore I exist”. Feelings boost his energy. An abundance of
different sensations confirms a Dumas' existence. A Dumas is a cheerful person; his motto is:
“Got to live!”

Function #-1 — objective sensoring ( ): deeds and appearance are in the area of
ignoring. A Dumas sometimes simply ignores external forms: fashion; image. This type may
refrain from taking steps or doing something even though the moment requires. The necessity
to be active is sometimes perceived as objective evil. This type frequently embellishes his/her
deeds because they want to look and feel like a hero.
What can we do here? First of all if we are aware of the trait then we can look for it and
examine its manifestations. In particular activity it may take specific odd forms. It is not always
easy to articulate the trait; it may take some extra conscious effort to figure out the
unproductive trait of the personality.

Function #2 — objective ethics ( ): a Dumas' creative function deals with

relationships – relationships of people close to him, their attitudes to each other and to him/her.
This is also the area of taking risks. A Dumas loves risk in relationships. A Dumas is sociable
and well informed. People of this type easily manipulate information in the sphere of
relationships. Their “article of sale” is manipulations in the area of relationships. They always
know everything about who, what, where, etc. They know exactly what is going on in people’s
relationships and at the right moment can impact the attitudes keeping neutrality. He is the
master of intonation and pauses in speech, nobody even realizes what it happens. There is a
way to communicate ideas to people without actually saying anything, people understand them
without words and do what is expected of them. A Dumas does not misrepresent facts, but he
is a master of omission and biased comments. So they “sell” intrigue, relationships
management.
In general, ability to maintain relationships is a Dumas' strong trait of character. They are
brilliant at talking, disputing, have good contact with audience and a gift for foreign languages.
Different ways of thinking, various systems of understanding and explaining fascinate them.

Function #-2 — subjective ethics ( ): the zone of "do not need to", the zone of
standards. A Dumas do not talk about their attitudes. Life reveals truth anyway. They would
rather talk about objective circumstances than their feelings. Often a Dumas uses a definite
∗
formal criteria to form an attitude to another person. He is a democrat , therefore he is a
socially and status-oriented person. Extreme case of this type is a certified snob.

Function #3 — subjective logic ( ): the problem here lies in the sphere of

understanding, explaining, competence. Their books are supplied with an enormous number of
references. A Dumas is always on defense (he quotes Dr. So-and-so, etc.), he gives
references to published sources and other authorities. It makes him feel safe. A Dumas
approaches intellectual issues with great care as a rule. A reference to an opinion of a
recognized authority seems to a Dumas weightier than his/her own arguments. He never trusts
his own reasoning. Often their system of evidence is based on external authorities alone.
When during a lecture a Dumas is asked whether he has read a certain article or book, he
instantly feels under attack according to the third function, he thinks he is being accused of
incompetence or misunderstanding. He gets defensive: a Dumas, the master of manipulation
in the area of relationships, quickly responds: “Sure I have read it, but it does not make any
sense”, or: “Yes, I have read it, but it has nothing to do with the subject we are discussing right
now.” – even though he/she has never heard of it.
Sometimes they put artificial limits to their own competency themselves: “I understand
everything in my field, the rest does not concern me”. Or the protection of the third function
may take most humble form: “Yes, I am a fool, I basically do not understand anything. It is all
very interesting, but it is completely out of my competence”. Or: “It does not exist. Only things
that I understand really do exist, everything else simply does not exist”. She puts boundaries
on the field of perception. This is a "minus defense" - a common way to simplify a situation
according to the third function. A Dumas’s feelings get hurt when people try to explicitly or
implicitly expose their incompetence. Things and ideas that disagree with their point of view
either prick their interest and they study them in secret, or they are completely ignored. When
on defense in this area a Dumas often develops a “superiority complex”: “I am OK!"
So, when a Dumas feels competent his self-esteem soars and supplies him with a lot of
energy, this is called positive reinforcement. When disputing this type is logical, pushing,
imposing, emphasizes his competence, enjoys stressing the opponents’ incompetence.

The society energizes people. Any society puts people into a strict sociocultural
mechanism. To be confirmed in a society one has to fit a certain image of a good person
(decent neighbor, nice guy). Society may consist of neighbors, office co-workers, and
colleagues – any important group. People put a lot effort into trying to fit a mold for the sake of
being approved and “charged” by their social group. People are drawn into this power
exchange even when little. Take it away and people get out of control, become asocial, and
there is almost no gap between asocial and antisocial.

Function #-3 — objective logic ( ): the main problem is that of understanding; the
solution is to know. If he does not know something, he needs to find out, do a research, read a
book, and consult an expert. A Dumas' Adress Book is full of phone numbers of the best


About group attributes see Lecture …
experts in various fields; he is friends with most of them. Nevertheless he does not mind fixing
his own vehicle.
Function #4 — objective intuition ( ): integrity of external situation. Ideas may be
suggested through this area in the structure of the type. “I want the world to be in harmony, I
want everything from beginning to end to be known and predictable; I want everything to be on
schedule and never off track, moving steadily from one goal to another”. This desire may lead
a person away from satisfying the deeper needs of his soul and leave him with a superficial but
steady life of the planned and the discovered. A Dumas could be easily programmed with an
agenda, a schedule. In his mind he makes a lay out of the sequence of events; he knows what
to expect and in what order. For example, a Dumas would usually take a course at the Medical
Academy or any other nominal professional training.
A breach in the integrity of the external situation may stress a Dumas out or put him in a
stupor. A Don Quixote and a Huxley take it easy when facing the unexpected or the
unscheduled. Unexpected events arouse their interest. While a Dumas lapses into a stupor in
a similar situation. They turn into a stone detached from the external world. They need time to
process new information and restore the integrity. A Dumas, however, is on guard. They
easily cope with 95 % of emergencies; they have a plan and a set of standard responses to
certain things. But anything totally unexpected brings him to a complete stop... Several years
ago we studied behavior of civil aircraft pilots in emergency situations. We had a chance to
observe a clear demonstration of that trait. Skillful experienced pilots did great in any of the
anticipated situations. But facing the unforeseen circumstances he was helpless, unable to
cope. He can’t fathom spontaneity. Meditation broadens the spectrum of expected situations,
but unexpected things do happen sooner or later. This type needs to remember that if he
chooses to follow a schedule at one point of his life he might find it difficult to break away from
it.
“I would like to study in a good school, to be taught everything step by step”. A good place
is the place where integrity of the external situation is secured.

Function #-4— subjective intuition ( ): The integrity of internal situation is the "fabric"
of this function; it is the fear of searching one’s heart, digging in one’s mind. Introspection does
not go well with a Dumas. Some other types eagerly engage in introspection, but neither a
Dumas nor a Gaben enjoy it. If this type chooses to take a look at their psyche then things may
go in three different ways: a) he scratches the surface of his inner self, but he has an
impression he reached the bottom; b) he studied only ideas about oneself; c) this is not a
Dumas.
Here the infallibility complex comes into action again: a Dumas escapes internal problems
by ignoring them: “I am OK". This should not be confused with megalomania. Why
psychological literature does not give sufficient information about this complex? Nobody seeks
a therapist to get help in this area. People come for therapy if they have a problem, but in this
case there is "no problem", everything is just fine. The inner world is always integral: “Do not
touch there, I'm fine”. Thus a person separates oneself from most of the world, a place where
he might find out that he is not OK. The “not OK” part of his [inner] world does not exist in his
opinion, a Dumas stubbornly ignores it. But this can not go on forever, after a while he runs
into things that are “not OK”. It is impossible to classify people into bad and good, and live with
the latter, and send the former to guillotine. After a while the search for the bad people
resumes. Similarly, the person’s living space is reduces and he feels lonely.

The Ethical-sensory extrovert –a Hugo

Celebrities of this type: Victor Hugo, Charles Dickens, Jules Verne, Prosper
Merimee, George Washington, Michael Bakunin, Che Guevara, Valentine Gaft, Andrey
Bitov, Gerard Phillip, Michael Kazakov.

(*Juliet BINOCHE (actress, France), Sandra BULLOCK (actress, US), Lolita

DAVIDOVICH (actress, US), George CLOONEY (actor, US), Emir KUSTURICA (movie
director and actor, Serbia), Courtney LOVE (actress, US), Liza MINNELLI (actress, US),
 Natalie OREIRO (actress and singer, Argentina), Miranda RICHARDSON (actress, US),
Friedrich ENGELS (politician, Germany, XIX century), Graham GREENE (writer, UK), Yasser
ARAFAT (politician, Palestine), Fidel CASTRO RUZ (politician, Cuba)*)

Function #1 — objective ethics ( ): “Man is a realm of relationships. If I have

relationships with other people, then I exist”. This type is in its element when in a relationship.
A Hugo would never put a strain on a relationship no matter what he thinks about other
people's attitudes to himself and each other. He does not need to inquire of anybody’s attitude
because he knows what it is. He is confident in this area.
Stability of his personal relationships combined with stability of other people’s
relationships support stability of a Hugo’s personality. A change in existing relationships may
emotionally disturb a Hugo. A Hugo may be a closer friend than a Hamlet. These “horizontal"
relationships have no boundaries. The more the better! He does not care about the social
status of the people involved. It is a personal "world wide web"! Just try putting a Hugo in a
room with a disconnected phone line! It may cause anxiety or aggression. Even thinking that
his phone may be disconnected because he has not paid the bills stresses him out. A Hugo
knows how to smooth things out, ease the tension. He always has a lot of friends. He likes to
party and hang out; there he is in his element.
"If I do not have relationships, then I do not exist. If I am not needed, I am no more, if I
have relationships, then I exist."
Function #-1 — subjective ethics ( ): a Hugo ignores his attitude to people. First of
all there should be external relationships, and my attitudes are secondary. My feelings and me
are real and can be described. But a Hugo finds it difficult to talk about his/her attitude. He/she
may not even answer a direct question about his/her attitude. This is irrelevant. Other things
are more important to a Hugo. Relationships of the current external world are important. A
Hugo tends to go with the flow and does not want to change circumstances or reveal his/her
attitude. A Hugo's attitude is an intimate thing; there is no need to share. It does not need an
explanation; my behavior speaks of my attitude. Others may interpret my actions and know
what my attitude is. But putting it into words is hard and not necessary.
∗
A Robespierre, who compliments a Hugo's , does not expect to hear about his attitude. In
this area a Robespierre is full of fears, therefore they communicate in another psychological
plane.

Function #2 — subjective sensoring ( ): various feelings. Here is a broad spectrum

of choices. A Hugo has to experiment with sensations: taste new foods and alcohol drinks (a
Hugo will not drink to get drunk, but will have to have a taste). He has to smell new smells,
listen to a new sound, etc. This type likes to experiment with food, to relish and “share” new
tastes and various sensations: “Have you tried this? And that? Have you ever tried alternating
hot and cold showers? It feels great! You should try!” A Hugo is a lover of delicatessens and
cuisine expert. They are experts in medicine: they know what the illness is and how it should
be treated.
The art of sexual intercourse is by no means a sin; it is a responsibility and a purpose. Art
is a source of joy and for this reason a Hugo worships it. Even science in his/her interpretation
may be a source of refined pleasure. His creative work is focused on building a world of
harmony.
Function #-2 — objective sensoring ( ): appearance, activity, deed, and form. As far
as I know, these people pay attention to how they look, though for them it is not important.
Extravagance is in the area of "should not". A Hugo wares what’s normal and accepted in
his/her social environment. Their house interior is a standard symbol of time. A Hugo does not
impose his/her will on people and does not tell them how to do things.

Function #3 — objective intuition ( ): integrity and harmony of the external world.

Time management is in this area. This is a painful issue; a Hugo is on defense here, constantly
apologizing for being late. They are often late, even though they try.


About relationships between the types see Lecture …
 The third function covers self-esteem. Through this channel in the structure of the type a
person receives energy from the society therefore it should be protected. It is protected when
clarity is guaranteed and potential situation is known from beginning to end. Then a Hugo
understands and feels the sequence of a process: the first step, the second, etc. Then he is at
peace, he thinks he is moving and his life is progressing.
There are two measures of defense: positive and negative. Some are never late. This
type assesses him/herself: “If I am on time, then I am a good person; if I am late – I am bad”.
Others are not aware of time. This type dives deep into a meditative process and loses a
sense of time; there he dwells in peace and harmony. A Hugo is conservative and does not
change the present order of things, at least, not on his own initiative. Even if he does not like
how things are, the stability in and of itself is a strong positive feedback.

Function #-3 - subjective intuition ( ): changing on the inside solves problems. This
is possible in a number of ways: the change of image, meditation, and alcohol. More often a
Hugo chooses to escape from problems instead of solving them. They may radically change
their image in an attempt to run from reality, imagining they are somebody else free from the
existing problem.

Function #4 - subjective logic ( ): “I want to understand everything! Explain things to

me. Please do explain! I am not interested if I do not understand. A good place is where
understand everything".
Perhaps the two types – a Hugo and a Hamlet – are the most frequent attendants of all
kinds of lectures, meetings, conferences, discussions and debates. It is important for them that
that the event is well structured, the lecturer explains and clarifies everything carefully.
Sometimes in a large audience one can see people in a sort of light trance (euphoria) – just
because they feel they understand everything perfectly. The fact that someone explains 'how it
should be' is comforting! I feel good in a place where things have an explanation, and I get
help with understanding things. A collision of concepts is a problem, though. Once a Hugo gets
a clear picture of something it would be hard to apprehend a conflicting concept. However, this
collision is not so terrible because people of this type do not pay attention to the basis of their
understanding as a rule. Their logic of reasoning is aesthetic rather than scientific.

In the area of the fourth function quickly nothing may be altered too soon. This area is not
creative. Programs run it, our own programs as well as other people's programs – our
parents', our teachers'. These programs may conflict with one other. Sometimes we don’t see
any logic in our own thoughts and deeds, let alone other's! People usually do not agree with
the logic of another type.

A Hugo and a Hamlet have random logic. They chose random starting points for their
reasoning. A Hugo does it quite often. A Hugo may receive an infusion because the formal
logic of an explanation seems reasonable, he may accept things, which he does not agree with
normally. This type should be aware of the trait and be discerning when things are explained to
them.

Function #-4- objective logic ( ): the zone of fears. In the area of the fourth co
function a Hugo has to work hard on himself. Construction or plain house cleaning terrifies her.
Just thinking about it she gets restless and irritated, her fear grows the longer she
procrastinates, simple projects demand great efforts from a Hugo. We met a person of this
type who lived in a room with piles of books maintaining up to the high ceilings. He dreamed of
bookshelves and order. It was hard to walk or find anything in the room. There was a wealth of
books but they were not accessible. This is a Hugo. They suffer from fear of making a step,
fear of facing reality. Women of this type are often lonely; they never try to keep a man. There
is an anecdote: “Mary, will you marry me? We’ve been together for seventeen years …” -
“Come on, Victor, don't be silly, who would want us now…”
A Hugo is often terrified by the prospect of fulfilling an idea. For example, you know that it
is necessary to remodel a place or just organize belongings, straighten out books on the shelf,
but somehow it just does not work out. Laziness? What is laziness? It is a lack of energy to do
something. Why there is no energy or will power to do exactly what needs to be done? A Hugo
does not want to face the logic of the objective world: he does not want to do the objective
things – for example, to hire workers to paint the walls. “Why do it now? Maybe later, we’ll do it
next year … it actually still looks OK.”
A Hugo never knows when the money will come. They are frugal, they making scrupulous
calculations. However, they may spontaneously spend everything on a project. This type may
have different attitudes to money: it might be the fear of being out of money, or the fear of
money.

The logical - intuitive introvert –a Robespierre

Celebrities of this type: Maximilian Robespierre, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Caesar

Bordzhia Dante Algieri, Rene Descartes, Karl Gustav Jung, George Wilhelm Fredrik
Hegel, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Shopengauer, Johann Fredrik Schiller,
Bertold Brecht, Nikolai Roerich, Thomas Moor, Felix Dzerzhinsky, Sergey Rakhmaninov,
Nicolo Paganini, Francisco De Goya, Paul Gauguin, Claude Monet, Anton Chekhov,
Franz Kafka

(*Sandrine BONNAIRE (actress, France), Patricia KAAS (singer, France), Kevin

COSTNER (actor, US), Demie MOORE (actress, US), Isabelle HUPPERT (actress, France),
Paul A. M. DIRAC (physicist, UK), Marie SKLODOWSKA-CURIE and Pierre CURIE (spouses,
physicists, Poland - France), Andrei SAKHAROV (physicist and politician, Soviet Union), Erwin
SCHROEDINGER (physicist, Germany), Albert GORE (politician, US), Thomas JEFFERSON
(politician, US, XVIII century), Sergei IVANOV (politician, Russia), Francois MITTERAND
(politician, France), Vladimir PUTIN (politician, Russia), Maximilien de ROBESPIERRE
(politician, France, XVIII century).*)

Function #1 - subjective logic ( ): my understanding, my worldview, and my school.

“My logic is the best logic in the world”. It is difficult to convince a Robespierre of anything that
contradicts her system of beliefs. She usually has difficulty explaining her own system. Only
serious circumstances may change anything in the area of the first function. She does not
accept anything by faith in this area.
At times there are objective circumstances that are difficult to ignore but at the same time
they contradict a Robespierre’s system of beliefs, her idea of the world. Then she needs time
to work on a new description of the world. A Robespierre may go on with life only after the
worldview is integral once again. A Robespierre just does not instantly accept anything new:
she will listen to your arguments, but she needs time to evaluate, review new data, process it
and either accept or reject it. She would not agree with you on the spot. The first function is
conservative, it serves as a base, and the base should be firm and strong.

Our limited individual consciousness needs a base. A person needs to know beyond any
shadow of a doubt that he exists. This type thinks: “I cannot think if my thinking is not based
on a definite world view”.

People with their relationships are in the area of the fourth function. He is not a people
person. A Robespierre has a primitive idea of humanity: people are divided into those who are
bad, and those who are good. He sees the world in black and white without shadows. (There
are types who do not divide people into two categories: “In fact, the world is too complex to
limit it by two categories”.) “People will act according to their nature”, - this is a common
opinion but a Robespierre does not follow it.

Function #-1 - objective logic ( ): the zone of ignoring. “The world is the way I see it.
If you have evidence that it’s not the way I see it, too bad for the world. Anyway it is not my
business; just keep your opinion to yourself. I think the world should be exactly how I see it”.
Often these people live in the world of their imagination.
 The laws of a society put their own value on people and their actions. They set measures
and standards for people to follow. Any society has a gap of some sort. People evaluate you
according to certain standards. At one extreme if you do not meet the standards you are
isolated. At the other extreme you get paid for not meeting the standards because you are
useful for the same society. By the way, in this gap various spiritual teachings flourish. But this
is another story.

Function #2 - objective intuition ( ): the area of creativity. The external world has to
be complete. We will build the City of the Sun and inhabit it with beautiful, happy people.
The world lacks integrity and people work hard to bring it to harmony. “The world should
live in harmony, people deserve to be happy", says a Robespierre, "so let's take a guillotine
and chop off heads of all bad people who hamper our creation so that only good ones remain
and everyone will be happy. Let's build a society free of the bad people, oppression, violence,
injustice … But this purpose is achieved by means of a guillotine”. This is how this type
expresses his creativity. Ideals of the Sun City are very typical of the Robespierrean
utopianism of Thomas Moore and Tommazo Campanella, Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Furrier,
Robert Owen.
Ideas of universal harmony are found in the works of many philosophers. But if the real
world were in harmony, the Robespierres would have nothing to do. They feel a need to
improve the world even by means of decapitating those who are in the way of building a
perfect society void of those who for whatever reasons do not fit in the harmony, who, for
example, had the audacity to be born aristocrats. Take a look at the mess left by Maximillian
Robespierre in France or Felix Dzerzhinsky in Russia? And these people were sincerely
convinced that they were right, incorruptible and that they were not compromising.
Now a Robespierre's creative gift is often channeled into reforming a society. When
heading up a company this type may find him/herself being engaged in constructing a global
structure, which will never encompass the whole world anyway. Someday it begins to fall
apart and the person gets frustrated. Then illnesses and neurosis develop, and eventually
he/she gives up. A Robespierre often wastes a lot of time on creating institutes, which are
destined to be useless.
A Robespierre in his search for harmony often turns to composing music. Many a
musician belongs to this type: Rakhmaninov, Rimsky-Korsakov, etc. They may become good
educators too, like Russian teachers Sukhomlinsky, Ushinsky, Makarenko.
Sometimes their systems work, sometimes they do not. But when the author begins to
implement a system he soon finds out that the system created for people does not take real
people into consideration, if it does then it think of people as abstract and abnormal. Real
people don’t fit into a scheme, thus reality hits a Robespierre hard.

There are no bad people they are just different. It only seems to us that they do
something wrong. They are different because they live in a different dimension and have a
different system of values. We just do not realize the extent to which psychological planes of
different types differ from each other. And it is impossible to comprehend another person’s
system of values, because the practice of traveling into the psychological plane of another
type is, perhaps, one of the most complex and rare psychological experiences.

Function #-2 - subjective intuition ( ): a Robespierre's zone of standards consists of

a number of states and moods. My state is always adequate to the external world, and my
inner person is standard. Why bother studying your inner self if building a world of harmony is
so much more interesting and acute? A Robespierre typically chooses one of his standard
states and dwells in it most of the time. This area of standards also includes ethical norms and
principles, which secure the integrity of their internal world.

Function #3 – subjective sensoring ( ): in the area of self-assessment, in the zone of

problems there are health, sensations in general and sex in particular. A test question: “What
do you say about the following statement: Sex is not only bad for you, but it is also good for
you?” This question frustrates a Robespierre. They need 200% safety in the area of
sensations. They seek out and follow hard all kinds of health programs. They have to at least
know the theory of bodily exercise because their self-assessment motto of this type is I am
good if I am in perfect health condition. High sexual activity is a kind of self-affirmation, self-
protection in the area of the third function. The body should be reliable, it should be constantly
strengthened and tested, if it passes the test then “I am good”, this is positive defense. But
negative defense is also possible: “I am good, but I am very sick, I am sicker than you think.”

Function #-3 - objective sensoring ( ): problem-solving area. When health problems

arise this type thinks, “We must do something!” He/she turns to cross-country skiing, karate,
bathing in the ice-cold water, sauna, other physical exercises, diets, fasting, urine-therapy,
routine schedule, workouts, etc. I need to fortify my sensory ability; I need to be armed and
dangerous.

Function #4 - objective ethics ( ): (The principle of a place assessment, the area of

suggestive influences; motives, desires, people's attitude to me. Things that other people
teach me about.) This is a friend, that is a foe, and who is that one? I want to be loved. A good
place is the place where I am loved. A Robespierre leaves because he/she feels the negative
attitude, they are often unaware of the objective reasons why they left a place or a company: “I
want to be loved, that's all!” So he is thinking what can be done in order to get people's love?
It’s a good idea to create a team, become a leader, everyone will listen to me and nod: “Yes,
you are right! It is a wonderful thought! There is logic in what you say!”
Objective ethics in the area of the fourth function means that a person gathers people
around him/herself to satisfy the need to experience other people’s good attitude to himself.
The motive is subconscious and he/she may find him/herself surrounded by bootlickers some
day. We have mentioned that in the area of the fourth function people tend to be
hypochondriac. A Robespierre gets even suspicious: “I do not know what they really think
about me. Other people know better what others think about me”.
A Robespierre may be easy manipulated if his/her suspiciousness is encouraged it works
because they are not masters of relationships.

None of the IM types understand jokes in the area of the fourth function; when humored
they become more suspicious and may react absolutely inadequately.

Function #-4 - subjective ethics ( ): in a Robespierre's zone of fears is his/her own

attitude. Why talk about it? What is there to say? They have a fear of expressing love, or their
own attitude to a person/a thing/an event. “What is your opinion? What do you think about it?”
these questions frighten a Robespierre. And when they are faced with a necessity to speak
directly about their attitude they may put up a huge fuss. In general a Robespierre is inclined to
a detached, constrained manner of dialogue. He/she tries to express opinions implicitly, hinting
or joking. Frequently they are not understood, because they assume that others think in the
same way as they do.

β-quadra: Maxim, Hamlet, Tutankhamon, Zhukov

The Logical-sensory introvert - Maxim

Celebrities of this type: Maxim Gorky, Charles Morris Talejran, Caligula, Jiddu
Krishnamurti, Joseph Stalin, Martin Luther, Le Corbusier, Anatoly Karpov, Salvador Dali,
Toulouse-Lotrac, Pablo Picasso, Andrey Tarkovsky, Goiko Mitich, Alain Delong. The most
detailed description of this type – Klim Samgin, the main character in Life of Klim Samgin,
by M. Gorky.

(*Charles BRONSON (actor, US) Katherine ZETA-JONES (actress, US), Clint EASTWOOD
(actor, US), Boris GRYZLOV (politician, Russia), Slobodan MILOSHEVICH (politician, Yugoslavia),
Saparmurat TURKMENBASHI (politician, Turkmenistan), Madeleine Korbel ALBRIGHT (politician,
US), Donald RUMSFELD (politician, US), Joseph STALIN (politician, Soviet Union), Harry S.
TRUMAN (politician, US), Saddam HUSSEIN (politician, Iraq).*)

Function #1 - subjective logic ( ): my understanding, my worldview, and my school. A

Maxim's motto is: “I understand the world, therefore I exist”. It is impossible to make them
change their mind. The world is the way I understand it. Their understanding is very
conservative, crystallized.
When attacked in the area of the first function, a Maxim becomes aggressive. In the area
of the first function a person is confident of himself and leans on his own authority. In case of a
Maxim this is their 'school', their view of the world, their ideas about the world. “I know how the
world was made, who will teach me about heights and the depths. What evidence do you have
to show for? I will explain away all your evidence!” If a Maxim runs into undisputable evidence
which he can neither explain nor ignore, he (similar to a Robespierre) needs time to fill up the
gaps in their belief system, to improve their world view making it complete and consistent from
their point of view. He likes to analyze new data and draw independent conclusions, accepting
or rejecting certain things.
It is easy to drive a Maxim to aggression, just tell them: “Your teacher has no idea what
he is talking about!” Their reaction may be absolutely inadequate. And since their creative
function is physical action, anything within their hand's reach may be hurled at you. I tried
talking to a Maxim in the same manner and was nearly hit by a heavy object thrown at me.

Function #-1- objective logic ( ): the world is the way I see it, everything else I ignore.
Real circumstances can be perceived simply as annoying obstacles. If I study, I simply
listen to what a teacher says, and my understanding does not differ from the teacher’s; this is
my school. In any case it is a fixed set of ideas about the world, certain standard picture.
Sometimes real-world notions like visas, traffic rules, criminal code and other social realities
may fall in the zone of ignoring. This may cause 'unexpected' problems, even imprisonment.
The society does not care take into consideration neither your unique interpretation of the
established law nor your type of information metabolism.

Function #2- objective sensoring ( ): the zone of risk; the risk might as well be purely
physical. Get in his car and you will immediately feel the danger: He drives like a maniac
sweeping by just within an inch from the other cars on the road – otherwise it is 'not interesting'
enough. A Maxim likes to perform and be watched. As a rule, they are excellent drivers, they
crave risk, and thus they get a taste of life. If the person of this type is a professional
programmer, just look at his fingers fluttering above the keyboard – you cannot see separate
movements – so fast they are. A virtuoso! Paganini! The zone of creativity is the risk zone: he
wants to move and work with objects. A Maxim needs physical activity. Many of them became
stuntmen, students of marshal art schools, mimes. They admire perfected forms of movement.
They like to jump, shoot and drive. Quite often people of this type can be seen on a catwalk.
Demonstration of clothes or themselves is their creative area. Sometimes these people master
rather calligraphically elaborate handwriting, peculiar gait, and clothing style. Among actors we
also find bright representatives of this type: Nikolay Karachentsev, Constantine Raikin, Talgat
Nigmattulin. (*Charles BRONSON, Katherine ZETA-JONES, Clint EASTWOOD*)
Another aspect of this creative function - manipulation with objects. A Maxim is an ardent
collector. These people study the little nuances of form and function of various objects. Small
objects fascinate them: stamps, butterflies, labels, netsuke, etc. Thanks to them ancient
utensils are preserved, ancient arts are revived. They perfectly remember different nuances,
smallest distinctions of form.
A Maxim easily gets his/her bearings in any surroundings. Having visited a house just
once they remember the layout, arrangement of furniture and appliances. They easily recall
small details: features, clothes, etc... A Maxim does not like his/her belongings being moved or
used.

Function #-2- subjective sensoring ( ): health is in the area standards. This type has
unusually high pain threshold. At times they may be masochistic, exhausting themselves
physically for a long time in a gym or at the racetrack. A Maxim is able to perfect a difficult trick
for hours despite of exhaustion, hunger, cold or heat. A Maxim is conservative in food and sex
preferences, they do not seek variety.

Function #3- subjective intuition ( ): integrity of the inner world is in the problem
area. This type escapes a situation that threatens his/her internal integrity. A Maxim would take
a job with a low pay, inconvenient in other ways too, if only he has a peace about working
there. This type needs a well structured outside world to support the lack of integrity on the
inside. Often rigid social institutions, requiring some kind of service, soothe their aching desire
to have peace with themselves and others – army, gangs, and religion. The internal world is in
seeming peace because he has managed to explain away the external world how he likes it.
“It is not me who is speaking, but a supreme force speaks through me, I am only its tool", or
"Soldiers do not create karma”. In their search for inner peace they adopt a point of view: “I am
good if it’s not me who lives”. In this case the person turns into an element of a rigid system, as
though dissolving in it, turning into a function, living its motto "I am not [present]”. It is an
exceptionally protected integral internal situation.

Function #-3- objective intuition ( ): this is a problem solving area. This type
arranges the external situation to secure his/her inner peace. He works hard to set up a stable
daily routine, hierarchy of relationships, way of life, work schedule, job functions.
Function #4- objective ethics ( ): the attitude of people to me, people’s relationships.
A Maxim is easily suggested in this sphere. “I want people to care about me. I want to be liked,
appreciated and respected”. If people here like me, then this is a good place. A Maxim’s
cunning friends often use this trait. When he/she thinks “I am appreciated, trusted, I am
coping”, he/she is in danger of being used. In the best-case scenario he will be thanked for his
work and dismissed.

A Maxim often acts like an introvert. He/she does not speak much. Only a few
representatives of this type like to talk. Their public speech is short, logical and well structured.

People of all IM types are hypochondriacal in the area of the fourth function. There are
rigid programs in the area of the fourth function; others or the person him/herself downloads
them.

A Maxim is hypochondriacal, i.e. suspicious in his/her relationships. People can influence

a Maxim rather effectively by exploiting this suspiciousness. Sometimes it is enough to tell a
Maxim that Mr. So-and-so does not like him/her, then she/he begins to “pick up” the signs of
insincerity in Mr. So-and-so … suspicion creeps in. It is easy to infuse doubts through the
fourth function; here the person is always hypochondriacal. In this area he/she does not trust
him/herself and becomes dependent on opinions of other people, often sees the reality through
the eyes of other people.
Taken to the extreme this quality turns into maniacal suspiciousness. Joseph Stalin’s
paranoid suspiciousness threw the whole country into the abyss of suspicion and fear.
If this type fails to find a friendly company with a good guaranteed attitude, they often
search for an individual way of realization where they do not depend on other people’s
attitudes.

Function #-4- subject ethics ( ): my attitude to people is the zone of fears. It is

impossible to hear this type confessing their love or any other feeling. He will sooner do
something than talk: he will take a girl out, give her flowers or jewellery, but he will not talk
about his feelings. In situations when expression of feelings is necessary, a Maxim is tense, it
seems his mind is some place else. His opinion he expresses impersonally or indirectly, but
clearly. Often he runs into communication problems because most types need verbal
communication to understand another person, otherwise they just do not see what you see.
The unsaid does not count. I appreciate the flowers you gave me and the romantic dinners you
took me to! But I need to hear what you think and feel about me!
 Why people of this type often join criminal agencies (mercenary units or other social clubs
with rigid structure)? There might be two reasons for this: “Here I feel comfortable, I accept
the hierarchy and the principles of the agency” and “I am valued and respected here, so this
place is good” (positive feedback according to the fourth function). Besides, here he has an
outlet for his love for manipulations with objects (realization of the creative function). The logic
of the objective world is ignored (in this case it can be the law, the criminal code, or traffic
rules). He is seeking for inner peace and consistency. Maxim's peculiar creativity combined
with disobedience to the law and his desire to be in “good” company paves a way for his
criminal future.
Look, this type is easy to recognize, we all often run into them.

The Ethical-intuitive extrovert – a Hamlet

Celebrities of this type: William Shakespeare's Hamlet, Octavian August, Nero,

Johan Wolfgang Goethe, Adolph Hitler, Leon Trotsky, Dolores Ibarruri, Fidel Castro,
Raphael Santi, Michaelous Chourleonis, Ivan Pavlov, Sergey Vavilov, Jerome K Jerome,
Vsevolod Meyerhold, Jean Mare, Lawrence Oliver, Innokenty Smoktunovsky, Paul
Kadochnikov, Sergey Bondarchuk, Vladimir Zhirinovsky.

(*Asia ARGENTO (actress, Italy), Annette BENING (actress, US), Melanie GRIFFITH (actress,
US), Irene JACOB (actress, France), Nicole KIDMAN (actress, Australia - US), Anastasia KINSKY
(actress, Germany - US), David COPPERFIELD (illusionist, US), Penelope CRUZ (actress, Spain -
US), George MICHAEL (singer, Greece - US), Julia ORMOND (actress, US), Mickey ROURKE
(actor, US), Audrey TAUTOU (actress, France), Myelin FARMER (singer, Canada), Audrey
HAPBURNE (actress, UK), Charles Spencer CHAPLIN (actor, UK - US - Switzerland), Friedrich
NIETZSCHE (philosopher, Germany, XIX century), Friedrich HOELDERLIN (poet, Germany, XIX
century), Johan Wolfgang GOETHE (poet and politician, Germany, XVIII century), Edward
LIMONOFF (writer and anarchist politician, US - France - Russia), Thomas MANN (writer,
Germany), Edgar Allan POE (writer, US, XIX century), Edward RADZINSKY (writer and historian,
Russia), Marina TSVETAYEVA (poet, Russia), George BUSH Jr. (politician, US), Josef
GOEBBELS (politician, Germany), Ernesto GUEVARA (politician, Cuba), Adolph HITLER
(politician, Germany), Muamar GADHAFI (politician, Libya), Osama Bin LADEN (politician, Saudi
Arabia), Ronald W. REAGAN (politician, US), Francisco FRANCO y BAHAMONDE (politician,
Spain), Nicolai CEAUSHESCU (politician, Romania).*)
Function #1- objective ethics ( ): a Hamlet's zone of confidence is external
relationships. This type does not have any problems in this sphere as a rule. Stability of
relationships is important. If stability of current relationships is shaken it may cause a strong
emotional reaction, even aggression. A Hamlet belongs to the aristocratic quadra, and in
his/her life there are less confidents, than, for example, in a Hugo's life. Their circle of close
friends is very small.
A Hamlet deprived of the opportunity to be on stage – in a broad meaning of this word -
not only as an actor, but also as a teacher or a leader; when he is deprived of the opportunity
to be in public with people looking at him or up to him – he feels devastated. Then both the
first and the second (creative) functions are ruined. “If there are no relationships, then I am not
needed, I do not exist.” He needs relationships - whether they are good or bad – they need to
be there. This type craves relationships with employees and bosses, friends and enemies,
customers and business partners; most of all in life he desires audience. Any relationships
confirm to me that I exist in this world.

Function #-1- subjective ethics ( ): negative values, "bad things". A Hamlet's attitude
to people is not important in his/her own eyes; they put other people’s attitude higher than their
own. Their relationships with other people always take the first place. 'My attitude to people' is
somewhere in the background, often hidden even from myself. He is focused on his
relationships more than on his attitude, which basically has no value to him and so he keeps it
to himself. He can talk about his feelings and emotions. A Hamlet can easily express his
feelings and emotions through acting as if on stage, while hiding his attitude well – unlike, for
example, a Napoleon or a Huxley who express their attitudes through their creative second
function. It is easier for a Hamlet to wear a mask.

Function #2- subjective intuition ( ): people of this type are good actors. Their
creative function allows them to easily manipulate in the area of the inner integrity. They easily
change their images, one after another… Thus they discover the world through their creative
function. Everyone subconsciously searches for an occupation satisfying the needs of the IM
type to the maximum. When working in a theater college, I wandered what IM types prevailed
among the actors. It turned out that the Maxims and the Hamlets constituted 40 % of all the
students there. A Hamlet's creative function, the ability to play a vivid role of different
characters, is an ideal skill for a professional actor.
In the clinical psychology this type is known as hysteroid. When an actor goes into a
controlled hysterics on stage it may look good. The actor is writhing in hysterics, but falls
precisely in an armchair, fixing her blouse… The integrity of the inner world supports a
Hamlet’s integrity of his/her self-image. In this area of his creativity he easily goes in and out of
the certain image and moves on to another.
When a Don Quixote says, “I understand”, a Hamlet says, “I am in.” A Hamlet has to live
the character, he does it with ease. Things that are beyond the other types seem routine to a
Hamlet with his peculiar behavior, psychological space, his creative function, and boundaries
where this type exists.
Many ardent tribunes were representatives of this type; they could speak for hours with
feverish drive and fiery eloquence: Lev Trotsky, Adolph Hitler, Fidel Castro. Among modern
politicians, perhaps, only Vladimir Zhirinovsky is a glaring example of this type. He is a
remarkable actor, too! Remember some of his controlled hysterics on TV? He does it
consciously, and the parliament is his stage. The main thing is the presence of audience. The
actor calms down immediately after the performance, but people in the audience continue to
shake and shiver for a long time.
There are only a few actors who can play different character types. A Hamlet easily turns
into a Balzac or a Napoleon on stage, the actors of this type have unusually wide spectrum of
roles. Many good actors belong to this type: Innokenty Smoktunovsky, Sergey Bondarchuk,
Jean Mare.
Speaking of theatre, it is easy to see that a good director asks those actors to play on
stage whose type coincides with the type of the character – that if the character has a type,
there are plays with indefinite character types, and then it is an impersonal image that lacks
life, absolutely not adequate to reality.

Function #-2- objective intuition ( ): the zone of standards, norms. There should be a
schedule, a routine, a script. The gun should fire in the fifth act. The husband should come
home on time; the whole family ought to go on a pick-nick on Sunday. A Hamlet accepts
established routines and does not express creativity in this area. A Hamlet follows the
schedule; maybe he does it without great enthusiasm, but still does. Sometimes people of this
type live according to a schedule that does not suits them very well, however, they do not
question the norms established by society. Having gotten into a routine, they tend to stay in it
even despite essential changes of circumstances.

Function #3- objective sensoring ( ): my appearance, my skill, my actions, power,

influence, money, my image. As a rule, a Hamlet dresses a little bit extravagantly, as if for a
show. This type loves bright colors, detail, unusual accessories, etc. They always have an
individual style. “How do I look?" and "What am I able to do”- these are the principles their self-
esteem is based on according to the third function. In a sense this is a simplification of the
situation in favor of clarity: here I should have exact knowledge. Each representative of this
type has a set of skills (remember, prince Hamlet was the best fencer in the Danish kingdom).
A Hamlet enjoys demonstrating his skills, flaunting while getting a positive feedback and
support. If remodeling is that type of a skill then A Hamlet will show that he can do it better
than anyone. But if a particular skill is not in their area of self-esteem then they would need to
put extra efforts into a project, it is possible they might need some supernatural power to do a
project
 In a position of a leader a Hamlet as a rule adheres to a rigid authoritative style of
management, emphasizing social hierarchy of relationships. In case of a conflict he/she is not
prone to flexibility and compromise. A Hamlet works hard on the corporative image, sometimes
the image considerably misrepresents the current company. A Hamlet's wants to be a part of a
sound business with good income. This is one of the few types who are able to make good
money on image. It is important that a Hamlet has an opportunity to work with money or other
material assets.

Function #-3- subjective sensoring ( ): problem-solving area. If I am not able to do

something, then I need to work on my health to be able to do that. I need to work out, practice,
and strengthen the body. A Hamlet pays close attention to health when problems arise. And
the problems are of two kinds: either I am not able to do something, or the body does not meet
my standards and is inadequate to my image of "good". However, a Hamlet does not limit his
efforts to physical exercising. I know the Hamlets who use a lot of medication, incredible
quantities of pills and so on. It is not necessarily true about all of them, but some of them do
that.

Function #4(suggestible) - subjective logic ( ): a good place is where I understand

everything. A Hamlet may accept things because they sound logical. A Hamlet and a Hugo are
the two types who enjoy the most attending lectures, meetings, discussions, etc. (see
description of a Hugo). The key thing here is that they need a structure and they need to be
able to understand what’s going on. They accept other people’s explanation of how everything
works and what is right and wrong. A good place is the place where I understand everything,
where things have been explained to me and I understood. A Hamlet is open for outside
influences through explanations.

Function #-4- objective logic ( ): the zone of fears. “To be or not to be?” – this is a
Hamlet’s classical question. Alas, it is necessary to make a decision! What is going to happen
after I make a decision? Nobody knows, and this is frightening... When a choice is made there
is freedom for creativity. It is a purely a hamletian problem – the fear of realization, of
definiteness, irreversibility of a made decision. Even if it is clear that it is absolutely necessary
to move (to put things in order; to make a legal implementation), but somehow there is never
enough time.
A Hamlet has to make efforts to feel more or less confidently in the area where decision-
making is a necessity. A Hamlet never puts other people's things in order and hardly ever
organizes his/her own belongings.
NB! People of this type are susceptible to illness in the upper air passages.

The intuitive - ethical introvert - Tutankhamon

Celebrities of this type: Tutankhamon, Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU, Tiberius, Ivan Bunin,
Jury Gagarin, Antoine de Saint-Exupéri, Federico Garcia Lorca, Marcello Mastroianni, Audrey
Hepburn, Eugeny Matveev, Bulat Okudjava. Peculiar smile is characteristic of people of
this type, the one you could see on the Tutankhamon mask.

(*Hugh GRANT (actor, US), Liza KUDROW (actress, US), Edward NORTON (actor, US),
Chulpan KHAMATOVA (actress, Russia), Jennifer ANISTON (actress, US), Frederic CHOPIN
(composer, Poland - France, XIX century), Friedrich Wilhelm SCHELLING (philosopher, Germany,
XIX century), Ray BRADBURY (writer, US), Romain HARY (writer, FRANCE, also known as Emile
AJART), Nikolai GOGOL (writer and philosopher, Russia), Marceilles PROUST (writer, France),
Paul CELAN (German poet, lived in Romania and France), Nikolai BUKHARIN (politician, Soviet
Union), Laura BUSH (president's wife, US), Georgi MALENKOV (politician, Soviet Union), Nikolai
RYZHKOV (politician, Soviet Union).*)
 Function #1- subject intuition ( ): integrity of inner world is in the zone of confidence.
A Tutankhamon’s inner integrity is a constant and absolute lack of contradictions on the inside.
It is frequently shown in their conversations. A Tutankhamon, the aristocrat, may behave
differently with different people. A Tutankhamon's ideas of 'proper' relationships are
conservative and often people do not understand his norms and approaches. This type always
has well thought through principles of life. In a sense a Tutankhamon is a "conservative
romantic". Unlike a Dumas, he is constantly in a state of introspective meditation. Just like a
Balzac, more than other types, he is capable of introspection. When the world around him is
pressing in, a Tutankhamon may withdraw from people for long periods of time, going deeper
within himself, within his soul, and does not want to think rationally.
A person of this type stays in the background and feels the subtle rhythm of time.
Imperturbability, the ability to be present without being noticed makes them good professional
bodyguards. Hollywood actors Kevin Kostner, Pierce Brosnan, Steven Seagull are striking
examples of this type.

Function #-1- objective intuition ( ): ignoring the integrity of the world. Quite often
people of this type just drop out of the picture, take themselves out of the heat of the
circumstances. At a party you may hear somebody say: “Where is she? I just saw her a minute
ago.” They talk about a Tutankhamon. She is phantom lost somewhere in the inner depths. On
the contrary a Don Quixote may completely lose himself in the external circumstances: intense
relationships help him to forget about his problems! A Tutankhamon withdraws within herself
and lets the world fade away.

Function #2– objective ethics ( ): this is the area of creativity – people's relationships,
their attitude to me. Her creative function is manipulation with relationships but it does not
mean that she is an intriguer. She easily figures out what’s up with these people. A
Tutankhamon has a gift of influencing relationships and turning them for her own benefit
through emotional attack. She does it from the outside of a situation. She lightly touches on
certain issues, makes subtle statements and there you go! There is a supposition that a
Tutankhamon is even a subtler manipulator than a Dumas. I failed to catch a Tutankhamon in
the act. More field observations need to be done in this area.
On the other hand, I know that a Tutankhamon does not have problems with
relationships; she is always ready to compromise, be flexible in order to get what she wants.
She may provoke certain actions (I observed her doing that so many times) - but I have not
been able to catch her in the act of doing it.
A Tutankhamon can be the master organizer, creating and structuring large groups of
people. She is able to adjust and maintain relationships within a group and create productive
atmosphere. As a leader she adheres to democratic style of management as a rule.

Function #-2– subjective ethics ( ): the zone of standards. A Tutankhamon avoids

situations where she needs to express her personal attitude, for example, talking about her
feelings of love. She finds it easier talking about objective circumstances and how things ought
to be, but her own attitude is already the way it ought to be. She has conventional ways of
expressing her sincere (even positive) feelings. Her rich inner life escapes words.

Function #3– subjective logic ( ): the principle of self-esteem is based on the ability
to understand. "If I understand correctly, then I am a good person". A person tries to simplify
the situation according to this function. Simplification in this case is used as an effective means
of protection. A Tutankhamon builds a negative defense by denying any uncertain facts. The
fear of incompetence narrows down her opportunities to apply her knowledge. A Tutankhamon
builds a positive defense through generalizing abstract theories; they are aimed at explaining
to her all the phenomena in the society and nature.
Function #-3– objective logic ( ): the problem here is 'to understand' things, it is
possible to solve the problem by getting 'to know' things. The type wants to solve problems
through collecting objective data, consulting experts, applying the latest research results,
getting new reliable information. A Tutankhamon tries to solve her problems by changing her
external circumstances.

Function #4– objective sensoring ( ): suggestible function. Activity, motion. “Others

ought to tell me what I should do. A good place is the place where there is action, movement,
where work gets done". There are times when she finds herself on her way some place or
sitting by a campfire. It is as if she was "inserted" in unplanned circumstances. She could not
resist the external influence. “They took me with them, so I went along. I have no will of my
own.” This type should be attentive to their choices. Do these things correspond to the goals of
my life? Will they take me there where I want to be? A Tutankhamon may seek to escape later
when she realizes that it is not where she wants to be. It is too late though; people reap what
they sow. On the one hand she is in slavery to other people, and on the other hand she is a
skilled manipulator of the external relationships. When a Tutankhamon realizes what she is
reaping, instead of repenting she resorts to harassing the people who got her involved and
looks for ways to get out of the mess, produced by her irresponsibility, using the strengths of
her type.

Function #-4– subjective sensing ( ): Feelings and health are in the area. She has
her sensory comfort in this area; she does not want to see doctors, she is in denial of her
health condition (“I plough till I drop dead in my furrow”). She would rather endure unpleasant
sensations, even strong pains, than seek help. Here a Tutankhamon seems to imitate his
complementary type, a Zhukov, but he is too low on energy. This type runs the risk of chronic
subtle diseases.

The Sensory-logical extrovert - Zhukov

Celebrities of this type: George Zhukov, Sergey Korolev, Sergey Kirov, Valery
Chkalov, Oliver Cromwell, Boris Yeltsin, Alexander Lebed, Leon Gumilev, Richard
Wagner, Cyril Lavrov, George Sand, Anna Ahmatova, Marina Tsvetaeva, Alexandra
Kollontay, Isidora Duncan, Alisa Friendlich, Jane Fonda.

(*Richard BURTON (actor, US), Marlon BRANDO (actor, US), Michael DOUGLAS (actor,
US), Takeshi KITANO (actor, Japan), Russell CROWE (actor, US), MADONNA (singer, US),
Al PACINO (actor, US), Sharon STONE (actress, US), Rutger HAUER (actor, US), Anthony
HOPKINS (actor, US), Richard WAGNER (composer, Germany, XIX century), Galina
VISHNEVSKAYA (opera singer, Russia - US), Martin LUTHER (church reformer, Germany,
XVI century), Lavrenty BERIA (politician, Soviet Union), Napoleon BUONAPARTE (monarch,
France, XIX century), Hermann GOERING (politician, Germany, 3rd Reich), Hillary R.
CLINTON (politician, US), Vladimir LENIN (politician, Soviet Union), Peter I (monarch,
Russia), Winston CHURCHILL (politician, UK).*)

Function #1- objective sensoring ( ): the principle of existence: “I am active,

therefore I exist”. His life’s principles are constancy of the external form, confidence in his
appearance and actions. Those who criticize a Zhukov's actions may experience his
aggression. They are workaholics in the full sense of the word. A Zhukov just can’t sit still.
They are active even when they should be still in the given circumstances. Socionists have a
joke: "can a Zhukov be quiet for 10 minutes in a company of friends? If he is quiet then he is
either mute, or sick, or dead…"
A working Zhukov gives all of himself to a business never sparing his energy. It is an
authoritative, strong-willed type, able to make others submit; also he can obey when working in
rigid structures (army service, etc.). The habit of taking responsibility upon themselves makes
them irreplaceable middle-level managers — they rarely make it to the top due to their
excessive straightforwardness. But notice, that just like a Don Quixote, they (Winston Churchill
and Margaret Thatcher) step forward during the periods of real danger in the history of
humankind.
 A Zhukov is reliable. If there is no movement, no activity going on, they will find it or
create it; he is a magnet for situations where he is needed. These people constitute a rather
strong social type.
Two people of this type (just like two Napoleons) hardly ever get along when life brings
them together. It is normal because they are both leaders. Only relationships within the
boundaries of a strictly defined hierarchy (army, etc.) or in a master - disciple type of
relationship they may get along a little better for a period of time.

Function #-1– subjective sensoring ( ): health is in the area of ignoring. A Zhukov

has a "farmer's attitude" in health issues: "I shall plough until I drop dead in my furrow." When
he does get sick having spent all his strength in feverish activity) he allows others to take care
of them. Only when they are burnt out they might agree to take some time off at a resort or a
hospital. People of this type should remember this because people are not indestructible; they
are not sources of endless energy. However, they should not stay away from work completely.
A Zhukov needs to learn to control this area of life. Not all of them are capable of doing that.
A Zhukov is not a picky eater: he expects food to be plentiful and filling, it should not be
some choice food, but it should be esthetically pleasing.
Function #2- subjective logic ( ): his since for dialectics is in the creative area, he is
able to consider an object, a situation, an event from several points of view, he can explain any
phenomenon in several different ways. A Zhukov is not conservative here.
A Don Quixote having generated an idea hardly ever implements it in real life. A Zhukov,
having the same creative function, comes up with an idea and then brings it about, i.e. a
Zhukov gives it a chance to live. For example, Sergei Korolev (a Zhukov) and Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky (a Don Quixote) – they both dreamed to see man in space. Korolev dared to finish
the project in completely fantastic, inhuman conditions; and he became in his own way happy.

Function #-2 - objective logic ( ): the logic of the external world is in the zone of
standards. This type picks out the laws that they follow automatically, without a hint of
creativity. In this area a Zhukov does not like to waste time on decision-making.

Function #3- objective ethics ( ): a Zhukov’s principle of self-esteme is as follows:

“People need me, therefore I am good”. Other people’s assessment of him is the basis of his
good or bad attitude to himself. It is very important: when, in what situations the person gets
positive feedback through the third function. If a Zhukov is needed, he gets constant 'refills' of
energy. In his relationships he is focused on himself: “I the hub of the universe.” Incidentally
these two types (a Don Quixote and a Zhukov) have personal and public interests in consent.
A Zhukov's cunning "friends" frequently use this trait for their purposes.
A Zhukov has to be needed ("important"); otherwise he gets sick and spends all of his
colossal energy on medical treatment, seriously aggravating the situation.

Function #-3- subjective ethics ( ): the problem is solved when he changes his
attitude to an object or a person. It is important to have clarity and definiteness. When a Don
Quixote faces a conflict in a relationship; he tries to smooth it out. A Zhukov in similar
circumstances is more determined. It is easier for him to avoid the difficult person than to live
with the tension of the uncertainty. Both kinds of behavior are inadequate, however, he gets
the result, which comforts him: the situation becomes simpler in both cases; he pushes the
problem out of his life. A Zhukov has a radical approach to the problem: if there is no
relationship then there is no problem.
Function #4- subjective intuition ( ): “I want the world to be in harmony and beautiful.
I want to feel good so do something”. A Zhukov’s thirst for inner peace is the biggest than any
others’. He does not know how to manage his own feelings. He needs external influence to
have a change of mood. Therefore he resorts to common means of changing the mood:
alcohol, drugs. Some of them get into verbal fights. This is a very interesting channel of
suggestion because this type is usually at the top and we run into them in burocratic
structures. They are difficult to be around because they have hard time managing their moods
and emotions, they are unpredictable.
Function #-4 - objective intuition ( ): here he has the fear of integrity of external
situation. Integrity of circumstances is subconsciously rejected. He detests situations when
everything is known from beginning to end. A Zhukov has a peculiar vision of time. “What do
you mean I have to follow a schedule? What if I feel like working around the clock? Why are
you putting me in the rigid frames of a schedule? I do not care about your office hours. If I feel
like working, I will keep work”. It is not a surprise that the military talent of marshal Zhukov
revealed itself to its fullest in circumstances where the course of events changed abruptly, in
situations of a break-through, or an attack, where emergency decisions, deviance from the
ordinary schedule, abrupt changes in tactics were necessary. A Zhukov can simultaneously
supervise (and be involved in) several situations at the same time, switching from one to
another at a snap.

Lecture 3
Descriptions of γ- and δ-quadras types

Gamma - quadra: a Napoleon, a Balzac, a Jack London, a Dreiser

The sensory ethical extrovert – a Napoleon

Celebrities of this type: Napoleon Bonaparte, Gaius Julius Caesar, Alexander the
Great, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Marcus Tullius Cicero, Catherine II, George Byron,
Gustave Flaubert and the character of one of his novel, Madame Bovary, Stendhal,
Alexander Pushkin, Leo Tolstoi and the main character of one of his novels - Anna
Karenina, Rajiv Ghandi, Michael Gorbatchev, Harry Kasparov, Alla Pugatcheva.

(*Drew BARRYMORE (actress, US), Claudia CARDINALE (actress, Italy), Ornella MUTI
(actress, Italy), Elvis PRESLEY (singer, US), Britney SPEARS (singer, US), Mena SUVARI
(actress, US), Elisabeth TAYLOR (actress, US), Sherilyn FENN (actress, US), Goldie HAWN
(actress, US), Silvio BERLUSCONI (politician, Italy), Lech WALESA (politician, Poland), Mikhail
GORBACHEV (politician, Russia), Lyndon JOHNSON (politician, US), Catherine II (monarch,
Russia), Ernst ROEHM (politician, Germany, 3rd Reich), Dmitry ROGOZIN (politician, Russia),
Mikhail SAAKASHVILI (politician, Georgia), Mikhail TUKHACHEVSKY (army commander, Russia),
Jacques CHIRAC (politician, France), Gerhard SCHROEDER (politician, Germany).*)

Function #1- objective sensoring ( ): action, deed, appearance are in his zone of
confidence. A Napoleon is a man of actions. He has the following principles of existence: “I am
active, therefore I exist” and “I do not need anyone to teach me, I know what I am supposed to
do”. Often this type does something before he thinks. Military proverbs like "First engage the
enemy, then see what happens" and “The war reveals the plan” are very characteristic of a
Napoleon's approach to the dichotomy planning vs. action. Their hands move faster than their
heads think: they are people of action who accept responsibility for the consequences. This is
an important professional quality of leaders of any rank. A Napoleon is an authoritative and
even autocrative leader: “We discussed it and I have decided…” In spite of his democratic
friendships joint leadership is obviously not his style. Remember how quickly the Directory was
done away with when Bonaparte came to power?
This type is confident in the stability of their external form, their appearance and their own
actions. They do not have any problems in this area: “How do I look today? I look good! I look
the way I want to look.”
A Napoleon walks unremarkably, conservatively; he does not care about appearances.
Everything concerning forms is in his zone of confidence. When criticized a Napoleon may get
angry. He does not take into consideration other people’s advice in this area.
 A Napoleon is a man of action. He is weighed down when he cannot do anything. What is
a Napoleon like when he is retired? He withers away, gets ill, he whines and feels miserable.
They have to do something, anything; if nothing else they walk.
If your child is a Napoleon, do not put pressure on him/her in the area of the first and third
functions, do not discipline them unless you have to, but best do not correct them at all just for
the sake of your own comfort.
Unlike a Zhukov’s, a Napoleon’s personal interests hardly ever coincide with the public
ones. In anything he does a Napoleon puts his personal interests first, especially financial.
They are rather thrifty; they use money well, though they are not as scrupulous as a Gaben. A
Napoleon tries to spend money sparingly, believes that one good turn deserves another. In
general restless activity and a craving for practice characterize a Napoleon.
Function #-1- subjective sensoring ( ): his health is in the zone of ignoring. He often
burns out at his place of work because they do not want to properly take care of their health in
time. He does not like talking about health issues. Usually a Napoleon uses simple treatment,
a quick fix like aspirin. I made a choice, I took it in, and it is enough. Often just like a Zhukov he
uses a hill-belly’s approach to health: “I hope I’ll get away with it”, “I will plow till I drop dead.”
Until he drops dead he works hard and often the reason of his death is an unexpected
sickness, because due to his carelessness the sickness was neglected.
A Napoleon does not like being touched, especially by strangers. This trait is so
characteristic of them that may be used for diagnosing the type.
Function #2 - subjective ethics ( ): the area of creativity covers his attitude to the
world, to people, to objects, his opinion on any subject. First of all here is his emotional risk. A
Napoleon is a leader because he easily expresses his attitude to actions or people. He seeks a
position of leadership because there his opinion will matter.
Since this is the creative function, both negative and positive poles are easily accessible
to him. A Napoleon can just look at his troops and say: “Soldiers, I love you!” There are ten
thousand people; does he love them all? The fact is they know he really does love them, and
they trust him, and they follow him. Demonstration of his attitude is art; therefore it takes
special circumstances that facilitate the maximum self-expression. Is there a better position for
self-expression than a position of leadership? “I am the boss, you are the fool. When you are
the boss, I will be the fool.” Therefore it is natural for a Napoleon to aim at positions where his
creative function may find its realization. If you are late for work, your boss – a Napoleon –
may reprimand you harshly, even rudely. But in five minutes he will come to you as a matter of
factly to discuss business as if nothing had happened. He just vented his anger, no big deal. It
was just a part of the routine! A Napoleon does not dwell on it, unlike a Don Quixote who is
hurting over offending someone for several days. This type often uses words "shame",
"disaster", "I hate it", "I like it", "fantastic", "great". A Napoleon may fruitfully work in the heat of
the conflict. Often he intentionally creates a situation of a conflict to draw out reliable
information, a plan of attack.
A Napoleon is a good politician, in a dialogue he is able to easily find rapport and talk
about the opponent’s problems, but he never forgets about his own goals. He produces an
illusionary impression that he really cares about other people's problems. A Napoleon is loved
despite of his boldness, people trust him, they vote for him hoping he will change things for the
better.
Function #-2 - objective ethics ( ): the zone of standards. A Napoleon maintains
certain standards in external relationships, rarely becoming close with people. He prefers to
keep people at a distance, he does not make friends in the office (command, platoon, etc.);
there is a distance, a uniform, a business talk within the framework of the rules of rank. They
often do not have close friends in a large crowd of associates and acquaintances.
Relationships fall in the sphere of "unnecessary". At times a Napoleon wanting to express
his personal attitude does not take into consideration neither circumstance, nor people’s
personal or group space. A Napoleon easily becomes a part of a group and just as easily he
pulls it apart. Some people of this type sincerely do not realize how tactless they are.
Sometimes you can witness a situation: a Napoleon approaches a talking couple and as a
matter of factly interrupts and addresses the person he needs to talk to; – the thing is,
approaches them without second thought, says something, disrupting the space of the
dialogue, takes care of his business, while the other partner takes off. A Napoleon may get in
trouble for doing that especially if he is a child in school.

Function #3 - objective logic ( ): the place of self-estimation is first of all personal

territory. We know that each person tries to simplify the situation according to the third
function. For example, “When I have conquered the world, then it will be clear where is my
territory and where is not”. Napoleon Bonaparte and Alexander the Great entertained similar
ideas. This is a simplification of a situation. This is an example of an extreme case, of course.
But in any case the person of this type needs to know precisely the boundaries of his territory,
where he is the emperor, the master and the owner. I have noticed once that at the Aeroflot
ticket booths half of the cashier ladies belonged to this type. Each had a tiny office with a ticket
window, and that was her territory that gave her the freedom to vent her opinion to the people
in line. Every cashier lady felt like she was the god of the air, and that showed. In general, the
size of the territory does not make a difference; a Napoleon acts like a dictator whether he is a
street sweeper or a president of a large country.
For a Napoleon “my territory” does not only mean land or space, it may also be social
territory – “my people”. When a Napoleon comes to power, first of all he/she puts “his/her
people” in key positions. Their professionalism is less important than their loyalty. An employee
of a Napoleon will sooner get in trouble for lack of loyalty than for his failures. For a Napoleon
the external order is very important. He/she might reprimand an employee not for a mistake at
work but for being late to the office – because it disrupts the order and makes people doubt the
boss' (a Napoleon) ability to control the situation. In this case being late becomes almost a
treachery. A Napoleon's third function gets a major negative feedback when the order of his
territory is disrupted. .
On the other hand, a Napoleon takes good care of “his people”, remembers their
problems, and forgives their weakness. I know a Napoleon who, being the director of a large
garage personally has been congratulating each employee on his or her birthdays for many
years. As a result workers never left the company, although the boss is very strict, demanding
and authoritative. Not unlike Bonaparte himself who was said to know all his old time soldiers
by name – more than ten thousand!
Starting a business, a Napoleon should have a precise definition of his/her functions: “I
should do this and this only”. Otherwise the business will never run. If you have an employee
of this type, you should give him a clear goal with well-defined functions and fixed
responsibility, otherwise the job will never be done. Instead you will listen endless stories about
the objective circumstances that were in the way.
Even as a little boy a Napoleon should have his own space, his territory. He would rather
have the confidence that the territory is his, than have it clean and tidy. When his mom makes
him pick up his toys he might obey, but still feel like he is losing the territory and the next day
there will be a mess again, and this will go on forever unless he is disciplined in love. The
reproof gives wisdom: but a child left to himself brings his mother to shame. Naturally a
Napoleon wants to be left to himself; naturally the mother falsely hopes that he will clean up his
mess without being reminded. A Napoleon motivates his disobedience by the need to feel
secure in knowing that this 1,5 square meter belongs to him.
Two representatives of this type on one territory – is a sight to behold! There is only room
for hierarchical relationships, otherwise there will be a conflict or one of them will drive out the
other.
A Napoleon is a born leader; however, if a territory does not interest him/her and he/she is
not planning on conquering it, his/her behavior drastically changes. A Napoleon remains
invisible, not talkative and still.

Function #-3- subjective logic ( ): problem-solving area. When faced with objective
problems (financial, technical, technological, etc.), this type leans on the opinion of experts,
statistics, authoritative sources, etc. A Napoleons pays attention to weighty opinions of those
people whose intelligence they consider to be above their own. When in a leadership position
a Napoleon always has clever, competent advisers (for example, Dr.Velikhov (a Balzac) for
Gorbachev (a Napoleon)). Unique experts are treated with awe and respect; unpardonable
things are often forgiven to the unique specialists.
 Function #4 - subjective intuition ( ): suggestible function. A Napoleon’s integrity of
internal situation is his mood. An example: you need your boss – a Napoleon – to sign some
papers. He has a choice to either sign it or not. What can you do to influence his choice? The
best way to influence his mood, is to ask a person of his complementing type to take the
papers to the boss, he/she would have more chances signing it for you. But if you don’t have a
choice, then put on the air of good spirits and go ahead. Strange as it may seem, but in this
particular area a Napoleon is easily suggested. It has been proven that a Napoleon has to be
in a good mood to achieve results. If he is in a good mood he may sign the paper even without
looking.
A Napoleon makes decisions easily, but he has hard time changing his/her mood. He can
only dream about a Hamlet’s talent of switching moods. This type is always looking for new
ways to change a mood. When coping with negative feelings a Napoleon may choose to drink,
while making excuses that others do that too. It is common for a man to judge others by his
own measure. In 1980's in Russia a campaign against alcohol started. A lot of finest vineyards
were cut down all through the country. Why was the president so zealous? Mikhail Gorbachev
- a Napoleon – was aware of the fact that alcohol has the power to change people’s mood. He
though the alcohol to be bad, therefore he fought it.
Anyway, when a Napoleon is aware that he can easily be inspired by the mood of others
he/she should not allow others to use this trait to their advantage. It is not an easy job, by the
way, it takes patience and focusing on the area of mood.

Function #4 is the channel of manipulative influences.

A Napoleon's intuition is poorly differentiated. He has a hard time speaking about his
feelings. He just has a 'gut feeling' about something and cannot explain.
Function #-4 — objective intuition ( ): the zone of fears. If the external situation is
entirely complete, then a Napoleon has nothing to do. There must be a gap, and a broken
harmony. “Engage the enemy, and go with the flow”. What is there to think about? For a
Napoleon circumstances that are completely known and clear do not give an opportunity to
act, therefore he/she tries to create a bifurcation, a stress, a conflict, when it is necessary to
make decision on which further succession of events depends, when there is nothing set and
fixed and it is necessary to work in unknown circumstances. A Napoleon often acts intuitively,
instinctively. The working principle is “divide and conquer”.
In sports a Napoleon hardly ever reaches high results because he does not like
systematic training. If he does achieve something it is only due to his natural potential.
A Napoleon has the ability to do several things simultaneously; they say that Gaius Julius
Caesar could do seven things at the same time. In that case his external world is not integral,
he sees it as consisting of several parallel layers. This is one of the traits of this type that
makes a Napoleon a good leader.
A Napoleon treasures his ability to influence people, he is proud of the love and the
respect the people give him, he loves to be popular and in the center of attention. A Napoleon
likes to be a leader. This type is bold in sex. But a Napoleon is extremely cautious in the
objective world. He lives one day at a time. This type is practical, fun to be around, unreliable.

The intuitive - logical introvert – a Balzac

Celebrities of this type: Honore de Balzac, Socrates, Francisco Goya, Anatole

France, Elena Blavatskaya, Michael Kutuzov, Ivan Krylov, Norbert Winer, Julietta Mazina,
Nadezhda Krupskaja, Salome Neris, Raymond Pauls, Donates Banionis, Eugeny Velihov

(*Woody ALLEN (writer and actor, US), John LENNON (singer, UK), Meg RYAN (actress,
US), Ludwig BOLZMANN (physicist, Austria, XIX century), Isaac NEWTON (physicist,
mathematician and financier, UK, XVII century), Blaze PASCAL (mathematician, France, XVII
century), Wolfgang PAULI (physicist, Switzerland), Carl Gustav JUNG (psychiatrist,
Switzerland), Boris AKUNIN (writer, Russia), Stanislav LEM (science fiction writer and futurist,
Poland), Gabriel Garcia MARQUEZ (writer, Columbia), Haruki MURAKAMI (writer, Japan),
 Aesopes (writer, ancient Greece), Yuri ANDROPOV (politician, Soviet Union), Charles de
GAULLE (politician, France), Raisa GORBACHEVA (president's wife, Russia), Eugeni
PRIMAKOV (politician, Russia), Mikhail KHODORKOVSKY (businessman, Russia).*)

Function #1- subjective intuition ( ): the integrity of the internal situation is the
principle of existence of this type. If a Hamlet wears and frequently changes masks due to his
creative function, a Balzac is able to really 'become' someone. When losing myself I remain
myself. This trait becomes evident in a Balzac's relationships. This type has a natural gift of
tuning in the mood of their vis-à-vis. A Balzac has the gift of being exactly what you want
him/her to be. There is nothing he does not know about himself: “Don't teach me about
myself”. People of this type often say: “I do not need socionics. It is of no use to me. I know all
this and can do it all. I do not need it to communicate with people and the society”. In a sense it
is true: Balzac is more aware of his and his partner’s condition than any other type. The inward
orientation is more pronounced in a Balzac than in any other introverted types.
A Balzac has the greatest intuition; this type is so to say “comprehends the time in its
fullness”.

A person of sensoring type is focused mostly on the “here and now”. Intuitive type is all
over the place, he lives both in past and in future, his mind considers both past experience
and potential opportunities. The two types produce different impression even at a physical
level when they enter a room. The sensoring type 'fills' the whole room as soon as he enters.
You feel like 'there is a lot of him/her'. The intuitive type is ‘ hardly visible’. You can hardly feel
his/her energy fluctuation.
Function #-1- objective intuition ( ): ignoring of the integrity of the world. At times this
type is paradoxically indifferent to the course of external events, they neglect circumstances,
plans and schedules. Perceiving the predetermined character of circumstances as something
inevitable, they sometimes completely ignore new information on adverse succession of
events, especially when it concerns only them personally. Even when fully informed of the
potentially bad outcome, a Balzac may make little or no effort to change anything. He makes
an excuse that he does not have any energy to do that. He hands the responsibility over to a
powerful influence from outside to change the situation.

Function #2- logic of the objective world ( ). The area of creativity. A Balzac is
familiar with current laws and customs. A Gaben works on things in the area of law and
customs, while a Balzac criticizes 'the foolishness of the system'.
A Balzac has little energy for practical achievements in this world (less than other types),
but he has a good theoretical knowledge of real life. Since this is their creative function, they
know all the undercurrents of the society, all the loop wholes in the country laws, where to use
force it is not worth it, they are able to foresee the consequences of certain actions, etc. They
can be ideal advisers for a Napoleon. The excess of energy in a Napoleon results in the
spreading too thin. So for best results he should be directed: better go breach this wall, not
that one. When a Napoleon does not have a program of action he becomes aggressive. He
begins to attack his employees and relatives – he does that not because he is evil, but
because of inability to decide what exactly to do next. He needs to get the program of action
from a Balzac or someone with the same deductive synthetic thinking. A Balzac has a better
understanding of laws and logic of the objective world, he knows how this was made and who
rules it and how it should be run, due to the specifics of his type he can study the global things
and ideas.
What were Honore de Balzac’s ideas of life? He wrote 98 novels and short stories
comprising a big series titled “The Human Comedy”. The author created a literary world with
more than two thousand characters. He had an idea of the society’s logic of his time.
Description of various things takes a lot of place in his novels. Balzac does not explain things;
he gives the reader a three-dimensional, complete picture of all layers of he society in a single
structure.
Function #-2- subjective logic ( ): the zone of standards. A Balzac does not like to
explain things. He uses standard methods to explain things. However, when he does not
understand the logic of a standard method, he may get into an intellectual stupor; this may
happen at an exam. This happens when in their mind their standard method of explaining thing
does not connect with the phenomenon they are trying to explain.

Function #3 - subjective ethics ( ): the area of problems. My attitude to other people:

"I like you - I do not like you", "pleasant - unpleasant". The principle of self-esteem: if I love
somebody it is a good reason to have a good attitude to myself, i.e. if I love somebody, then I
am a good person. A Balzac is distancing himself from the object, withdrawing into the realm of
abstractions, when he needs to protect himself according to the third function. He would rather
have his object of affection be some place far away, in an expedition, on a business trip
abroad. It is always easier to love an ideal image in your mind than a real person with all their
weaknesses. Real people are not perfect; they disappoint us. If I am disappointed, then I do
not love. Therefore I am bad. Sometimes a Balzac chooses a cat or a dog (or some other pet)
as the object of affection. A Balzac's third function does not suffer as much in his relationship
with a pet. A Balzac is very cautious in relationships with people. If we assume that Penelope
belonged to this type, then while waiting for her beloved husband (Ulysses) to return from a
distant land, she was constantly getting a powerful positive reinforcement according to the third
function.

Function #-3 - objective ethics ( ): it is possible to solve problems by taking care of

external relationships. A Balzac needs a constant confirmation of other’s love for her; on the
other hand she is testing whether others are worthy of her love? When a Balzac is checking
and testing she come across to the other types as if she is looking for a fight, though in reality
she dos not want to hear that she is loved she would rather see the other person do something
for her. “If there is a problem with my attitude, first let us find out what is wrong with that
person’s attitude to me.” While asking this question a Balzac distances herself from the
'object', keeping the relationship as simple as possible.
Function #4 - objective sensoring ( ): the zone of activity, movement. “Do something
with me”. A Balzac easily puts on the mask that people around her want to see. Sometimes
this type lives the role they play, and while frequently changing their masks they happen to
lose themselves.
People of this type can hardly resist persuasion: when pressed to do something, they are
almost defenseless. A Balzac may 'unexpectedly' find herself involved in a strange activity.
They often need an external push in order to do something. On the other hand, they are
unable to resist the pressure. A person of the opposite sex comes to a Balzac and says: “I am
moving in, I will live with you”. – “Well, OK”.
A Balzac has even weaker resistibility than a Tutankhamon. The latter at least pays
attention to the aesthetics of the situation; the former does not manage to do even that.
Probably women of this type always produce an impression of cold, aloof, difficult. This is a
way they subconsciously establish the maximum personal distance.

Function #-4 - subjective sensoring ( ): the zone of fear is my sensations, my health

condition. Try talking to a Balzac about her health in more detail than it is commonly accepted
or than she would prefer – and immediately you will be shut down. She would talk about other
people, but never about herself! To do something about her health a Balzac needs to make
gigantic efforts! At times somebody needs to make him or her take care of his or her health. I
can judge from my experience: this type does not like visiting the sick at the hospital.
A Balzac is afraid of picking up a virus. They can wash their hands twenty times a day,
and even more. One day my friend – a Balzac and I were on an escalator down in the subway
station; when I leaned on the handrail, she was terrified: “Don’t touch! A ton of people has
touched it, billions of germs …” Things like that never come to my mind, but she thought it was
a real danger! In general, each type has its own psychopathies, i.e. borderline states when the
person is disadaptated. A Balzac, for example, entertains mystical notions regarding her
health. At times they experience diseases and symptoms that nobody has experienced or
come across with. Doctors have difficulties diagnosing their cases: their fevers unexpectedly
come and then suddenly go, and no other symptoms are present. Their blood pressure
changes without an obvious reason.

The logical - intuitive extrovert – a Jack London (a Jack)

Celebrities of this type: Jack London, brothers John and Robert Kennedy, Robert
Wood, Ernest Hemingway, Anastasia Philippovna (a character from Dostoyevsky’s Idiot),
Sergey Eisenstein, Ernest Hemingway, Sophia Loren. It is a popular American type
featured in the Marlboro ads.

(*Jean Paul BELMONDO (actor, France), Tommy Lee JONES (actor, US), Matt DAMON
(actor, US), Andrei KONCHALOVSKY (movie director, US), Brad PITT (actor, US), Julia ROBERTS
(actress, US), Yuma THURMAN (actress, US), Tom HANKS (actor, US), Richard FEYNMAN
(physicist, US), Enrique FERMI (physicist, Italy and US), Richard BACH (writer, US), Jack
LONDON (writer, US), Robert Lewis STEVENSON (writer, UK, XIX century), Tony BLAIRE
(politician, UK), Bill GATES III (businessman, US), Boris YELTSIN (politician, Russia), John F.
KENNEDY (politician, US), Junichiro KOIZUMI (politician, Japan), Victor YUSHCHENKO (politician,
Ukraine).*)
Function #1 - objective logic ( ): a Jack is confident in her knowledge of the world of
objects and social structures, she knows well all the traffic rules, legal codes, techniques,
statistics, car mechanics. The stability of the surrounding world and the order of the world in
general are important to her. “There is order in my world, therefore I exist”. The order may be
different depending on time and circumstances, but it should be stable. “My house is my
fortress” –a Jack may say. Her home, her family takes a significant place in her system of
values. A home is where I am always needed and useful.
Never a person of this type says: “Explain these things to me”. They say: “Demonstrate
these things to me, give me the facts”. A Jack needs objective data they can rely on – this is
their level of organization of the personality type. If a searching Jack needs to change
something in her world-view, she disappears for a couple of weeks, or even months and then
comes back with a new outlook on life. They need this time of solitude. First you may observe
aggression, rejection, and then … withdrawal. A Jack does it when something is going on in
the area of the first function.
A Jack with pleasure plunges in any good activity that is useful for his family, friends or
people in general in the future. His criteria of any action are its practical value.

Function #-1 - subjective logic ( ): the zone of ignoring. A Jack is a born

experimenter, businessman, and practical man. This type prefers to study the matter herself
rather than listen to someone's explanations. A Jack never trusts a theory until it is proved by
practice. The attempts to comprehend her description of the world and alter it are a big
challenge for a Jack who never theorizes without proving the concepts in life practice.

Function #2 - subjective intuition ( ): creativity manifests itself in free manipulation of

the internal situation. For example, on the surface a Jack is sitting around and obviously not
doing anything, but in fact she is struggling with something on the inside. This type may enter
the states of mind inaccessible for the majority of other types.
The volume of psychological space in the area of a Jack's creative function is larger than
that of other types, who have this IM element in other functions.
When a person of one IM type speaks about the nuances of her creative function, it might
be interesting to some degree another type, but they are not able to completely comprehend
and approve of these nuances. This causes misunderstanding: the same words mean different
things to different types. This misunderstanding could go deep and be difficult to figure out. It
is similar to a situation when a Philippino is attempting to explain something about rice to a
person from Europe. In a khanonoo, Philippine language, there are more than 90 words that
are used for different kinds and states of rice [20], and for an English speaker rice is rice, that
is all. In the process of translation the nuances of meaning are lost, sometimes without being
noticed by either party. The same thing happens with the creative function: it allows for many
 nuances in an IM element (in this case it is subjective intuition) unavailable for other types
having the same element in a different function. Sometimes people do not understand each
other not because of their stupidity or lack of positive attitude, but simply because of the
poverty of their vocabulary, so to speak.

A Jack as a rule does not seek a career of an actor, his creativity manifests in a different
way. A Jack may go hunting out in the wild for four months, it is natural for him (Jack London's
novels depict that trait). They firmly endure difficult circumstances of the wild – thirst, hunger,
and cold weather. They do not need company there. This type is more self-sufficient than any
other (the more so since the relationships with other people are in the zone of fears). There are
types who can’t handle things like that, but a Jack considers it to be absolutely normal. A Jack
can be alone for a long time, living as a forest-guard; he is not bored or anxious.
Vasily Maksimov, the first and, in my opinion, the best translator of Carlos Castaneda's
works, about 20 years ago went to the woods to live there. Here is a good example of a Jack's
creative function. It would be hard for a Napoleon to handle the lifestyle a Jack enjoys, a Don
Quixote would not tolerate it either. How could a Hamlet survive there without a stage? Who
would a Dumas talk to? To a moose? To tell the truth, Dumas the writer when creating his
immortal novels would lock himself in the castle and even lift the bridge, but he was in the
company of his characters, and that was quite a company!

Function #-2 - objective intuition ( ): the zone of standards is the integrity of the
surroundings. A Jack wants his schedule to be standard. This is one of the few types who feel
comfortable working at an assembly line or doing some other routine, but useful job. On the
other hand, it is the zone of "unnecessary"; therefore a Jack can easily shrug off any schedule
and leave for the woods, for example. A Jack tries to arrange her life so that there is no
necessity to follow any external schedule, or a way of doing things (free entrepreneur).
In short: this function helps the person to obey, accept standards, though the person does
it without much delight.

Function #3 - objective sensing ( ): her self-esteem has form, activity, and ability to
handmaid things as its source. My appearance, my skill, my activity.
A Jack is almost always a very skilled craftsman. In some sense this is also a
simplification of the situation. Here she has the exact knowledge: “I can really do something” (it
is very important to be sure in the area of the third function). For a Jack it is not only a skill, but
also an additional existential prize – a positive reinforcement on the third function, the energy
from the society as a matter of fact.
A Jack may wear a brightly colored jacket with checkered pants. This, however, is not
necessary, the protection might be negative; then a Jack's clothes are a bit tattered,
carelessness in appearance is accentuated. However, some style is there anyway. In any
case, she does care about her looks.
Often a Jack is athletic, loves sports. She looks fit and supple, may be a good swimmer,
driver and shooter.
One more detail: a Jack always has some money. And it is connected to a principle of
self-esteem: I am good if I am strong; I am good if I am skilled; I am good if I have money.
Function #-3 - subjective sensoring ( ): decisions. If I cannot do something, if my
shape does not meet my standards, it is necessary to do something about my health, to seek
an expert's advice, to undergo some kind of treatment. But a Jack, unlike a Hamlet, will do it
actively: she will use tempering, work out, etc. (“it is necessary to practice to be able to do
something”). Sensory reliability is necessary. A Jack loves hiking (the more obstacles –
mountains, swamps – the better). She begins to pay attention to her health condition only
when there are problems in the area of the third function. In this case a Jack starts to seriously
work on improving her health condition.
Function #4 - subjective ethics ( ): here the person is open for suggestions: “Other
people should tell me about my attitude to something or to somebody. Do I like something or
do I not – other people have a better idea what’s going on with me, and they should tell me
about it. I do not know; I am not sure.” A Jack needs a firm foundation for the forming of her
opinion. Therefore she needs objective data, reliable information and good sources of
information outside of herself: “People know better”.
Relatives may strongly influence a Jack's attitude; and they use it to rather successfully
manipulate her. A Jack thinks a good place is a home full of close people, good old friends and
nature all around.

As a rule rigid programs, automatisms, habitual patterns have absolute power over the
fourth function; they may not change for years.

Function #-4 - objective ethics ( ): fear of external relationships. A Jack can be alone
out in the wild for a long time. All these relationships … you know… they cause nothing but
troubles. Of course, we all live in the society, and we all have relationships, at least at a
conventional level. A Jack has a subconscious desire to keep a big distance between her other
people: “I don’t need any attitudes. If I am the boss, just do what I say, no need to have an
attitude toward me”.
When someone says to her: "I love you", it frightens her. "Things like that are not just
blatantly discussed; it is better to joke and laugh and make it light, give a gift, flowers." In short,
any plain gesture is better than a statement. A Jack usually has close relationships only with a
narrow circle of friends – it may include the family members and a couple of close friends.

The Ethical-sensory introvert – a Dreiser

Celebrities of this type: Theodore Dreiser, Francis Scott Fitzgerald, Alexander

Dumas, Ivan Turgenev, Nicola Machiavelli, Richard Nixon, Benazir Bhutto, Nancy
Reagan, Brigitte Bardot.

(*Lara Flynn BOYLE (actress, US), Leonardo DI CAPRIO (actor, US), Tom CRUSE
(actor, US), Michele PLACIDO (actor, Italy), Michelle PFEIFFER (actress, US), Susan
SARANDON (actress, US), John TRAVOLTA (actor, US), Sybille SHEPHERD (actress, US),
Alexander DOVZHENKO (writer and movie director, Ukraine), Jerome D. SALINGER (writer,
US), Stefan ZWEIG (writer, Austria), Leonid BREZHNEV (politician, Soviet Union), Elisabeth II
(monarch, UK), Jacqueline KENNEDY ONASSIS (president's wife, US), Richard NIXON
(politician, US).*)
Function #1- subjective ethics ( ): the person’s attitude to something or somebody is
in the area of confidence. In this area person’s relationships are of the least importance, often
they do not concern him at all. His attitude is much more important here, and he would rather
have it permanently fixed. If a Dreiser has formed a good opinion of someone, it would take
some major factors to make it change. Even more so his bad attitude or opinion is hard to
change. Other types may easily change their attitudes: I love it today; I hate it tomorrow. A
Dreiser's first function can hardly be described with words. Essentially it is the need for being
able to have a conscious attitude. The attitude itself may change, but its realm is so deep, that
can hardly be described with words. This realm of personal attitudes to other people and the
external world is strongly felt but poorly verbalized. There is constant activity in this realm.
Function #-1 - objective ethics ( ): ignoring of the relationships. A Dreiser is an
observer. At a party she is mostly quiet and observant. But she would dance with pleasure –
he/she moves with ease, likes to dance: there is no fellowship or relationship in a dance as she
thinks. A Dreiser may fail to discern other people's feelings or attitudes. Her inadvertent
stepping on toes may result in a sudden barrage of complaints. A Dreiser really does not
fathom since the external relationships are in her zone of ignoring. And this is hard to explain
to another type because they also have their own realms, and they may interpret a Dreiser’s
ignoring in their own way.

The zone of ignoring is a place where the 'unexpected' conflicts arise. Due to the
peculiarity of this psychological sphere the person may face sudden adverse reaction from
someone close who has been putting up with things, but at a certain point of time his/her cup
overflows with anger and bitterness, and the person explodes over an innocent minor thing.
 Function #2 - objective sensoring ( ): a form, an action, a movement. The essence of
this type is a woman who dresses exquisitely and daintily. Earlier the name of Brigitte Bardo
was used as a common label for this type. For some reason I have met more women of this
type than men. It would be fair to say that a Dreiser is to a greater degree a female type;
though in socionics there are no purely 'male' or 'female' types.
A Dreiser always has a style in clothes; it not have to coincide with the current fashion; it
is something very unusual. For example, a woman of this type would never wear a hat – even
an expensive one bought from a popular hat maker – unless she has altered it in one way or
another. She has to change the lining or curl up the rim before she decides that she can wear
it. A Dreiser pays a great deal of attention to the nuances in her costume.
The external form, appearance, deeds and motion, dancing - all this is in this area. How
do I look, how I move?! A Dreiser’s artistic desire is satisfied by making handmaid original
projects, things that other people cannot make. This creativity, naturally, is marked by the
specifics of the social stratum where the person was formed. A Dreiser always to observes the
decencies; she is a conformist; this type does not challenge the society neither does it break
any laws.
A Dreiser is good with finances. Remember the novels – ‘The Financier’, ‘The Titan’, ‘The
Stoic’? A Dreiser may not worry at all when without money. It is the zone of risk, too. Life is
hard without money but some people are ok without it and others freak out. A Maxim and a
Dreiser belong to the former part of humanity.

Function #-2 - subjective sensoring ( ): this is the zone of standards. She has a
normative attitude to health. When a Dreiser gets sick she does not panic: I should go see a
doctor, do what he says. She follows the doctor's advice. If people do not turn to doctors for
help that is their problem. A Dreiser is conservative in food preferences and sex.

Function #3 - subjective intuition ( ): the integrity of the internal situation is in the

area of problems. “My internal situation should always be complete, stable and protected”. It is
important this type to have inner peace. In the society they look for a social niche where the
stability of the internal situation is guaranteed even if it provides less money and prestige. A
Maxim is drawn to the rigid social structures: the stability of the internal situation is supported
by the stability of the external situation. In the case of a Dreiser the situation is more complex
because the latter feels the harmony of the external world through the inner repercussions in a
more subtle way. This inner world should be in tune with what is going on outside. Therefore a
Dreiser has to work harder to harmonize his inner world with the world around him. He has to
look for or transfer in to a state, which allows for accepting the world the way it is. Naturally it
does not take long before the world disturbs the Dreiser’s inner harmony again, it is constantly
invading his inner psychological realm. A Dreiser, a Dostoevsky and a Hamlet are the most
anxious types of all.

Function #-3 - objective intuition ( ): problem solving. If there is a problem with the
integrity of the internal situation then the external situation needs to be adjusted so that the
inner balance may be restored. Acceptance of current circumstances does not always bring
the inner peace. Sometimes it is necessary to create new conditions, i.e. instead of accepting
the circumstances it is necessary to work with the external situation.
If problems persist then a Dreiser begins to reluctantly work with the circumstances, she
even makes attempts to change the course of events. A Dreiser does it slowly, irresolutely,
gradually, but nevertheless she does it.

Function #4 - objective logic ( ): a person is suggested not by explanations but by

facts. “Give me the facts.” A Dreiser does not need "explanations": “Do not explain, just give
me the facts, I am not interested in your interpretation!” A Dreiser considers only real events
and proven facts. Suggestion here is possible by means of objective data or something
tangible. For example, someone says to a Dreiser: “Tomorrow we are going to the theatre,
here are the tickets!” — “Ok, we are going then.” There is no need to tell her about the play,
how good the actors are, etc.
A Dreiser expects people to have conventional behavior; she is irritated when people
break rules by using any personal relationships or connections. A good place is the place
where it is possible to be sure about the authenticity of what is going on.

Function #-4 — subjective logic ( ): my understanding. Here is the fear to understand

everything. Therefore sometimes a Dreiser's explanations seem short and vague to other
people. This type would rather talk about facts than explain things. She tends to avoid
situations when it is necessary to explain things. “Why explain things that exist and I can see
them with my own eyes. I want to know, it is not necessary to explain anything”.
A Dreiser often runs into explanations, which he does not see as true. Never mind
explanations being absolutely logical – it is just not so. A Dreiser clearly perceives the actual
state of affairs irrespective of the fact how and who interprets them. They do not like to talk
through the issues and work on relationships.

Delta - quadra: a Dostoevsky, a Holmes, a Gaben, a Huxley

The ethical-intuitive introvert – a Dostoevsky

Celebrities of this type: Fyodor Dostoyevsky (writer, Russia, XIX century) and prince
Myshkin from the novel "Idiot", Vincent Van Gogh, Konstantin Paustovsky, Alexander
Solzhenitsyn (writer, Russia), Alexander Sokurov, Marilyn Monroe, Vivien Leigh, Catherine
Deneuve, Elizabeth Taylor.

(*Jeremy IRONS (actor, US), Julianne MOORE (actress, US), Gwyneth PALTROW
(actress, UK), Sissy SPACEK (actress, US), Ralph FIENNES (actor, UK), Carrie FISHER
(actress, US), Vincent Van Gogh (artist, The Netherlands), (writer, Russia), Nicholas II
(monarch, Russia), Friedrich von PAULUS (army commander, Germany, 3rd Reich), Albert
SPEER (politician, Germany, 3rd Reich). *)

Function #1— subjective ethics ( ): the zone of confidence is my attitude to others.

The spectrum of emotional reactions of this type is peculiarly large. A Dostoevsky is more
confident in the sphere of emotions than other types. People of this type feel and discern
shades and nuances of emotions unthinkable for representatives of the other types.
What could, say, a Zhukov understand in a Dostoyevsky’s emotional world when even the
notion of such details is absent in the psyche of the former? People often live in parallel worlds
that have nothing in common except for rather narrow area of conventional (formal) contacts.

Function #-1 — objective ethics ( ): ignoring relationships. A Dostoevsky has this trait
in common with a Dreiser.
If a person pays special attention to the relationships of close people for some reason,
then she can see them clearly; but this is not the case with the majority of the Dostoevskys
who are prone to ignore this aspect of life (sometimes they do it intentionally, choosing to wear
the mask of a misanthrope). This may cause "unexpected" problems. The inner world may
draw all of a Dostoyevsky’s attention, while a dense veil of imagination may cover the outside
world.

Function #2 — objective intuition ( ): integrity of the outside world, external harmony.

How did F.M.Dostoyevsky write his novels? First of all he would create the structure of his
future novel, write a very detailed plan. This would take a lot of time, months sometimes. And
after that the novel could be written in a couple of weeks. The novel’s characters would come
to life and even beak out of the mold! Here the creative function of this type (objective intuition)
is seen: Dostoevsky gave his characters freedom to live and to act, due to that fact they acted
like real people, not like puppets. Perhaps this is what marks a real classical author: a "gut
feeling" of what is natural of the person described. Fyodor Dostoevsky in his novels dissects
and analyzes this world, trying to understand why it is so disharmonious. The ancient saying,
‘The beauty will save the world’, became popular in Soviet Russia due to Dostoyevsky’s
novels.
It is quite natural that people with the creative function aimed at the external harmony
often become authors, musicians and artists.

Function #-2 — subjective intuition ( ): the zone of standards: integrity of the internal
world. Two or three habitual states are more than enough for a Dostoevsky; there is no need
for variety here. Even the state of the downward spiral of depression is very common with
them. During that time they are practically disconnected from the environment, hardly
perceiving the surroundings.

Function #3 — subjective sensoring ( ): her self-esteem is based on her experience

of sexual intimacy, and her health condition, etc. People of this type often make careers as
physicians or therapists, psychiatrists. They pay a great deal of attention to their health, it is
very important to them. And, most likely, when working with other people’s problems, helping
them, they also solve problems of their own. A Dostoevsky frequently looks sick since they
usually defend their third function in the negative mode. Sometimes a person of this type
produces the impression of being seriously, even terminally ill, but nevertheless she is actively
taking care of her health.
Active sexual life is also a reason for high self-esteem in a Dostoevsky.

Function #-3 — objective sensoring ( ): problems are solved in the sphere of

external forms, actions. If there are health problems, certain steps should be made; when a
Dostoevsky catches a cold she makes a cup of hot herbal tea, mixes an antiseptic gargle,
starts doing exercises... Even if their main interests lie in a sphere remote from medicine, they
are often well versed in this area.

Function #4 - objective logic ( ): information presented as a so-called well

established fact to a Dostoevsky may be used to manipulate her because she is the type that
can be suggested by facts. “Give me the facts. Give me the numbers/” Other people easily
manipulate a Dostoyevsky’s opinion by presenting 'objective' data.
On the other hand, when a Dostoyevsky’s explanation of things is not easy to understand
sometimes. This is an activity in the zone of fears (the fourth co function - subjective logic,
understanding); this zone is luring, but it is hard to get good results in the activity in this
sphere.
People of this type often have their own interpretation of life; their interpretation may
considerably differ from that of others. This type usually has a bent on mysticism, numerology
and other similar explanatory models.

Function #-4 - subjective logic ( ): my understanding. Fear to understand all and

everything. Therefore a Dostoyevsky’s explanations sometimes seem vague, confusing to the
representatives of the other types. A Dostoevsky may go to one of the two extremes here: on
the one hand there is a propensity to mysticism, on the other hand there is an unusual trust in
statistics and evidences. Because of the subconscious fear to understand everything, this type
often tries to explain the unknown by the obscure. People of this type are very practical people,
but they are not very good at explaining things, obviously it is not their strongest side.

The logical-sensory extrovert – a Holmes

Celebrities of this type: Richelieu, Thomas Alva Edison, Sherlock Holmes (fictional
character, by Arthur Conan Doyle), Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Greta Garbo, Charles de
Gaulle, Francois Mitterrand, Ronald Reagan, John Galsworthy, Erich Maria Remarque,
Arkady Raikin, George Tovstonogov, Oleg Efremov, Richard Sorge (soviet spy, pre-WWII
 times), Alesha Karamazov (Dostoyevsky's character, The Karamazov Brothers), Karenin
(Tolstoy's character, Anna Karenina). The best representation of this type in literature is
Soms Forsythe, a character in John Galsworthy's novel, The Forsythes Saga.
(*Gillian ANDERSON (actress, US), Carole BOUQUER (actress, France), Greta
GARBO (actress, Sweden and US), Marlene DIETRICH (actress, Germany and US), Mila
JOVOVICH (actress, France), Sean CONNERY (actor, Scotland), Bruce WILLIS (actor,
US), Helen HANT (actress, US), Helmut KOHL (politician, Germany), Margaret
THATCHER (politician, UK), Mary POPPINS (fictional character, by Pamela Travers)*)

Function #1 — objective logic ( ): order is in the zone of confidence. Due to the

combination with the third function (integrity of the outer world) a Holmes may look a bit
pedantic, somewhat priggish. A Holmes displays emotions much more sparingly than a Hamlet
or a Dostoevsky. Sometimes people of this type seem to have a static character; though in
movies when both the type of the character and the type of the actor is a Holmes, the effect is
amazing. It seems as if the actor does not have to pretend but lives in front of the camera his
own life, filling his own realm. And good directors find actors of the same type as their
characters.
A Holmes is a good leader, director, and manager. A Holmes is easily distinguished by his
military-like posture, though he has never been in the military service. A Holmes, as a rule,
dresses formally, although if in jeans and sweater he still appears neat and tidy.
The objective logic also includes ‘my territory'. A Holmes rarely meddles with the life of
family members, but it is necessary for him to know where they are and what they are doing.
By clinical classification it is an anancastic type. A Holmes wants to have a good grasp of
the circumstances, thus when new facts occur he needs time and full information to reflect
upon it. This type will first say 'no', and then he will look for the objective data. Having accepted
certain order, Holmes would follow it rigorously. If someone offers to take another road, a
Holmes needs not just a route on a map to agree with, but some authentic facts to support the
decision. The first function is conservative, and it means that “my world is stable”, “my territory
is stable”. “I have to know that the world is in order, and this order should never change.”
The person of this type would never say, “Please explain”, but he will demand:
“Demonstrate it to me”. Besides a Holmes will inquire: “What methods did you use? What are
the statistics to support what you are demonstrating? Who told you of this fact? Who are you?
Who gave you the authority to talk about psychology? Are you a psychologist?” People of this
type need exact and reliable data, which they could rely upon in the future – this is the
structure-forming base, the level of organization of their personalities. Everything pertaining to
it must be reliable: “Who told you that this is correct?” - “Dr.N did”. - “Well, then it is all right”. A
Holmes wants to be convinced that the information he uses is not something thought up by
some lunatic. He is the type who trusts anything printed; he considers any printed material to
be a reliable source of information because it seems to be recognized by the society so he
approves of it too.

Function #-1 — subjective logic ( ): the zone of ignoring. Mistrust to hypotheses and
concepts: “What are you explaining to me?! Give me the data, show me the diagrams,
certificates and do not explain anything”. And also: “I am not interested in opinions, tell me
what really happened, I need facts, not your ideas”. It was not by chance that Sherlock Holmes
(a Holmes, by the way) used the deductive method of criminal investigation so brilliantly; it was
the method of analysis and comparison of facts.

Function #2 — subjective sensoring ( ): the place of creativity. Here are my feelings,

my health condition and sexual activity. A Holmes likes a constant change of sensations. He
eagerly and delightfully tastes different foods and drinks. He knows the cure for many
illnesses.

Creativity of any type is usually realized “by the second function with the use of the
material of the third function.”
 People of this type are acutely aware of time and have a lot of rather peculiar abilities in
this sphere. For example, Dr.Kozyrev (Russian physicist, a Holmes) introduced the notion of
physical properties of time into the science. What other type is capable of perceiving the world
in this way? The majority of the scientific community rejected this theory; it did not fit with the
usual physicists' concepts of time.

Function #-2 — objective sensoring ( ): the zone of standards. Here are the
appearance and the form. As far as I know, this type does care about appearance, but it is not
a priority. A Holmes dresses neatly and according to the standard of the circle of his friends or
society. At his workplace he wears the required kind of uniform. If at his work place a Versace
suite is required then he will wear a Versace suite, if it is the overalls then he will wear the
overalls in a workshop. Extravagance is in the area of the “unwanted”. A Holmes's deeds and
behavior, as a rule, are in harmony with the customary norm of the milieu. A Holmes's prefers
to take the same road to work, he enjoys when events and actions have a usual sequence. A
Holmes is very conservative and tries to adhere to habitual routes. That, however, does not
prevent people of this type from being very dynamic and active in the financial sphere.
Money in a Holmes’ system of values falls into the two categories of the objective
sensoring and the objective logic. A Holmes always has the exact sum of money he needs. He
plans his budget well taking into consideration everything, making scrupulous calculations.
When out of money a Holmes does not fidget; he knows when and how much to expect. A
Hugo is very different in this sense, for example, he may be afraid of having the money in his
pocket. A Holmes plans and schedules everything in advance.

Function #3 — objective intuition ( ): time. People of this type count every second.
The third function is the principle used to estimate oneself: “I am good” or “I am bad”. Jokes
are not permissible in this sphere, this is where the person has his energy source: here he gets
his positive or negative reinforcement. People of this type never become bureaucrats; they do
not know how to procrastinate. If they are capable of solving the problem, then they do it at
once. If you tell a Holmes something like: “We are wasting time” it will be as if you have told
him that he is a bad person. A Holmes can tell other people that they are wasting time, but
when people tell him this he takes as an insult. A Holmes does quality work, each step he
makes wisely.
There must be order and rule in everything. A Holmes unlike, say, a Napoleon needs the
integrity of the external situation; it is difficult for them to do several things simultaneously, so
subconsciously they try to line up all their pursuits in a sequence by distributing priorities.
However, the ideal plan does not always work out in the real world of stress and hectic. . The
world does not line up with the ideal sequential lay out. The real world consists of a number of
dimensions with their own speed of time. Therefore there is tension, and the person pays for it
from the pocket of his time and effort.
Function #-3 — subjective intuition ( ): the solution of problems is possible through
the change of the inner state, the change of mood. However, a Holmes does it reluctantly, and
outwardly the struggle to change his mood or state manifests itself in blunt manners.

Function #4— subjective ethics ( ): suggestible function – my attitude to something

or somebody. Whether I like something or somebody or I do not, if something is pleasing to
me or not –other people know. A Holmes has a hard time forming a personal opinion or
attitude. He needs objective data, newspaper article to help him form a pseudo-independent
opinion. A Holmes looks for things to lean on to help him in his relationships. Often a director
(a Holmes) has a secretary (a Napoleon) who forms opinions for the boss. Then there comes a
time when it is hard to tell who is the boss. A Holmes needs time to make up his mind and
determine what is his actual attitude to something or somebody. Therefore when inquiring
about his feelings of love for you, you will be much better off if you make a statement, “I know
you love me!”
The same is with his attitude to a phenomenon, an event, and a professional person. “Is
he a PhD or not? What is his field of knowledge? Does he have publications?! Oh, he had a
book published, well, that's a different story!” Objective evidence, information from reliable
sources helps a Holmes to form his opinion.
A good place is the place with good reputation, if other people, the majority decided it is
good then it is good. This narrow-minded mentality makes a Holmes very conservative.

Function #-4 — objective ethics ( ): fear of relationships. Solitude does not frighten a
Holmes. To be alone is normal. In a company of friends or among office workers a Holmes
often plays a role of an observer, at times indifferent, at times involved. When somebody
showers him with attention and emotions, he is frightened and may withdraw.

The Sensing-logical introvert — a Gaben

Celebrities of this type: Jean Gaben, Guy De Maupassant, Albert Camus, Agatha
Christie and her fictional character Hercules Poirot, Georges Simenon and his fictional
character commissioner Maigret, Miguel de Cervantes and his fictional character Sancho
Pansa, Jean-Paul Sartre, Françoise Sagan (writer, France), Somerset Maugham, Monica
Vitti, Vladimir Vysotsky, Andrei Mironov.

(*Lino VENTURA (actor, Italy), Mel GIBSON (actor, US), Catherine DENEUVE (actress,
France), Gerard DEPARDIEU (actor, France), Angelina JOLIE (actress, US), Renee SELLWEGER
(actress, US), Harvey KEITEL (actor, US), Robert DE NIRO (actor, US), Maryl STREEP (actress,
US), Harrison FORD (actor, US), Woody HARRELSON (actor, US), Adriano CELENTANO (actor,
Italy), William Somerset MAUGHAM (writer, UK), George SAND (writer, France), George
SIMENON (writer, Belgium), Roman ABRAMOVICH (businessman, Russia), Alexander
KWASNIEWSKI (politician, Poland), Aslan MASKHADOV (terrorist, Russia).*)
Function #1— subjective sensoring ( ): the zone of confidence is the health
condition. Here lies confidence about his feelings, he usually knows exactly if he is sick or not,
he has an excellent ability to explain sensations. No external influences have any effect here.
A Gaben knows well what treatment is best for a particular illness. “I feel, therefore I exist.”
Sensations of people of this type may vary over a wide range. They easier adapt to new foods
than any other types. In sex a Gaben is rather conservative.

Function #-1 — objective sensoring ( ): the zone of ignoring. People of this type may
be inattentive to their own appearance, to the interior of their house, to other people’s behavior
even if their actions influence them directly. They are not fit for any monotonous work, for
example, for work at the conveyor assembly line. They need to pay special attention and make
extra efforts to keep up their appearance. They do not have a natural feeling for style in
clothes. They often ignore parents or peer pressure. Children of this type may seem to be very
stubborn.

Function #2— objective logic ( ): the area of creativity. A Gaben is a practical person,
a smart innovator, i.e. they know well how to cut a corner, how to save money and even find
loop wholes in the law and stay out of trouble at the same time. It is the zone of risk. They
realize their creativity in their interaction with the material world. They count money well and
know how and when to save.
People of this type are interested in the world's mechanics and aspire to put it in order. In
the world around them there is always something that needs to be fixed and put in order. If
everything is in order, then I am not needed. A Gaben, as a rule, does not engage in global
projects, but makes practical improvements – he wants to make life easier, more convenient,
and less expensive. A Gaben’s obsession with innovations at times goes beyond the
reasonable and the logical. But this is the area where he is creative.
This type physically feels the real world; he has its qualities and laws at his fingertips.
Unlike a Don Quixote with his fantasies, they have exact knowledge of laws and their current
application. A Gaben is a practical person; he is a fine clerk, bookkeeper and lawyer.
 Function #-2 — subjective logic ( ): the zone of standards. As a rule, a Gaben is
satisfied with standard explanations; the reality is much more important: the exact knowledge
of facts, an objective representation of the surroundings. Theories are necessary, yes, but it is
not a Gaben's strong side. Theoretical, abstract problems are solved by standard methods. A
Gaben would never argue, explain or prove anything – it is just not interesting. For a Gaben
knowing the world is its practical mastering.

Function #3 — subjective ethics ( ): the place of problems. This means: my attitude

to other people. If I love someone, then I am a good person; if I do not like somebody
(anybody) – then I am bad. Good attitude to other people is a reason for a good attitude to
oneself. A Gabens try to protect their emotional sphere from the intruding outsiders in every
possible way. They usually make the impression of integral souls, a bit abstracted. Idealizing
people, the Gabens persistently move away from them setting a distance where the ideal
would have no chance to get in conflict with the disappointing reality. The aspiration to an ideal
love in the course of time makes moralists of them.

Function #-3 — objective ethics ( ): this is a problem solving area. If there is a

problem with my attitude to somebody, then it is necessary to alter the relationships. As a rule,
a Gaben solves problems by means of regulation of the personal distance. All people around
are assigned specific coordinates in a Gaben’s personal space; it consists of a rather small
'inner circle' of several close friends and a rather wide outside circle of acquaintances. Usually
other people see this type of people as aloof and out of touch with reality. A Gaben respects
the traditional social standards of communication, the norms of politeness, and the etiquette.
This type usually has a problem of loosing touch with their growing children.

Function #4 — objective intuition ( ): here are the area of "I want to" and the
principle of assessment of a place, and the integrity of the world. “I want the situation to be
transparent, known from beginning to end.” His yearning for external harmony may lead a
Gaben to choose a monotonous lifestyle with more or less predictable events. A Gaben likes to
just get on a bus or a train and ride all day long without any purpose or destination in mind. He
is experiencing something new, he has new impressions, he observes changing scenery – and
at the same time the bus (train) route is known from beginning to end. This kind of behavior
does not seem ridiculous to a person of this type. A good place is the place with stable
schedule. Suggestion is effective when certain sequence of actions is offered to a Gaben. A
Huxley easily influences a Gaben by transmitting through the subconscious some kind of a 'life
scenario' to him.

Function #-4 — subjective intuition ( ): the integrity of the inner world is in the zone
of fears. Using the terms of a meditative process, we can say that he has a fear of going within
himself, and study the inner self. His fear may grow when he meditates. He is able to think
about his inner state only in medical terms of health condition. A Gaben hardly differentiates
the inner states and moods. This is why people of this type often seem to be even-tempered,
as if they are always living in just one and the same state. A Gaben avoids the states he
cannot control.

The intuitive - ethical extrovert – a Huxley

Celebrities of this type: Lord Thomas Henry Huxley (biologist, UK), Don Juan, Denis
Diderot, Theodore Roosevelt, Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire, Genrich Haines, Frederick
Chopin, Giuseppe Verdi, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Bertram Russell, Michael Bulgakov,
Alexander Blok, Anthony Van Dike, Vronsky (fictional character, Tolstoy's Anna
Karenina), Jonathan Swift, Oscar Wild and Lord Henry (fictional character, Wild's The
Portrait of Dorian Gray), Mark Twain and Tom Sawyer (fictional character, Twain's The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer), Bernard Shaw.
 (*Fanny ARDANT (actress, France), Jane BIRKIN (actress, UK), Pierre RICHARD (actor,
France), CHER (actress and singer, US), Tim ROTH (actor, US), Tom HULCE (actor, US)*)
Function #1 — objective intuition ( ): the zone of confidence is the integrity of the
external world. Feeling of harmony and integrity of the world prevails here. A wide variety of
events may be perceived as normal: even very tough life’s circumstances could be perceived
as some kind of working environment, he takes it easy, does not panic. The principle of
existence: “The world around me is in harmony, therefore I exist. ”

Function #-1 — subjective intuition ( ): a Huxley often ignores the integrity of the
inner world. A Hamlet enjoys being active in this sphere, this is his hobby and the area of
creativity, but a Huxley ignores his inner world, it is an unknown territory for him. A Huxley is
likely to imitate states and feelings that should be there as far as he knows; he will make
attempts to analyze his state and mood. If a Huxley cannot manage his mood, he puts up with
it as with an inevitable evil which cannot be fought.

Function #2 — subjective ethics ( ): the place of creativity is my attitude to others. “If

I feel like it – then I will fall in love, if I don't feel like it – then I will fall out of love, and later I will
love some more.” This is not the stable kind of relationships he prefers. His feelings of love are
never sure and stable. Today a Huxley loves you; tomorrow will speak for itself. People of this
type have no idea about commitment as far as their feelings and emotions are concerned, they
sway in their emotions between love and hate, they see a wide spectrum of shades in-
between. At the same time if they hate you it is not final, as it is with some other types who
make up their mind once and for good. “Nothing is eternal under the moon: today I love, leave
tomorrow for tomorrow”.
A Huxley is also careless in demonstrating his attitude. "Hey, man, are you stupid or
what!” he says by the way. He is joking, teasing. From the point of view of the alpha-quadra
those jokes are completely inappropriate. I have a friend, a Huxley. I twitch every time he jokes
and every time I am amazed: my inner being invariably reacts. What could be done?
Essentially nothing can be done here.
A Huxley expresses his attitude very creatively. Consequently he is looking for positions
and opportunities to express his attitude. People of this type are often found in leading
positions in the society where their creative function is well realized: they are heading the
departments at the Universities, leading people in other ways.

Function #-2 — objective ethics ( ): here is the zone of standards – the quality of the
relationships depends on whether the person belongs to 'my circle' or does not. His social
bondings are formal and standard. When out in the society a Huxley uses the "uniform"
approach. The dialogue happens on the formal basis: a Huxley talks to people in the key of
social role-playing considering positions of both sides. Even in his relationship with close
people a Huxley often keeps a distance.

Function #3 — objective logic ( ): his self-esteem depends on the stability of the

external world order. “If my world is in order, then I am a good person”.
These people look good on a stage playing a guitar or something like that. As a rule, they
live to become their ideal. People of this type perceive the logic of the objective circumstances
through the third function; therefore they simplify the logic of the real world and idealize it.
Quite often they expect their partners to comply with their abstract ideal. A Huxley has a hard
time finding a spouse because real partners do not meet their ideal standards. The person
close by cannot be ideal by definition. Why is this type also labeled as a Don Juan? It is
because he is on the quest for his ideal object of love, unless he chooses to idealize the
existing person. A very intelligent woman of this type once told me how she had broken this
particular cycle: “At one point of my life after a series of unsuccessful relationships I set my
mind on loving only one man, my son. And ever since I never looked at another man from that
point of view.” Anyway, she found the one and only and solved the problem of the ideal man
for herself.
 One of the acquaintances of Alexander Block, the Russian poet, narrated the following
story. Once in 1918 he came to the poet's apartment and was amazed at the ideal order on his
desk. When the visitor asked why he keeps his desk in perfect order, Block replied that he
found it to be the only way to resist the chaos around him. This is a way of self-defense
according to the third function: There is an ideal order on my territory. Even though the positive
reinforcement was artificially organized, it worked anyway.
As to the surrounding world, a Huxley has an excellent ability to understand and calculate
the circumstances. A Huxley has a computer in his head; he processes a multitude of aspects
and dimensions. As we know, people pay close attention to everything pertaining to the third
function; they work on clarifying and understanding things in this area.
A Huxley is always ready to argue, asserting his ideals, his worldview until they prove to
everyone that they are right. These people often adhere to a school or a doctrine. Having
accepted a picture of the world, they advocate and actively popularize the adopted doctrine. A
characteristic example of a teacher-disciple relationship is the story of Charles Darwin (the
author of the theory of the origin of species) and Lord Thomas Huxley, the chairman of the
Royal Scientific Society. Actually due to Huxley this theory was popularized and was placed in
the key position of the modern scientific world. It is quite possible that nobody would have
known about the early Darwin’s evolutionary ideas, he was a theorist, while Huxley was a
skilful practician and a brilliant popularizer. And he brilliantly popularized the theory.

Function #-3 — subjective logic ( ): this is the area of problem solving. People of this
type try to structure and line up the information of the objective world as much as possible.
That is an attempt to build an ideal description of the world, which does not leave any place for
transcendental notions, i.e. something inexpressible in terms of their worldview. They allow for
the unknown, but the unsearchable has no right to exist

Function #4— subjective sensoring ( ): a good place is the place where I have good
sensations, where I feel good. A pat on the shoulder, a good meal – and he is all yours, this is
his idea of a perfect world, he feels great where these conditions are met, he is in trance. Give
him some more of the same treatment – and he falls asleep, goes into a deeper trance. People
of this type are especially suggestible through sensations. It is enough to say a word about
somebody’s health, and he gets self-conscious, thinking about his health he may get carried
away. They tend to apply everything they hear to themselves, information may not even be
related to them but they immediately think about their own center of the universe. People of
this type are rather hypochondriac.
On the other hand, these people are the easiest to treat. They trust the doctor. What do
the extrasensory healers do? They ask their patient, “Do you feel the warmth in the knee
area?” - "Yes." - “ Does the knee hurt?” - “Yeah, it does.” - “Well … now you feel the warmth
intensifying, it is getting warmer. And now I am pulling it out… do you feel it?” - “Yes, it goes
away…” - “OK, I throw it away completely … feel better?” - "It is better". - “Does it hurt now?” -
“It does not!”
People of this type may be effectively treated by means of mild suggestion. Here the
mechanism of psychosomatics works in both ways. A person of this type may think up an
illness, and to treat it is necessary to think up a way to "unthink" it, the approach should be
based on the person's sensations. The main thing here is that the person should feel
something. Everything depends on the system of beliefs that he accepts. Well, what system of
beliefs do we have here? A biological power myth? Very well!

Function #-4 — objective sensoring ( ): the fear of a complete form, fear of an

action. A fence he is building has been under construction for ten years, but the last nail may
never be hammered in; he has been writing his thesis for fifteen years, but it is still unfinished
because it is 'imperfect' – still more studying needs to be done, some cross-checking is
needed… etc. A Huxley frequently lives in the world of the unfinished forms, imperfect objects;
and he is constantly struggling (unlike a Don Quixote) with this imperfection. To get a result
from a Huxley it is necessary to put strict deadline. Otherwise the work will be procrastinated
indefinitely, he will continue to alter, add, and improve things… But there is no limit to
perfection! This trait should be taken into account in a working environment. Knowing this trait
a Huxley often seeks a job where work deadlines are stipulated 'by default'. This could be, for
example, teaching.

Lecture 4
Relationships between the types

Description of the relationships between the types

The founder of socionics, Aušra Augustinavičiūtė dedicated at least 25 years of her life to
this research. Having described the 16 types (on the basis of Jung's typology) she made the
next step: for the first time in the science of psychology Aušra Augustinavičiūtė began to
consider their relationships as a separate field of study.
With the structural model of a type at the base of her research she was able to single out
and give a definition to each of the 14 types of relationships between the types; 12 of those
relationships are symmetric, and only 2 of them are asymmetric:

*ID* - identical
*D* - supplemental (dual, completely complementary)
*A* - stirring (activator)
*M* - mirror
*B* - business
*m* - mirage
*SV*; *SE* (supervisor and subordinate) - supervision (asymmetrical)
*RE*; *SR* (Requestor and Server) - request (asymmetrical)
*N* - neutralizing (complete opposition)
*S* - super-ego
*qID* - quasi-identical
*C* - conflicting
*K* - kinship
*sD* - semi-dual

Aušra Augustinavičiūtė together with her colleague, V.Leshkiavichus, charted the table of
all relationships between the types of the socion (table 2).
The modeling of the relationships between the types is based on the structural
description of a personality. The same IM elements in different types may correspond to
different functions (levels of the structure); consequently, for example, things that fall in the
area of fears of one person may fall in the sphere of creative activity of another type. All this
may become the source of tension in relationships between the types.
Socionics goes beyond the declaration that people are different. It demonstrates: why, in
what areas and to what extent we are different; how differently we perceive the same events
and react to the same phenomena; what different systems of reasoning and assessment
criteria we use. In spite of the fact that we speak one language, each one of us has different
connotations connected with the same word. Research shows the difference in the languages
of types and quadras: some use a lot of adjectives, some hardly use them at all, different types
use verbs differently, etc.
Each type lives in its own psychological realm. These realms are so different from each
other that in our relationships with other people we can be pushing another person’s buttons
without even knowing it. Then after a long while we getting a strong 'inadequate' emotional
feedback from the person, we are in shock: "I have not done anything to cause this, have not
I? What is wrong with you?" The other person has been suffering for a long time, and now the
proverbial last straw fell. Typology explains that our relationships with a particular person are
conditioned (among other factors) by the type differences.
 Here I study relationships between the types from the point of view of their potential ability
to generate a conflict. Why is it so important? Sometimes we have to decide if the team is
capable to work together or assess its ability to work on a certain kind of project. Alternatively,
a need may arise to form a team able to solve these particular problems, and achieve positive
results. Third case where the study may be applied is when you need to analyze the conflicts
inside a team (workgroup) and recommend how to neutralize these conflicts. These are purely
practical challenges. Socionics allows us to foresee conflicts: it predicts not only the issue a
potential conflict, but also the time and the conditions for it. This tool allows us to create a
matrix of relationships between the types for a particular group of people; for a group of five
people it will consist of 5 rows and 5 columns (25 cells), for twenty – 20X20 (400 cells), etc.
We fill each cell with the type of relationships between the types of particular people. This
matrix sheds light on the potential problems that may arise when working on a particular
project. Many managers are already actively using this method.
We speak here about the conflicts caused by the peculiar differences of the types. But
this is not the only kind of conflicts between people. Conflicts might be caused by the
differences of the sociocultural worlds as well as other things, for example, collision of group
interests or socioeconomic factors. It would be a grave mistake to claim that the type
differences are the one and only source of conflicts. Instead relationships between the types
serve as a background for all communication processes.
Let's take a quadra, for example. It is assumed that quadra is a very comfortable group
and the conflicts are impossible there. This is not quite right; conflicts inside a quadra are
possible, the difference is that in a quadra people speak the same language, they already have
ways of settling these conflicts. They all can understand the reason of the conflict and speak
the same language to find an agreeable solution. Often other groups do not have the same
language. We will talk about the quadra language later, in our study of the smaller groups.
So let us examine the relationships between the types in more details.

Identical Relationships

Strictly speaking, this type of relationships cannot be labeled as relationships

between the types since these are relationships between people of the same type.
Identical relationships work best for knowledge or skill exchange. A person of the same IM
type is the best teacher! People of the same type speak one language; therefore they
understand things that other type does not catch. They live in one world, in one psychological
realm; they use the language of this world to communicate with one another. They need less
words and gestures to understand each other. Sometimes they do not need words at all.
There is a negative side to the identical relationships. Imagine I have something bad in
me and I try to fight it. I know this trait to be bad, and when I see it in someone else it annoys
me. “Why would not he (she) get rid of that trait? I fought & I won, now I am free!” The trait in
question could become a big issue. When people live together it could cause chronic conflicts.
Sometimes I see in another person qualities, which others do not see, and this other
person sees qualities in me that he detests. On the other hand, if I do not have the energy to
do something about it, then my partner does not have it either. This is a problem of working
or/and living with the partner of the same type.
Identical relationships are supposed to be free of the communication problems. Partners
adequately understand each other’s motives. Possible conflict agenda: “Who do you want to
deceive? I can see right through you.”

Supplemental Relationships

In this type of relationships the weak functions of the type are in the zone of strong
functions of the other type (dual, completely complementary type). A person of the
complementary type is the best teacher. The dual type is able to teach me what to do in a
difficult (for me) social environment. The dual type protects my weak functions, at the same
time providing a behavioral program for me to reach success even in the area of my weak
functions. This type of relationships is comfortable in a family setting. Often people grow so
close that cannot live with each other and cannot live without each other. Then couples begin
to share responsibilities: I trust my dual partner to control the area of my weakest functions,
and he/she trusts me to take care of the aspect of our life where he/she has weak functions.
There are families of dual partners who speak one language and even may understand each
other without words.
Strange as it may seem, conflicts may arise in supplemental relationships also. As we
have already said, in supplemental relationships the weak functions of one partner are in the
zones of strong functions of the other, i.e. these people have more opportunities to influence
each other. My suggestible function is my supplementing partner’s zone of confidence. His/her
whole being has an impact on me; he/she does not even have to try hard to influence me,
he/she is just being him/herself. Some executives are already using this information to
manipulate people in negotiations and signing contracts.
There are enormous opportunities for mutual manipulation hidden in supplemental
relationships. Here unlike in any other relationship the dichotomy of ‘friend-or-foe’ is revealed.
If a person is a ‘friend’, his/her worldview and system of values are the same as mine, and
then I might allow this person to be active in the area of my weaker functions. We share mutual
trust. And, consequently, if the person is ‘a foe’, a conflict may arise: “Why are you
manipulating me?” The person did not mean to manipulate, he/she did it naturally, he/she was
not even aware of doing it, but the other person having realized what’s going on may blow up
with anger and frustration.
In supplemental relationships the area of creativity of one person may correspond to the
zone of problems of the other person (i.e. it is the area where a person avoids taking risks and
always seeks to clarify the situation as much as possible). However, if people do not trust each
other absolutely they may reproach each other: “Why do you have to make things difficult?”
Here are some examples of supplemental relationships from history: Russian military
genius Kutuzov (a Balzac) and his opponent Napoleon (a Napoleon), Adolph Hitler (a Hamlet)
and Joseph Stalin (a Maxim), first space ship designer Korolev (a Zhukov) and the first
astronaut Jury Gagarin (a Tutankhamon). Many historical mysteries could be solved with the
help of typology but, certainly, not all of them. (See table 3.)

Table 3
Formula of the supplemental relationships

I good bad need no need

You desire fear problems solutions

If there is no "There is no need to rack

potential I do not want to be complete trust, your brain trying to solve
conflict manipulated; I am partners reproach your problems, better
not a puppet. I can each other: “Why stick to the norms and
do it myself do you have to customs of the society!"
make things
difficult?”

Mirror relationships

The creative function of the type corresponds to the zone of the first function of the
other type. There are no obvious zones of the conflict here. The only drawback of the mirror
relationships is that partners may consider each other boring. One partner says: “We need to
… and it would be good to … ”; the other says: “ It would be good to … and we need to …”,
and both feel like their partner is talking about obvious things that should not even be
mentioned. “Why talk so much?!” It is possible that the partner has not even said a word, but is
simply working on improving something in the area of my first function. And what is there to
do? What needs improving? What for? Everything is just fine! These accusations are
absolutely mutual. “He is a good guy, but really boring! What is there to discuss, everything is
plain and clear! ”
 Stirring Relationships (activator)

This is a very interesting type of relationships. Why activation? If we were using the
commercial lingo we would have said that each type produces something, consumes
something, sells and buys something. In case of stirring relationships the things I sell my
activator buys, and vice versa. We usually sell things pertaining to our second function. For
example, a Don Quixote and a Hugo have stirring relationships. They usually 'sell' what the
second function can offer regarding the third function, and they usually 'buy' what the first
function can offer regarding the fourth function. This needs some clarifying. What does a Don
Quixote sell? This type usually sells the way of understanding, the explanation of people’s
relationships (this is exactly what I am doing now: I am, a Don Quixote, teaching you the way
of socionics - a science which explains relationships between people). And what does a Don
Quixote buy? This type is buying complete sensory feelings, experiences. This is what I need,
what I want; I crave for integrity and sensory pleasure.
What does a Hugo sell? This type sells integral sensations, and buys the stuff that a Don
Quixote sells. You have what I need, and I have what you need. These types stir and activate
each other. These relationships run a risk of exchanging some negative energy. Both partners
may experience a constantly increasing euphoria, they get a positive feedback on every word
they say, in response he shares positive energy also… and this goes on and on… Their
mutual interest, intoxicating dialogue, euphoria may lead to losing touch with reality.
Is there an area in this kind of relationship where conflicts may potentially arise? Perhaps
the only potential area of conflicts is the time when I need to solve personal problems, but the
partner does not want to support me in that. Then my partner is not an activator here; he/she
may even choose to ignore the zone where I solve my problems. In theory here conflicts are
possible, though I personally have never had a chance to observe them. Certainly, in each of
the 8 activator pairs relationships develop differently, but the general structure of
communication stays the same.

Conflict relationships

Let us take a look at a sample of conflict relationships with the help of Kalinauskas'
Steering Wheel (fig. 3).

a Don Quixote a Dreiser

Fig. 3. Conflict relationships: a Don Quixote – a Dreiser

Let us begin our study with the creative function. Things that are a Don Quixote’s creative
function, an important issue of his realization, fall into a Dreiser’s zone of fears. “The things
you do frighten me.” A Dreiser-father would be constantly asking his son, a Don Quixote, to
stop doing what he is doing: “Don't do this, don’t do that either.” Whatever a Don Quixote does,
a Dreiser will instinctively stop him or try to tie up his hands. This is the type of a conflict when
one of the partners does not feel free to fly, he/she feels that he/she is not developing, is not
achieving anything in life. At the same time a Dreiser is experiencing real pangs of fear, it
seems to him (her) that a Don Quixote is heading for trouble and will end up in a mess. And
vice versa: a Dreiser frightens a Don Quixote with his/her creative function.
Let us take a look at the third function. These things are in the focus of my attention. A
Don Quixote’s objective ethics: “I am good when others have a good attitude to me.” A Dreiser
ignores these things. Thus there is some ground for a conflict: “you ignore my problems.” It is
very difficult to come to an agreement in the area of the third function, huge conflicts may be
expected in this area. The conflicting partner cannot see the reason for the upheaval because
it is the zone of ignoring, thus it is not important to him/her. This is the area where the chances
of ‘stepping on toes' without even noticing it are very high.
Imagine, two people are in a conflict relationship: a husband – a Don Quixote and a wife –
a Dreiser. The husband has his relationships with other people on the third function, in the
zone of higher attention, emotionally very significant. He is on defense here, he is trying to get
a 'feather in the cap' and avoid 'black eyes'. This area of life is known, observed and draws a
lot of a Don Quixote’s attention. But when a Dreiser enters this particular realm of life, when
being close to a Don Quixote, he/she simply ignores it as a whole. When friends come to visit
the two people see it in two different ways as if they were experiencing to different events: one
receives a positive reinforcement through the third function, while the other sees a mess left by
the guests, dirty dishes, dirty footprints on the carpet… A potential conflict here is as follows:
“you ignore my problems.” This is a rather serious conflict, which could not be solved without
the knowledge of typology.
This conflict is symmetrical; a Don Quixote similarly ignores a Dreiser's inner state.
He/she unintentionally destroys the other person on the inside. A Dreiser has the integrity of
his/her inner world in the area of the third function – she lives as if constantly listening to an
internal melody, a complex and integral rhythm. It is good when this internal melody is in
resonance with the outside world, but this does not happen often... Once I watched a friend of
mine, a Dreiser, he is an ex-world champion in high jumping, he was getting ready to jump:
focused, braced himself up, took off running… and bam, there was a signal shot for another
sportsman at a close running-track! And that was it! He got distracted, lost his composure. He
did not jump very high, and did take any of the first places. Integrity of his inner world was
disturbed. Similarly, a Don Quixote always upsets the inner balance of a Dreiser.
The third area of a potential conflict situation: a Don Quixote's fourth function requires
pleasant sensory stimuli (yummy tasting stuff, physical comfort). For a Dreiser all this is in the
area of "the unnecessary", so he says: “You are too wishy-washy, I do not need any of that
stuff, I can live without it.” It could be fertile soil for mutual complaints, too.
A Don Quixote's first function is the integrity of the outside world, but a Dreiser’s first
function is the zone of problem solving. If a Dreiser has a problem, he/she tries to solve it by
making changes in the surrounding outside world. In the schedule and his way of life… thus
he/she disturbs the area of a Don Quixote's first function. This is a reason for a conflict; this
may lead to aggression. “You solve your problems at my expense.” The third function is
connected to self-esteem; the first function is the level of existence. A Don Quixote ‘exists’
when the surrounding world is in harmony, if it is not then he is questioning his own existence.
If someone close to me suddenly destroys the harmony of my situation it causes a conflict, and
may result in an uncontrollable burst of aggression.
This group of potential conflict areas generates the background for the conflict
relationships. Even with the good knowledge of socionics it is difficult to trace the tension
spots. Though when you are aware of the fact that the other person lives in a completely
different psychological realm, you adjust your own attitude in a given situation, and even avoid
the situation most of the time.
Here is another example of conflict relationships: a Dumas and a Jack (fig. 4).

A Dumas a Jack London

Fig. 4. Conflict relationships: a Dumas – a Jack London

Let us take a look at how these relationships work. The first function is the area of my
confidence in things I know & can do well. My partner has his area of solving problems there.
On the other hand my partner is able to show me different ways of solving my problems. This
is the positive side of the conflict relationships and the types might be interested in spending
time with each other because of that.
The creative function: what for me is "necessary" is the other's zone of fears. A Jack
London can easily live alone out in the wild for long periods of time. People of this type do not
need large companies; on the contrary, they feel uncomfortable in a crowd. A Dumas is afraid
of the things that a Jack needs, enjoys, craves, and cannot live without. As soon as one begins
to actively demonstrate his/her creative function, the other is experiencing pangs of fear: “Do
not do that, it scares me!” There is no room for self-expression. Tough situation.
The third function: the area of self-esteem, "I am good" or "I am bad". The point of conflict:
“you ignore me, you ignore my problems”. A Dumas wants to understand everything, but a
Jack says, “I do not need an explanation of things, I need the facts!
The fourth function: "I want to". The response of the conflicting type: “I do not need the
things you want”. This is a big problem for people who live together.
 One person's area of the problem solving corresponds to the basic level of personality
structure (the first function) of the other. The potential conflict may be as follows: “You solve
your problems at my expense”.
So we have singled out four potential areas of conflict, their combinations make up unique
background for relationships in each particular situation. Typology allows (to some degree)
foreseeing and taking into consideration the potential controversies. All the subjects are
revealed and now people may be informed and asked to be on guard. Expect the previously
unexpected. Sometimes this knowledge helps, although, as a rule, most unpleasant conflicts
happen 'unconsciously'. At least it is possible to analyze a conflict afterwards and be more
attentive in the future, to think over how to 'switch' the brewing conflict into another frequency
(table 4).

Here we offer a formula for conflict solving in problem relationships:

I good bad need no need

You solution problem fear desire

potential Problem solving at Mutual ignoring Creative function The other sees wishes of
conflict the partner’s of problems. of one type is in one as whims. “I do not
personality structure The source of the area of fears need the things you
level. “You solve inadequate of another. One want”.
your problems at my reactions and partner's activity
expense”. Result: spontaneous is not supported
the aggression that conflicts. The by the other
seems odd to the area of irritation partner, stresses
partner. and him out.
aggressiveness.

Business relationships

In business relationships people freely exchange information in the area of the

creative function (the share the same function in this area). People may have different
purposes and thus while they successfully communicate at work, they can not get along during
the free time when they need to decide what they are going to do to relax and enjoy
themselves.
Aušra Augustinavičiūtė gave a precise definition to this kind of relationships - 'business
∗
relationships'. Take a look at how business relationships are reflected on the cube model : all
the business relationships always have the same geometry, be it a Napoleon and a Huxley, or
a Hamlet and a Jack, or a Holmes and a Hugo, or a Dreiser and a Maxim.
Here is the potential area for a conflict is where the values of the one partner are in the
zone of fears of the other. "You think it is good, but things like that scare me!" Even if the
creative functions are identical, the purposes and goals are completely different. Therefore
with those business partners it is necessary to be on guard. The things I desire, you ignore.
Here is the ground for a potential conflict. At the same time the second and third functions in
business relationships are identical, though problems are being solved in different ways
because people solve their problems through their first function (see table 5).

Tab. 5 Formula for business relationships

I good no desire need do not need


See Lecture …
You fear desire need do not need

potential “You scare me. "You are - -

conflict I do not want your inconsiderate.
values”. You ignore the
things I
desire."

Neutralizing Relationships

All the functions of one partner are the minus-functions of the other partner.
Everything is upside down: what is a positive reinforcement for one is a negative stimulus for
the other (complete opposition). Things that I desire scare away my partner. Things I consider
to be good are bad from my partner’s point of view. What is necessary for me is not necessary
for him/her, etc. These are relationships with the opposite quadra, i.e. with the quadra on the
opposite side of the model cube. For example, alpha quadra has this kind of relationships with
gamma quadra. A Don Quixote’s neutralizer is a Balzac, a Dumas’ – a Napoleon, a Jack
London’s – a Robespierre, a Dreiser’s – a Hugo. Take a look at the cube: these relationships
also have precise geometry.
Relationships of complete opposition are at the same time relationships of highest
possible attraction. People are drawn to each other similar to the opposite poles of magnets
because they are complete antithesises. A person might reason in his mind: “This person is
living in a realm that I have not discovered or experienced before. His/her thoughts are so
deep and intelligent, he/she understands things I know absolutely nothing about! Though I am
not a fool … but I wish I could understand the things he/she knows.” This attraction sometimes
results in a family unity or a working team. Later personalities clash, and it appears that at a
deeper personal level relationships are a full disaster: what is necessary for me is not
necessary for you; my positive values you consider to be negative, both partners ignore each
other’s values. We step on each other's toes without noticing it. And the result is predictable.
As we have mentioned, at the level of interaction of types socionics is an exact science. "The
things I desire scare you." This is why it is interesting to talk to a person of a neutralizing type,
but is very difficult to live with a person of that type. I would not say that it is 'impossible', but it
could be a challenge that takes a lot of work and demands a lot of attention.
These partners may discuss an issue from different points of view, enriching each other
and suggesting interesting approaches and useful, unexpected ideas, but in no way they can
work together. This is a serious problem, when groups of people are being formed, especially if
the group will be working in a bounded space for a long period of time. The background of
relationships between the types here plays the key role and may become an essential
obstacle. I discussed this problem with psychologists doing supportive work for the Russian
astronaut team. According to their reports, there have been astronauts who did not talk to each
other for weeks while on the space. This is the situation when you cannot push a button and
holler out: “stop the vehicle, this is my stop.” They are good people, qualified specialist but they
do not have the wisdom in their relationships with other people.
All this is useful knowledge, it gives you an opportunity to exclude the subconscious
destructive tendencies in our personal relationships, and take them to a level where the
relationships between the types may be productive.

Superego Relationships

The superego relationships configuration is shown on the fig. 5.

A Dreiser a Robespierre
…….
Fig.5 Superego Relationships: a Dreiser – a Robespierre
 A Dreiser's creative function, objective sensoring is in a Robespierre's zone of problem
solving. It means that a Dreiser can show a Robespierre ways to solve his problems. In this
sense the relationships may turn out to be very useful.
But let us look at the first function. Things of a Robespierre’s base level of personality are
in a Dreiser’s zone of fears and vice versa. “I am afraid of you, I am afraid of your values. Your
goals are so alien to me, I wish you did not have them!” Here may arise a rather sharp
controversy.
Another potential conflict area: “I do not need your problems”. “That is your problem, I do
not need it, and I am not interested in this.” The third function is a hypersensitive spot. So
when my third function is rejected, I feel like my opportunity to become a good person in my
own eyes is being taken away. This is my source of energy. “You deprive me of my energy
source!” This is also an important area of life prone to hypertension.
A potential conflict in the area of the first function: “You ignore the things I desire.”
This conflict is similar to the previous one. The place that I consider to be good as if does not
even exist for you.
These three points are enough for a tension between people to arise.
One more example: a Napoleon and a Don Quixote. The first function of the former is in
the zone of fears of the latter. Things essential to a Don Quixote, namely, integrity of the
external situation, simply kill a Napoleon; there is nothing for him to do. If the situation is clear
and known from beginning to end, what is there for a Napoleon to do? If everything is known,
a Napoleon feels like people do not need him. A Don Quixote is scared by a Napoleon's
irresponsibility because a Don Quixote fears activity and completed form. Besides the number
of things a Napoleon does frightens a Don Quixote.
Of course, other types will have other issues, same structure of conflicting zones but
different content. And the meaning of it will be the same: your values are a threat to me. The
other person may show me the way to solve my problems, but his/her way frightens me.
A Napoleon may respect a Don Quixote for his/her ability to understand and explain
things, for the former it is the zone of problem solving. In this area two types may communicate
rather fruitfully. These people may need each other, but long-term interaction may result in
multiple conflicts.
Now let us take a look at the third function. The third function of a Don Quixote is a
Napoleon's zone of standards: “I do not need your problems”. In this case it is the objective
ethics, relationships with people. People are satisfied with a formal relationship. "Why do you
need to be friends with them? It is enough that they know and respect you for who you are,
you should not be buddies with everyone.” This is also a potential area for conflicts.
Another area of a potential conflict in these relationships: "Things that I desire are your
negative values. You are constantly ignoring my desires." – "But how can I not ignore them if I
do not see what you want?!" This is another tense area.

Relationships of parallel intelligence, or quasi-identity

These are relationships of types of the opposite quadras, for example, a relationship of
a Don Quixote and a Jack London. These relationships are a bit strange. The other person
seems to be very interesting but he/she is really hard to approach. It seems I will never
understand what is his/her purpose of life, what is it that makes her tick. This happens
because the creative function of one person (the result product of his/her life) is not
visible to the other. "I do not understand the things you do." And the things I do, you do not
understand either. Here, when working with either team members or partners in business,
misunderstanding may arise. It is especially hard when it is needed to come to an agreement
about some particular business activity that is done together (see tab. 6).
As to the third function, conflicts possible there, too, because the third function of one
person is in the zone of fears of the other: “I am afraid of your problems”. Since a person does
a lot trying to solve his/her problems, here too a dispute or misunderstanding is possible.

Tab.6 Formula of the quasi-identity relationships

I good no desire problems solutions

You no need need fear desire

Potential Rejection of the other’s Mutual ignoring of "I do not want -

conflict system of values. “I do each other's creative your problems."
not understand what functions. Things that The other
makes you tick.” are a part of creative carefully ignores
function of one person, things that are
seem to be the acute to one
objective evil to the person.
other, he has to put up
with it.

Mirage relationships

These are probably most mysterious relationships between the types. For example: a
Don Quixote and a Tutankhamon, a Zhukov and a Dumas, a Hamlet and a Dreiser, a Maxim
and a Jack, a Huxley and a Balzac, a Dostoevsky and a Hugo. Strange as it may seem, we
have never observed any serious conflicts in these relationships. The dialogue of two people in
mirage relationships might be described as follows: my idea of myself communicates with my
idea of the counterpart and, accordingly, the counterpart's idea of him/herself communicates
with his/her idea of me. Communication is going on, a dialogue takes place, everything seems
to be all right; I assume that we have understood each other. Then we realize that we have
been talking about absolutely different things. Have you had an experience like that? You had
a productive conversation, enjoyed talking to your partner, seemed to have understood each
other, satisfied you said good bye to each other… only to find out later that he/she did not
understand any of what you were trying to get across, moreover, it turns out that you did not
hear most of what he/she told you.
This kind of relationships is labeled as ‘mirage relationships’ because you observe a
mirage. When you are getting ready to carry on negotiations with our partners in mirage
relationships, you what to make sure that they understand you exactly in every single detail of
your talk, it does not hurt to talk things over several times, even better put it all on paper.
These are mostly business relationships; in a family relationship people do not put things on
paper usually. At a business meeting it is good to clarify or have an assistant of a suitable type
who speaks the same language as your business partners.
In these relationships the first function of one type corresponds to the minus-first function
of the other: “I often do not notice you, and you do not notice me”. This is mutual ignoring.
Accordingly, you are afraid of the things I desire, and vice versa. As for the creative function,
“The way you do things interests me because it is in the zone of my problems.”
The partners in mirage relationships do not judge each other motives correctly.
Nevertheless one partner’s behavior fits perfectly in the other’s illusionary image of him/her.
For a long time the partners may assume that their relationships are objectively successful and
obvious. However, at some point they find out that both sides didn't hear each other and
nothing was understood correctly. Often partners agree with each other, but each has a
different understanding. When agreeing about something with an illusionary partner, try to put
it in writing, it will be some guarantee of mutual understanding. Otherwise some essential
points might be lost.
In case of such misunderstanding people may suspect each other of deceit just because
of they are convinced that others see the world and understand words in exactly the same way
as they do.

People tend to think that there is nothing else in the world besides what they see with
their own eyes. Besides, they believe that others see the world exactly the same way as they
do. Unfortunately due to this illusion we often get trapped and provide the ground for a conflict,
the reason being we do not realize that other people live in different psychological realms than
ours.
 Strictly speaking, everyone lives in his or her own realm, and whether he or she
interfaces with each other is still a big question. Socionics allows to have a better
understanding of the psychological worlds of other people. However, some of these worlds
may appear inaccessible to us at all – it is not because we are not clever enough – but
because some of the things do not exist in our understanding of the world around us. It is sad,
but true! And we have to learn to accept this.

Relationships of semi-duality

Look at the model cube. The following types have relationships of semi-duality: a Don
Quixote and a Gaben, a Huxley and a Dumas, a Zhukov and a Balzac, a Dostoevsky and a
Jack, a Napoleon and a Tutankhamon. The geometry is the same. The cube is infallible, entire
table of relationships between the types is there in a condensed form.
A Don Quixote and a Gaben, a Huxley and a Dumas. Their relationships are basically
good, but one is an aristocrat, and the other is a democrat, i.e. their principles of
communication are different. The aristocratic manner of communication considers vertical
hierarchy: there are people above and below me, there are people of my circle, and there are
people who are outside of it. The democratic way of communication disregards hierarchy,
everybody are brothers and friends, without age limits and the social status boundaries,
everyone may speak simultaneously.
At times in the semi-dual relationships mutual accusations arise: “You are a good person,
but too egoistic. Somehow you only think about yourself.” The creative function of one
person is in the zone of standards of the other. They both unconsciously set boundaries on
each other’s self-expression, because they both have a set number of norms, which do not
change. This is the only zone where conflicts are possible. Both partners have certain
communication stereotypes. In and of itselves the relationships are good and may be
comfortable enough (tab. 7).

Tab.7 Formula of the relationships of semi-duality

I need problems

You do not need solutions

Potential “You don't need to do what you're "You're an egoist and you solve your problems at
conflict doing. There are certain norms, and my expense."
you should follow them.”

Kinship relationships

Here a partner is a respected 'relative' - a person whom I watch closely, listen to

attentively because his/her creative function is in my zone of problem solving, and we
share the same first function – something very akin and interesting. If it is better to do
business with the 'business' partners, and spend vacation away from them, then 'relatives' are
nice to be around when you want to relax and have some time off, but it is very hard to do
business with them, because creative functions are different. Are there positive sides to this
relationship? Their first functions coincide. Their second functions: your creativity is in the zone
of my problem solving. It means that you show me ways to solve my problems; I begin to see
possibilities, which I would never think of myself, I could learn something here. And this makes
me feel more secure.
As to the fourth function, they are identical: the things you desire I want also, bingo! And
the zones of fears are identical. Those things you do not want, I do not want either, the things
you ignore, I ignore also. We have a lot in common, but at the same time it is obvious that we
are different.
 'Relatives' are very different in the way they communicate, so sometimes it is hard to
communicate with them. We will look at this later, when we discuss the attributes of different
types. And in kinship relationships there is always a tension. It might be because my third
function is in his/her zone of standards.

Relationships of request

These relationships are asymmetrical. One of the two types in these relationships is
labeled 'a requestor', the other type – 'a server'. The relationships are asymmetrical in the
following sense: the server receives an impulse from the requestor and ‘amplifies’ it. The
requestor, on the contrary, hardly notices impulses coming from the server or else it
considerably reduces it.
For example, a Don Quixote is the requestor in his relationship with a Hamlet. Those
things that the server does are in the requestor's zone of ignoring. The former does not
understand what the latter does in his/her inner world, moreover, does not want to know
anything about it. On the other hand, the creative function of the requestor is in the
server’s zone of the fourth function, i.e. the requestor influences the server through the
most suggestible function, the influence is direct because the person is open here for external
influences. At the same time the impulse (information) from the server does not get through,
the requestor is blind to the needs of the server. Sometimes though the server can say or
demonstrate to the requestor what to do with the latter's problems because for the former it is
the zone of confidence. The requestor's zone of confidence does not correspond to the
server's functions, i.e. the things that are "unnecessary" for the latter, are in the area of the
former's first function. What kind of potential conflict can we expect here? "I do not need you."
Often the server tries to be as far as possible from the requestor (this is an instinctive
action), but there are circumstances when it is impossible. It is rather easy to distance yourself
from the family members: find a hobby or plunge into the work to establish a considerable
distance; but it is hard to distance yourself from the business partners, co-workers or
colleagues. Therefore the psychological price of these relationships at work may be very high.
If this type of relationships is present in a plane crew it could be dangerous: psychological
fatigue of one of the members of the crew may cause mistakes.
In these relationships one person (server) considers the other (requestor) to be 'more
important'. The server feels the constant urge to report back about what has been done and
justify his/her own mistakes. The requestor's appreciation is very important to the server, it is
more important than the opinion of other people (tab. 8).

Tab. 8 Formula of the request relationships

I – good bad need no problem solutions desire fear

requestor need s
(RE)

solutio problem
You – no need desire fear good no need ns s
server need
(SR)

RE: RE: - “Don’t - "I "Why are

potential "Do not "You "You're try to cannot you
conflict impose are a good change solve constantl
your stuck in guy… a me, I will my y
values a rut? bit always proble fidgeting
on me". Get on stupid be the ms the ? Your
with life though; way I am way problems
already what a now”. you are
 , do pity…"" (RE tries want ridiculou
somethi SR: to me to." s.”
ng of "You simplify
value!" always the
SR: harass situation
"You me. I in the
do not don't area of
hear underst SR's
me. and conserva
Your what tive
hard you function.
heart is want )
numb from
to my me."
sufferin
g."

Relationships of supervision

Relationships between 'a Supervisor' and 'a subordinate ' are also asymmetrical. The
subordinate has a feeling as if he/she is constantly doing something wrong. Each one of us at
least once in our lifetime has had that feeling: when a particular person enters the room things
begin to fall out of my hands, I am stressed, something is wrong… "I am doing something
wrong… he/she did not look at me… did not say a word…" The uneasiness follows the
supervisor everywhere he/she goes. If the supervisor and subordinate are in one room
together, it is impossible to expect the subordinate to do any productive work. The
relationships of supervision may lead to conflicts in a working team, in a crew or a unit where
the members see each other a lot or have to work together for long periods of time in a
confined space.
The supervisor is, strictly speaking, a person to whom we report about what has been
done even though he/she does not expect any reports from us. The subordinate is constantly
looking up to the supervisor: “How am I doing? Am I doing OK?”
What happens with the supervisor? The subordinate 's creative function is in the zone
of the supervisor's fears. "The things you do scare me." So the supervisor gives to the
subordinate an impression that he/she is not pleased with him/her. The initial reaction to the
subordinate 's actions is always negative, though it may change later.
The subordinate 's third function is in the supervisor’s zone of ignoring. The same
happens in conflict relationships: “You ignore me, you ignore my problems, you do not see
them.” In this area the types often accuse each other of egotism, lack of attention. On the other
hand, the supervisor's third function is in the subordinate 's zone "I desire." "I (the subordinate)
do not ignore your problems, but you do ignore mine."
Now, let us turn to a very unpleasant area of personality. The creative function of the
supervisor is in the zone of the first function of the subordinate, i.e. if the former frightens
the latter with his/her creative function, the latter simply destroys the former with the same
function trying to change the very basis of the supervisor's existence. This unpleasant
pressure at the level of personality organization is impossible to get rid of without the
knowledge of the relationships between the types.
The subordinate 's fourth function is in the zone of the supervisor's third function;
the conflicts do not arise here.
The supervisor’s first function is in the subordinate’s zone of problem solving:
he/she is able to teach the other interesting ways of solving problems. In general, the
supervisor seems to be more important, a person to whom one want to report.

Relationships of control or conflict are the relationships, which make a person say, “I am
sick of his/her company! He/she is a difficult person! It is so hard to be together!” We
automatically transfer the quality of a relationship unto the person’s character, though in reality
our relationship is the background, the climate, and the environment of our interaction. If the
'environment is bad, it does not mean that the person is bad. Yes, he/she is different; right,
he/she lives in another realm; yes, it is a complex relationship of types, but you need to
remember that both the types have their input in the relationship.
The socionics will become a very useful tool only if you learn to discern between the
following things: relationships between the types and your personal opinion of the other
person. This is a very important point, when you differentiate between these things you learn to
overcome the conflicts in difficult relationships, such as the relationships of superego, request
and supervision.
So we have examined the 14 types of relationships between the types, two of the types of
relationships (supervision and request) are subdivided into two asymmetric types: the
supervisor and the subordinate, the requestor and the server. So there are 16 types total.
The information metabolism is the base tool of a personality. Each IM type has both
strong and weak sides and it would be very useful to learn how to use them; so that we do not
waste our energy where it is not necessary, but learn to effectively use strong traits of the type.
It is important to give room to other people to be different, to understand the difference of their
information structure, to know the rules of communication between different psychological
realms. Often reasoning does not help. One may understand all things in the world, but be
overcome by emotions in a stressful situation. “How can he/she do this to me! He/she has
done it on purpose!" It is not so. Maybe this person just does not see the situation from your
point of view. The fact that you allow another person to be different somewhat reduces the
heat of the conflict; as soon as you begin to hurl accusations at the other person, you hear in
response, “You take a closer look at yourself!”
No man ever thinks he/she is bad; we give credit for any success in life to ourselves; we
blame our failures and sins on the circumstances. The double standards system of thinking
provokes the waterfall mutual accusations in the heat a conflict.

Questions and Answers

You may have gotten an impression that conflicts are the basic aspect of relationships
between the types. But in those relationships there are a few interesting things besides
conflicts. We simply began our study from the description of relationships from the point of
view of conflictology. In fact, we described the field of typological conflictology; therefore the
zones of conflict were in the main focus. We may choose different approaches to the study of
relationships between the types, for example, how to seduce people of different types? There
are a few social situations, which should be considered from the point of view of typology:
education, child raising, etc.
Let us say that my third function is relationships (a Don Quixote). What types can teach
me something in this area? First of all, a Hamlet and a Hugo, because it is their first function.
Then, a Dumas and a Tutankhamon – this is their second (creative) function. A Dostoevsky, a
Dreiser, a Napoleon and a Huxley know how to solve my problems. These four types know a
lot of interesting things in this area that I do not know.
My creative function: the zone of my realization, the zone of risk. Three other types share
this zone with me: a Robespierre, a Zhukov and a Maxim. They can be a good aid to me in my
creativity in spite of all the potential conflict areas that we share.
A Dreiser can tell me extremely interesting things concerning those things that I fear,
because my fear of completed form is in the area of a Dreiser's and a Maxim's creative
function. This is a Napoleon’s and a Zhukov’s strongest function, and they provide me with
information on how to behave in a situation connected to my zone of fears.

- How do I avoid conflicts with people of my 'conflicting' types? I have a friend, and
we do not fight, it happened only once …
- You see, you do not live with your friend. You go fishing together. You get along in
circumstances, which are pleasant for both of you, which do not generate conflicts. Conflicts
arise in close relationships.

- What kind of relationships do a Don Quixote and a Dostoevsky have?

 - A Dostoevsky is the 'supervisor'. A Dostoyevsky’s creative function is in a Don
Quixote’s zone of the first function. A Don Quixote's attitude is as follows: he (a Dostoevsky)
seems to be a good person, but a bit too petty.

- What is the difference between the mirage and the quasi-identical relationships?
- Relationships of quasi-identity are also labeled as 'relationships of parallel intelligence.'
It is possible to put it this way: those things that one has in his consciousness the other has it
in his subconsciousness. In these relationships people hardly understand motives and values
of each other, and they do not understand each other's creativity at all. Creative function of the
one is in the zone of ignoring of the other. There is no ground for a potential conflict. One
partner does not see the other; the two people operate in completely different, parallel realms.
As to the mirage relationships, the situation is similar. In quasi-identical relationships there
is a feeling of misunderstanding, but in mirage relationships there is an illusion of
understanding. You think that you understand your partner very well, but later things happen
and you realize you did not understand anything. It is like a screw with a left-hand thread: you
think that you screw in, but suddenly – oops! – the nut falls off… Mirage relationships might be
very pleasant, warm, but at some point they may blow up with a totally unexpected conflict.

- So the relationships are different, but the result is the same?

- It is not quite so. The relationships with parallel intelligence are less complicated: there
is no illusion of understanding; people do not become as close as in another relationship. But
in the mirage relationships there is a danger of becoming too close, when people begin to think
they can actually live or work together. And only later people realize they do not know how to
listen to each other or talk to one another. It happens.

- It happens if people are not trained.

- Even if people have been educated in this area it still may happen. It is just like thinking
that doctors do not get sick. They are trained to diagnose but nevertheless they do get sick
also. Here we have a similar situation. Even the most remarkable psychologists have
psychological problems because they are people, and they communicate with other people
within the framework of their types. This is why psychologists offer practical professional
support to their colleagues. I do not have illusions regarding trained people. They simply know
more and see better.

- Training expands the spectrum of relationships, therefore it seems that the

number of conflicts should decrease?
- There are no 'objective conflicts' in this world: all of them are subjective. The more rigidly
someone identifies oneself with any form, the more he/she is connected to the existence of this
form. Since this form is rigid, it collides hard with all other forms, and a conflict arises. Actually
it is just the interaction of forms, but people fill these forms with energy, and serious problems
arise, and then sciences are birthed, for example, such as conflictology.
Sometimes a constant stressful condition in either the conflict relationship or the
supervision relationship makes a person think that their life is being studied as if under a
microscope. A person lives with a feeling that he is constantly being examined and controlled
at the same time. It is possible to lead a person out of this condition by teaching him/her some
psychotherapy techniques, or else this person can be advised to change a job or career.
Socionics is alive and breathing, there are experts who recommend what place to chose,
where a person would feel comfortable, they warn against occupations, and predict problems,
etc. But anyway it is possible to learn to cooperate with a person of any type.

Lecture 5
Spatial Models. Socion Hyper structure

Spatial Models of Socion

 Spatial models proved to be a rather vivid and effective way to illustrate the four-
dimensional structure of socion and its properties. We have already described one of them
(the cube model) at the end of Lecture 1.
Now we proceed to the socion hyper structure, a concept introduced by I.N.Kalinauskas.
We have a cube. But it is better to study the hyper structure of socion with the help of an
octahedron. Take a look at an octahedron sweep on the fig. 6. The cube has eight points. The
octahedron (it might be represented as two tetrahedral pyramids conjugated at their bases)
has eight planes; each of them corresponds to one element of the information metabolism.
Here we can find all the functions and the minus-functions of each type. The quadral
functions are grouped around each of the octahedron's four 'base' vertices: alpha (α) quadra –
a Don Quixote, a Robespierre, a Dumas and a Hugo; beta (β) quadra – a Zhukov, a Maxim, a
Tutankhamon and a Hamlet; gamma (γ) quadra – a Napoleon, a Dreiser, a Jack and a Balzac;
delta (δ) quadra – a Dostoevsky, a Holmes, a Huxley and a Gaben. The corresponding minus-
functions we find on the opposite sides of the octahedron.

… Fig.6 The Octahedron Sweep. Socion Hyper Structure.

On the sides of the octahedron we can immediately find, for example, the types with the
objective sensoring as one of the leading functions. These are a Zhukov (sensory-logical
type), a Napoleon (sensory-ethical type), a Maxim (logical-sensory type) and a
Dreiser (ethical-sensory type). The subjective logical types are logical-intuitive (a
Robespierre), logical-sensory (a Maxim), intuitive-logical (a Don Quixote) and sensory-
logical (a Zhukov). Further, objective intuitive types are intuitive-ethical extrovert (Huxley)
and the intuitive-logical extrovert (a Don Quixote), and also ethical-intuitive introvert (a
Dostoevsky) and logical-intuitive introvert (a Robespierre)… and so on.
This is the sweep of the so-called hyper structure of socion. And now if you need to draw
the Kalinauskas Steering Wheel for any of the types (for example, for a Zhukov) you can
easily find its elements on the sides of the octahedron. The first function - objective sensoring
; the second - subjective logic ; the third - objective ethics ; the fourth - subjective
intuition . The minus-functions are on the opposite sides.
As I.N.Kalinauskas observed, the typological environment of a person may change
depending on the function, which is mostly used during the given period of life.
Let us begin with the first function. In the area of a Zhukov's first function there are three
more types: a Napoleon, a Dreiser, and a Maxim. Each of these three types can offer
something new to a Zhukov, some important information needed for his/her first function. In
the area of the second (creative) function (the area of realization) there are three more types –
a Don Quixote, a Robespierre, a Maxim. As a rule, if a Zhukov is mostly engaged in an
activity where he/she is using his/her second function, people of these types tend to gather
around him (her). Alternatively, when the person is mostly busy solving his (her) personal
problems, the company differs: in a Zhukov's case the following four types – a Tutankhamon,
his dual who can tell a lot about a Zhukov's problems from an unusual point of view; a
Hamlet - the activator; a Dumas (sensory-ethical type) with the creative function
corresponding to a Zhukov's problem zone; and a Hugo (ethical-sensory type). These four
types help a Zhukov gather knowledge concerning the area of problems. If the number of
people of the types drawn to a Zhukov increases, it is a sign of the upcoming problems.
And, at last, the fourth function - the zone of motives, "I desire", area of comfort zone.
Here the principle of a good place works: a person is looking for a good and comfortable place
to be. The following four types reveal to a Zhukov his/her true desires and help him/her define
"a good place”: a Hamlet, a Tutankhamon, a Jack London and a Balzac.
In the course of popularization of the ideas about compatibility of types a phenomenon
appeared, it could be described as some kind of “typological chauvinism”. We hope that our
simple description of the socion hyper structure will help our students to realize that there is no
need to push those people away who seem to belong to “a wrong type' or “another quadra”.
Every person transmits certain information and usually it is the information that you need at
that very moment when you communicate with this person. It is necessary to learn how to
receive.
 So it is possible to draw 16 Steering Wheels for 16 types, or make one octahedron and
simply turn it to find a personality structure. This is the most compact model representing
information on socionics. By the way, on the same octahedron it is easy to find another model
of personality suggested by A. Augustinavičiūtė (the so-called " model A") which we do not
refer to in this work.
The cube and the octahedron are equally effective models containing the same
information. Both of them can be an effective tool for learning socionics. Socionics have
practical value only if you master basic structures; otherwise it will remain an abstract
knowledge.
Let us get back to the octahedron. On the fig. 7 the base supporting the octahedron is
given. It is a cube with the top removed. This base shows all the relationships between the
types. Turning the octahedron with regard to the base it is possible to easily find the
relationships between all the 16 types.

1st side 2nd side

*ID* - identity *K* - kinship *SV* - Supervisor *C* - conflict
*D* - duality *sD* - semi-dual *RE* - Requestor *qID* - quasi-identical
3rd side 4th side
*S* - super-ego *B* - business *UC* - subordinate, UNDER *M* - mirror
CONTROL
*N* - neutralizing *m* - mirage *RER*- Server, request receiver *A* - activation

Fig.7 Cube base sweep.

… Fig.8 The spatial socion model.

All the 16 types of relationships are present here. For example, when I need to find out
what kind of relationships has a Maxim and a Huxley, I turn the octahedron to match 'a
Maxim' with the 'Identity' on the cube base. Then I look at 'a Huxley' on the octahedron, and
get a 'Conflict' on the cube. It means that a Maxim and a Huxley have conflict relationships.
To determine the kind of relationships a type has with other types in the same part of the
octahedron (top or bottom) we look at the top row of the base cube (where 'Identity' is located).
To determine the kind of relationships a type has with the types located in other parts of the
octahedron look at the bottom row of the cube. If the type would not match with 'Identity', flip
the octahedron over (fig. 8).

Lecture 6
The Attributes of the
Socion Dichotomy

K.G.Jung in his work [19] offers a description of the realm of a personality based on four
independent (orthogonal) criteria: extraversion - introversion, intuition - sensorial, intellect – emotion,
and rationality - irrationality. These criteria divide the realm of a personality into 16 sectors that
correspond to the 16 types [1, 21].
Let us examine a multitude S comprised of the 16 types. As it was mentioned, this multitude is
called a socion.
We will label an ordered pair of multitudes as “the multitude S cut"
<m,m//>

where multitudes m and m// supplement each other up to S, at the same time they do not have any
common elements. Notice, each of Jung's criteria is a multitude S cut, it breaks it up into two parts
consisting of eight types each. Thus any pair of attributes divides the socion into four equal parts with
four types in each.

Let's choose at random any pair from 4 Jungian criteria:

 X= <x, x//> and Y= <y,y//> (1)
Here x, x//; y,y// are multitudes, each is a half of the socion, i.e. each consists of eight types. Two
attributes, X and Y, divide the multitude S into four parts with four types in each (fig. 9).

Fig.9 Two orthogonal sections divide the socion

As could be easily observed, there is one more attribute

…….. (2)
it also divides the multitude S into two equal parts (here and further the symbol of intersection operation
is omitted: xy stands for the intersection of the multitudes x and y).
All of the three attributes X, Y and Z are the sections of the multitude S, and any pair of these
attributes divides S into four multitudes that consist of four types each. Let us label these sections as
interdependent sections (see paragraph 2.5, Part II). The mathematical reflection of this interdependence
is a binary operation of product of sections. Let us write it down as follows:
…..↵ (3)
Let us consider the characteristics of bipolar attributes. With the help of the expression (3) it is
easy to prove that for the introduced operation of product of sections the following ratios are true:

X↵ Z = Y,
Y↵ Z = X,
X↵ X = Y ↵ Y = Z ↵ Z = E,
X↵ E = X; Y ↵ E = Y; Z ↵ E = Z, (4)

where Е is the identical section (Е = <S, ￆ

>; ￆ – the empty set).
Here are some of them:
1.
2.

Analogously to the expression (5) it is easy to obtain the following ratio:

X ￆY ￆ Z = E. (6)

Hereafter the sections satisfying to ratio (6) will be called linearly dependent. Thus to the four
subsets allocated on the multitude S correspond three linearly dependent axes.
These three attributes possess certain characteristics. What are these characteristics? Any pair of
attributes divides the socion into 4 equal parts with four types in each of them. The two attributes (X, Y)
produced a third attribute (Z); it was not there earlier. It appears now, but from the mathematical point of
view it is absolutely equivalent to the original two, i.e. all three attributes are mathematically equivalent.
What are the characteristics of the multitude of attributes {X, Y, Z, E}? It is easy to prove that this
set (later denoted as Q4) is an Abelian group regarding the operation of multiplication introduced on it
(tab. 9).

Table 9

The multiplication table for the Q4 group

X Y Z E

X E Z Y X

Y Z E X Y

Z Y X E Z

E X Y Z E

In mathematics this group is known as the quaternary group [6], or Kell's group and it is rather
popular in different applications. In physics it is the group of double antisymmetry СРТ = {I, P, T, C}
that has fundamental value in the quantum field theory [18]. Jean Piaget applied this group in
psychology. The group of propositional operations IRNC [10] received by him during the research of the
process of intellectual structures formation is isomorphic to the Q4 group.
Let us return to the four attributes introduced by K.G.Jung: Х1, Х2, Х3 and Х4. There are no
interdependent attributes among them, hence these four attributes are sufficient for defining all of the 16
types of the socion. This set of attributes we acknowledge as the BASIS OF TYPOLOGY.
Let us try to make all possible products of attributes for the given basis according to the expression
(3):

Х5 = Х1 ￆ Х2, Х11 = Х1 ￆ Х8 = Х1 ￆ Х2 ￆ Х3,

Х6 = Х1 ￆ Х3, Х12 = Х1 ￆ Х9 = Х1 ￆ Х2 ￆ X4,
Х7 = Х1 ￆ Х4, X13 = X1 ￆ X10 = X1 ￆ X3 ￆ X4,
Х8 = Х2 ￆ Х3, X14 = Х2 ￆ Х10 = X2 ￆ Х3 ￆ Х4,
Х9 = Х2 ￆ Х4, Х15 = Х1 ￆ Х14 = Х1 ￆ Х2 ￆ Х3 ￆ Х4.
Х10 =Х3 ￆ Х4 , (7)

Obtained sections together with the four initial attributes of the Jungian basis constitute 15 ways of
splitting the socion into equal parts. By the way of simple enumeration it is easy to show that these 15
sections are pair wise orthogonal. It is also obvious that any of those combinations does not generate any
new sections.
Let us now consider the set

Q16 = {Х1, Х2..., Х15, Е}. (8)

Table 11 provides descriptions of all the types according to the Q16 attributes.
Similarly to the Q4 multitude, the multitude of sections Q16 is also an Abelian group as far as the
operation of multiplication is concerned. Table 10 is the multiplication table for this group.
Let us look now at some interesting characteristics of the Q16 multitude:
1. Any two attributes are orthogonal on the set of types (tab. 11).
2. The product of sections can be obtained directly from table 11 by means of traditional arithmetic
multiplication of corresponding elements in rows and columns.
3. Each row in table 11 is a standard description of a type with its 15 attributes. Each column can
be considered as a description of some bipolar attribute by means of a multitude of types.
4. Any pair of types has 7 agreeing and 8 disagreeing attributes of Q16 (see tab. 11).
5. Each element of the Q16 group can be presented as a product of multiplication of 2 other
elements in 7 different ways (tab. 10).
Let us take a look at how many independent fours (bases) can be obtained from these 15 attributes
of the socion dichotomy.
Let us consider the procedure of constructing a basis:

1. Possible beginnings – all pairs (ХiXj), where i, j = 1 … 15; i ￆj.

(9)

All pairs are permitted.

2. Let us consider the triples: XiXjXn. For the pairs XiXj are not permitted

Хn1 = Xi Xn2 = Xj Xn3 = XiXj, where i ￆ j.

(10)

For Хn3 the following ratios are true:

Хn3 Xi = Xj Xn3 Xj = Xi.

(11)
 3. Thus the following number of elements is allowed for gluing with each of the pairs:

15 - 3 = 12 elements. (12)

4. In the full set of triples there is a triple superfluity, i.e. the following is present

(Хi Хj) Хn = Хi (Хj Хn) = (Хi Хj) Хn . (13)

5. Total of triple bases:

(105 х 12): 3 = 420. (14)

6. The quadruple (Хi Хj Хn) Хk, where k = 1 … 15.

Interdictions on gluing to triples:

1) Хk1 = Хi Хk2 = Хj Хk3 = Хn;

2) Xk4 = Xi Xj Xk5 = Xi Xn Xk6 = Xj Xn.

3) Xk7 = Xi Xj Xn. (15)

7. The full set of quadruples also has some superfluity:

(Xi Xj Xn) Xk = (Xj Xn Xk) Xi = (Xn Xk Xi) Xj = (Xk Xi Xj) Xn.

Total number of the quadruples: [420 х (15 - 7)]: 4 = 840.

Consequently, it is possible to form 840 equal bases from the elements of the Q 16 group. It means
that when testing by 15 pair wise orthogonal scales there are 840 various ways to define a type. The
traditional Jungian basis is only one of 840 possible variants.
Since the characteristics are equal, in theory we obtained a group of 15 pair wise orthogonal
sections of socion, including the four Jung's basic dichotomies. When testing it makes sense to use the
interdependent scales with group structure because they allow to check results over and over again and
provide a reliable definition of a type.
From the mathematical point of view all elements of the multitude Q16 are absolutely equitable and
have no advantage one over another. However the issue of their informal interpretation is more difficult.
Thus there was an idea to find out what personal qualities correspond to these new characteristics
of the socion’s dichotomy. Experiments were carried out, and A.Augustinavičiūtė published a new
work, The Theory of Reinin Criteria [4].
How were the semantics of these attributes obtained? On the one hand A.Augustinavičiūtė
obtained them in theory by studying the A model, on the other hand – she did experiments. To define
the psychological content of the new 11 attributes an inverse problem method was used, i.e. she was
testing people whose type had been already known.
For this purpose a socion was gathered together, then it was split into groups according to their
attribute. Experts worked with each group to find out the properties of the poles in a dichotomy attribute.
The groups were given simple tasks revealing the semantics and the specifics of these attributes. Both
verbal and non-verbal manifestations of those attributes were recorded. The experts were not informed
about the principles of splittings.
As a result of those and other experiments, as well as a result of A.Augustinavičiūtė's theoretical
calculations [4] 15 semantic axes corresponding to the 15 socion dichotomies (tab. 12) were defined.
They are listed below:

1. extroverts - introverts.
2. statics - dynamics.
3. inquiring - asserting (questim - declatim).
4. positivists - negativists.
 5. intuitive - sensing.
6. logicians - ethicals.
7. tacticians - strategists.
8. constructive - emotional.
9. irrational - rational.
10. compliant - stubborn.
11. careless - farsighted.
12. leftists - rightists (individualists - collectivists).
13. subjectivists - objectivists (cheerful - serious).
14. reasonable - resolute.
15. democrats - aristocrats.
Each pole of any of these dichotomous attributes is a general characteristic of those
people who belong to a given group of types. Each of the [16] types can be divided into
two equal groups according to the domineering attribute, and any pair of those
dichotomous attributes divides the 16 types into four equal groups. Thus, as is shown in
table 12, for any pair of types seven attributes coincide and eight attributes are different.
According to A.Augustinavičiūtė, the specifics of the attributes (according to the A
model) are determined by a combination of 'psychic elements (or 'aspects)'.
These attributes are described in socionics with different degree of detailing and can
be used both for diagnosing and describing a type. The number of terms used for
designating of the attributes does not correspond to the psychological content of the
attributes, which includes not only the human behavior, but also the deep psychological
mechanisms of the psyche.

Brief characteristics of the attributes of dichotomy

Extroversion - introversion. There are a number of definitions of these poles.

From our point of view, the most accurate is the following definition: an extrovert is a
person inwardly directed at external objects; an introvert is a person inwardly directed at
the subject. It is possible to say that this particular division of a socion is done
according to a persons' inner direction toward a whole: in one case the whole is on the
inside, in the other case it is on the out side.
This attribute divides a socion into two groups differing in the direction of
consciousness: extroverts - Don Quixote, Hugo, Huxley, Holmes, Napoleon, Jack
London, Zhukov, Hamlet; introverts - Balzac, Tutankhamon, Dreiser, Dostoevsky,
Dumas, Gaben, Robespierre, Maxim.

The statics – the dynamics. According to A.Augustinavičiūtė, statics pay more

attention to the constant characteristics of objects; when they need to adjust they are
more flexible and active. The dynamic people pay more attention to the changing
characteristics of objects, they are less mobile and are inclined to observing. This
attribute divides a socion into two parts according to a degree of psychological mobility:
eight static types, eight dynamic ones.
During the experiments a group of the statics has a united structure, they are
monolithic; a group of the dynamics is similar to a glass of bubbling champagne.

The questims – the declatims. They are characterized by a constant pronounced interrogative
or affirmative tone of speech. According to A.Augustinavičiūtė, "in the eyes of a questim there is always
a question mark; in the eyes of a declatim there is always an exclamation mark..." The questims would
rather ask questions, and the declatims would rather give orders, accordingly they speak: one speaks
with an interrogative intonation, the other - with an affirmative intonation. If you pay attention to this in
a conversation with close people you can easily spot this feature. You will see that this is a rather
obvious division of people. The questim, for example, gives lectures or reports using an interrogative
intonation. The declatim, on the other hand, speaks with assurance even about things he/she doubts or is
not confident about. This attribute divides people according to the way people represent
information to others.
 During an experiment in one of the groups questions were dominating, in the other
group affirmative intonation prevailed.

The positivists – the negativists. This is a division of types according to their

reaction to new information. The negativist's first reaction is usually negative: "No".
Later he/she can accept, agree to something, but the very first reaction is always
aversion. Positivists' first reaction is acceptance. You can try to observe people yourself
from this point of view. How do you receive new information even before you know
whether it corresponds to your description of the world or not? Imagine something
completely new presents itself to you. In one case it is a tendency to protect the
description of the world, in the other – a tendency to change and expand. This could
remain unnoticed if not observed specially. But simple observation reveals this attribute.

The poles questim – declatim and negativism – positivism are observed during an
experiment in a socion much better than extroversion – introversion or rationality –
irrationality. Even in everyday life they are more noticeable.

Intuition - sensoring. This attribute is one of the Jungian basic attributes; it

characterizes orientation either on the sphere of sensations, the form and physical
characteristics of objects (sensoring) or the rhythmic characteristics and processes,
potential of a situation or an object (intuition). A socion has eight intuitive and eight
sensing types. What are their characteristics? Basically they are relationships in time and
space. The sensoring type is a type that likes activity; this type is present 'here and now'
more than the intuitive type who seems to be stretched along the time axis.
Let us imagine the four-dimensional space-time continuum: the intuitive type are
perceived to be compressed in space, but so to say stretched in time, and the
sensoring type, on the contrary, are compressed in time, but is more vivid in
present. The sensory types occupy much more space. All four types have the same
four-dimensional size of space-time. The four-dimensional space-time continuum
here is more of a metaphor than a physical reality. The sensoring type is here and
now, the person’s energy is "more present." And an intuitive person might be of a
large complexion, but he/she is hardly noticeable. The intuitive people occupy less
space than the sensoring ones and they are not as efficient in exploring space.
During an experiment this attribute is rather vivid: the eight intuitive people in a
room can hardly be noticed, but the eight sensing people fill the whole room and
overwhelm others.

The logicians – the ethicals. This attribute is also one of the Jungian basic attributes
(thinking – feeling). A socion has eight logical types and eight ethical types. The
logicians are the people who rely on understanding, explanations, whereas the ethicals
are the people who trust in relationships and emotions to guide them in their lives, their
lives are ruled by emotions. This attribute characterizes a person’s orientation either
toward the sphere of human relationships and emotions (ethicals), or toward the world of
objective facts and laws (logicians). It is possible to say that this is a distinction of
people by the way they solve their problem of choice. Some make choices based on their
emotions; the choices of others are based on knowledge and logic.

The tacticians – the strategists. This attribute becomes evident in people's

relationships. The tacticians are capable of providing immediate support, they can advise
on tactics and give short-term financial support. They can give advice on practical
behavior in specific situations. They never check up on you to see if you have used their
advice. The strategists are inclined to give strategic advice; they offer their energy and
time. They are not as flexible in the area of compromise. They can grasp a situation as a
whole at the first glance.
This attribute is poorly studied. I think that this division is made on the basis of the
type’s attitude to material objects. The tacticians are characterized by manipulation with
objects; the strategists – by foresight, care, accumulation of experience, desire to
provide for everything. This, by the way, corresponds to the semantics of the terms "the
strategist" and "the tactician" quite well.

Constructive - emotional. This division is made on the basis of different ways of

establishing a relationship. 'The constructive' people begin a “business” conversation
with ease, and devote a significant part of the dialogue to business (even if there is no
business at all, he/she would think it up to have a reason to stay in touch). For 'the
emotional' people the emotional aspect of a dialogue is very important and it is
sufficient enough for them to initiate a relationship. The constructive person would
approach someone for a business reason only; the emotional person thinks that an
emotion is a good enough reason to approach a person.
We have studied the so-called individual attributes.
The following attributes are dyadic, i.e. these are the attributes common for two dual types. In
socionics a pair of types in a dual relationship is termed 'a dyad'.

Irrationality - rationality. This pair is also one of Jung's basic pairs; it corresponds
to Krechmer's cyclothymic - schizothymic pair. There are eight rational and eight irrational
types in a socion. The rational types are characterized by a subtle change in sensitivity,
whereas the irrational types – by fluctuations of mood. The rational types are more
focused and stable. The irrational types are characterized by a roller coaster of emotions
varying from elation to depression, abundance of energy to exhaustion . The extreme
stage of the irrationality is known as the manic depressive syndrome. Here we do not
touch upon any of the aspects of the 'big psychiatry', as we consider only people with
basically wholesome mentality, who are integrated in the society: here we stay within
the 'psychological norm'.
I believe that the irrationality – rationality attribute is inborn. Some scientists
suppose that it corresponds to a dominant side of cerebral hemisphere. In the rational
types the left hemisphere (verbal – logic) is dominant, in the irrational – the right one is
responsible for creative thinking.
During the experiments behavior in the irrational types’ group was characterized by
great amplitude of emotional fluctuations. The group seemed to rock and sway. The other
group (the rational types), on the contrary, as though finds a common frequency,
reducing the amplitude of fluctuations.
Other attributes are studied less thoroughly.

The Compliant – the stubborn (the terms offered by A.Augustinavičiūtė). The

compliant types are inclined to avoid conflicts, they are hardworking, and they strive for
good relationships. The stubborn ones' have a motto “attack is the best defense.” they
would not concede easily.
Regarding this scale more studies should be done; in A.Augustinavičiūtė's Reinin’s
Theory of Attributes it is discussed briefly, though all the data there is preliminary.

The careless – the prudent. The attribute corresponds to the orientation either to
one's own ideas and estimation of situation or to some objective methods, laws, ways of
practical realization. The careless types pay their attention to the available resources and
potential opportunities to do something. The prudent types rely on the ability to plan.
This attribute is also poorly studied.
In socionics there are more of the unknown issues than of the known ones. For
example, the typology of small groups is virtually a virgin land waiting to be researched.
I believe it will be ploughed in the future. The theory exists, now practical research is
needed.
The following three attributes are quadral. They are the basis of the "quadral
language".

The Left – the right. The attribute reflects the fact that a type belongs to one of the
two “rings of social progress.” The left "ring" is focused on the future and the potential
opportunities of a situation; the right "ring" is focused on the past and on "summarizing
of the results."
 It has been also noticed that the division into eight 'left' and eight 'right' types
corresponds to the lifestyles. In one case ('right' types) it is collectivism, communalism,
in the other ('left' types) - individualism and, in extreme cases, asceticism. During the
history of mankind there have been an equal number of all of these styles of life.

Recently I read a book by the remarkable Serbian writer, Milorad Pavic,

Landscape Painted with Tea. It narrates about the monks of the Athon monastery. It
turns out there is a clear distinction (among the congregation) between the so-called
communals and hermits (or cenobites and idiorythmics as the author calls them). Each
of the hermits had a cell and even a small hermitage; others lived together and had
everything in common. These two tendencies have been parallel in history; just at times
one or the other prevailed. The author of the novel speaks about this particular
attribute, about the differences of the communal and the hermit styles of life.

These are definitely two different ways of life: there are people who can work only
in a team, but others, on the contrary, work alone and alone only in the calm of an
office. During the experiments the collectivists are quick to hear and understand the
other members of the group.

The Subjectivists – the objectivists. Distinction was made according to the attitude
to the reality. The subjectivists lean more on understanding, explanations, descriptions,
and concepts. When a new task presents itself they try to extend their knowledge and
determine their position. They may be labeled as the cheerful bunch.
The objectivists are more focused on the objective world, facts, authorities, and
reliable data. The alternative name for them is serious.

The reasonable – the resolute. The reasonable ones consider the potential opportunities, in their
relationships they are giving, they want to please and be interesting (sexually also). The resolute are
mostly focused on the immediate experience of a relationship, and the pleasure that he/she is getting.
This distinction is true in the intimate sphere also. The two types may also be named the givers and the
takers.
It is also possible to say that the attribute divides the types according to their understanding of the
integrity of situation. In one case it is the integrity of the external situation (to give pleasure to the
partner), in the other case it is the integrity of the internal situation (to get pleasure in the process). The
alpha quadra and delta quadra (reasonable) are on the first pole (integrity of external situation –
objective intuition). Beta quadra and gamma quadra (resolute) are on the second pole (integrity of
internal situation – subjective intuition).

The Democrats – the aristocrats. The attribute manifests itself as a universal

characteristic of fellowship. The democrats find it easy to establish horizontal
relationships, get on friendly terms, become friends and partners. The aristocrats are
more aware of the hierarchies; they keep people at a distance, more prone to establishing
vertical relationships.
There are two democratic quadras: the alpha-quadra and the gamma-quadra. There
are two aristocratic quadras – the beta-quadra and the delta-quadra. The difference
between the two democratic quadras may be summed up as follows: alpha-quadra is
characterized by democracy in relationships. These people are obviously inclined to
democratic style of speech, clothes. "I hate wearing a suit, it is uncomfortable, I will if I
have to wear it”, - might a Don Quixote say. When for a Holmes, for example, formal
clothes are not an inconvenience. I know some people of this type who wear a tie and a
suit even at home. The gamma-quadra are the 'democrats of the idea', their ideas are
democratic but in their relationships they are somewhat distanced and 'buttoned up'.
The beta-quadra are the 'formal aristocrats', they are the aristocrats of position and
interaction. Delta-quadra is the 'aristocrats of spirit'. This attribute is revealed in beta-
quadra in a more formal, external way whereas in delta-quadra – more internally, deeply
and ideologically. But they both share distanced and vertical relationships.
 During the experiments these groups are easy to distinguish. The aristocrats try to
distance themselves from others as much as possible, they never interrupt anybody;
democrats speak all at once, frequently neglecting the common norms of politeness.

We have described all the 15 considered sections of a socion.

Identification of all these sections with certain personality traits not only opens ample opportunities
to create essentially new tests (with higher reliability), but also allows reconsidering some of the
accepted names and descriptions of types, which have been rigidly conformed to the traditional Jungian
basis for too long.
Jung chose the four attributes randomly: it was a result of his way of thinking, the way he saw
things. Had he used a different approach he could have discovered some other attributes and the types
would have had other names today.

Lecture 7
The Analysis of the Relationships between the Types from the Point of View of the Group
of Bipolar Attributes

Let us choose a spectrum of concurrent attributes as a characteristic of relationships

between a pair of the IM types.
The analysis of table 12 from this point of view proves that there are only 16 types of
binary relationships between the 16 types in a socion (including the relationship of identity).
Therefore there are 16 variants of spectrums of concurrent attributes between the two types
represented in the rows of this table. The results of this analysis are given in table 13.
This table clearly reveals that:
1. Relationships within a quadra and relationships with the members of the opposite
quadra unequivocally correspond to certain spectra.
2. Two different spectra correspond to the relationship of request. If the requester is a
rational type then one spectrum is present, in case of the irrational requester - another
spectrum is present. Similar things happen in the relationship of control (see tab. 14).
3. Two kinds of relationships correspond to each of the spectra designated by Greek
letters μ, ζ, τ, and ω (see tab. 15).
4. Different spectra of attributes correspond to the relationships m, K, sD, B depending
on the X10 attribute of the types included in it (see tab. 15).
Thus, the available table of relationships between the types does not have a full
conformity between designations of the relationships and their spectral characteristics.
Let us consider this in more detail.

No. Spectrum of concurrent Designation Relationship Notes

attributes
1 ID Identity
2 D Duality
3 A Activation
4 M Mirror
5 IRE Irrational request Asymmetrical irrational
6 ISV Irrational supervision relationships (irrational
ￆ rational)
7 μ Business cyclothyme +
allied schizothyme
8 ζ Mirage cyclothyme + m - mirage
quasi-dual schizothyme
9 S Super-ego SV; SE (Supervisor
and Subordinate) -
supervision
(asymmetrical)
10 N Neutralizing (complete
 opposition)
11 qID Quasi-identical
12 C Conflicting
13 RRE Rational request Asymmetrical rational
14 RSV Rational supervision relationships (rational
ￆ irrational)
15 τ Allied cyclothyme +
business schizothyme
16 ω Semi-dual cyclothyme +
mirage schizothyme

Splitting of Asymmetrical Relationships

Table 14 demonstrates two obvious types of asymmetrical relationships:

1. Rational: rational type ￆirrational type.

2. Irrational: irrational type ￆ rational type.

In rational relationships (tab. 14) a rational type is the requestor or the supervisor, in
irrational relationships – an irrational type. We do not know yet whether the types of
relationships of supervision and request substantially differ from the one another and, if they
do, then how; though some data lend empirical support to it. When these divisions replace the
original ones (requestor ￆ server and supervisor ￆ subordinate), first of all, we have a
bisection of spectrums of relationships and their designations, and second of all, we may study
asymmetric relationships in mathematical uniformity with the symmetric relationships without
their meanings being distorted. This uniformity essentially facilitates the analysis of
relationships in small groups.

Splitting of Relationships:
Mirage, Business, Kinship and Semi-duality

In this case the situation is more difficult, than that with the asymmetric relationships. On
the one hand, in [1] the four symmetric relationships are described which do not have an
unequivocal conformity to any spectrum of attributes (see tab. 15), on the other hand, there are
four spectra that do not have unequivocal conformity to any of the relationships. In tab. 15
spectra of examined relationships are presented separately.
If we accept that spectra μ, ζ, τ, and ω are the characteristics of certain relationships
between the types, as it happens in all other cases, then additional analysis of these types of
relationships and respective amendments in the theory of relationships between the types is
required. If it is not so, then we have relationships of some special sort which have one
spectral characteristic for the Irrational types, and another one for the Rational types.
In case of full conformity of relationships to their spectral characteristics a new table of
relationships between the types will be different (tab. 16), it will be more symmetric than the
original variant offered by A.Augustinavičiūtė and V.Leshkjavichjus (see tab. 2).
The new table considers the 16 types of relationships, 8 of them have not been described
yet, and 4 of them do not have names yet.
The new table of relationships between the types allows us to proceed to the analysis of
psychological forms that are more complex than a pair, i.e. we may begin to study the typology
of small groups.

Tab.14 Asymmetric Relationships

Relationships Pair Samples Spectrum of Concurrent Attributes

RRE -Rational request A Holmes – a Don
Quixote a Maxim - a
Balzac
A Jack London-a
Zhukov
A Robespierre - a
Gaben
IRE - Irrational request A Don Quixote – a
Hamlet
A Balzac – a
Dostoevsky
A Napoleon –a Holmes
A Dumas – a Maxim

RSV - Rational A Dostoevsky – a Don

supervision
ISV - Irrational supervision
Quixote
A Hamlet – a Balzac
A Holmes – a Dumas
A Jack London – a
Tutankhamon
A Don Quixote - a
Maxim
A Balzac – a Holmes
A Tutankhamon – a
Hugo
A Gaben – a Jack
London

Tab. 15 Spectra of Relationships

B K m sD
Business Kinship Mirage Semi-duality
τ μ ￆ ω ζ
Schizothyme
ￆ
μ τ ￆ ζ ω
Cyclothyme
ￆ

Note: μ, ζ, τ, and ω are spectra designations

Lecture 8
Small Groups

Morphology of Small Groups

Man is a social being. When people join a group some of the aspects of their mentality
change, essentially changes the speed, the force and the character of their reactions to the
environment.
When relationships in a group change then manifestations of personality traits change
also. A person's behavior in certain circumstances cannot be correctly understood out of
context of the parameters of the group to which the person currently belongs.
The idea of creating of a group with predetermined properties is not new. Properties of a
group, an integral psychosocial object, are determined, on the one hand, by psycho
physiological properties of its separate members, on the other hand – by the structure of
personal connections within the group.
Let us try to approach the problem of group formation from the point of view of the
relationships between the types’ structure. We are able to do that due to the typological
approach to interpersonal relationships developed by A.Augustinavičiūtė [1, 2, 3]. We will
examine small groups, which differ in their spectra of relationships between the types.

Theoretical Analysis

A detailed description of the typology of various pairs is given in A.Augustinavičiūtė's work

[1]. Table 12 presents the attributes of a socion’s dichotomy. Classification of pairs is given
elsewhere, here we note that in any of the 15 possible pairs, as illustrated in tab. 12, seven
attributes coincide and eight do not. It is possible to say that in a pair eight polar attributes
become neutralized.
It takes four orthogonal attributes to identify a type, i.e. the space of a type is four-
dimensional. There are only tree dimensions in the space of a pair, i.e. only three orthogonal
attributes are needed to identify a pair.
We now proceed to examine groups whose spaces are two-dimensional, namely
quadruples; they are a product of splitting the socion by two bipolar attributes. The total
number of the splittings is equal to the number of combinations of fifteen by two:
(1)
However, for the triples of the interdependent attributes, for example X13, X14, X15, the
results of the splitting of the socion into pairs X13X14, X14X15, X13X15 will be the same. Thus the
number of these splittings of the set of 16 types produced by the given 15 attributes into four
groups consisting of four types each will be:
(2)
Three attributes correspond to each splitting:
(3)
for which the following multiplication table (tab. 17) is fair.

Tab.17 Multiplication Table for Three Interdependent Criteria

From the mathematical point of view criteria Xi, Xj, Xk together with the individual criteria E
form an Abelian group of the fourth order which is a subgroup of the Q 16 group examined in
Lecture 6. As it is illustrated in tab. 12, when the socion is split into quadras three criteria X13,
X14, X15 in a quadra should coincide, and the other 12 criteria become uniformly neutralized, i.e.
by these criteria the types of the quadra have two 'pluses' and two 'minuses'.
Similar things will happen to the other 34 splittings. Tab.18 illustrates all 35 possible
splittings of the socion by the pairs of orthogonal criteria into quadruples.

Tab.18 Variants of Splitting of the Socion into Quadruples

N Name of the Four Conjunction of Group Formula Notes

o. Attributes
1* Quadra X15, X14, X13 D, M, A Described in detail in [1, 2, 3]
2* X15, X12, X11 D, qID, C Two conflicting dyads
3* Blocking X15, X10, X9 D, S, N Group of suppression
4* X15, X8, X7 A, N, C
5* Club X15, X6, X5 qID, M, N The most interesting sharing of
personal opinions, discussion
6* X15, X4, X1 A, M, qID
7* X15, X3, X2 S, M, C
8 X14, X8, X1 A, ISV, μ¹
9 X14, X6, X2 M, ISV, μ
10 X14, X5, X3 M, IRE, ζ
11 X14, X7, X4 A, ISV, ζ
12 X14, X12, X9 D, IRE, ISV
13* X14, X11, X10 D, μ, ζ
14 X13, X7, X1 A, RRE, τ
15 X13, X5, X2 M, RSV, τ
16 X13, X6, X3 M, RRE, ω
17 X13, X6, X4 A, RSV, ω
18 X13, X11, X9 D, RRE, RSV
19* Square X13, X12, X10 D, ω , τ Relaxation group
20 X12, X5, X1 IRE, qID, τ
21 X12, X1, X2 ISV, qID, τ
22 X12, X8, X3 IRE, RSV, ω
23 X12, X6, X4 ISV, qID, ω
24 X11, X6, X1 μ, qID, RRE
25 X11, X8, X2 μ, C, RSV
26 X11, X7, X3 Ζ, C, RRE
27 X11, X5, X4 Ζ, qID, RSV
28* Bouquet X10, X2, X1 μ, S, τ Accentuation of type, risk of
aggravation of members' health
condition
29* X10, X4, X3 ζ, S, ω
30* Health Group I X10, X7, X5 ζ, N , τ
31* Health Group II X10, X8, X6 μ, N, ω
32* Request Ring X9, X3, X1 RRE, S, IRE Increase of energy
33* Control Ring X9, X4, X2 RSV, S, ISV Destruction
34 X9, X8, X5 N, RSV, IRE
35 X9, X7, X6 N, RRE, C
* - Homogeneous groups
1
Description of IRE, ISV, RRE, RSV, μ, ζ, τ, and ω relationships see in Lecture 7
Notes:
*ID* - identity *N* - neutralizing *RRE* -Rational request μ ,ζ, τ, ω –
*D* - duality *S* - super-ego *RSV* - Rational supervision symmetrical
*A* - activation *qID*-quasi-identical *IRE* - Irrational request relationships
*M* - mirror *C* - conflicting *ISV* - Irrational supervision

Let us picture a quadruple of types as a tetrahedron (fig. 10). Here Р 1, P2, P3 is the
spectrum of relationships in the quadruple. The drawing clearly illustrates that each type is
involved in all three relationships between the types of the spectrum.

Fig. 10 The tetrahedron of relationships in small groups

…
 Apparently, the obtained class of small groups breaks up into two subclasses, which
essentially differ one from another:
1. Groups with all their elements in identical relationship between the types: a set of three
symmetrical relationships. This subclass consists of fifteen splittings. These groups will
be labeled as homogeneous.
2. Splittings into heterogeneous groups. There are also three kinds of relationships.
However, one pair of types having symmetrical relationships is in more favorable
intertype situation in relation to the other pair. There are 20 heterogeneous groups.
Most of these groups have not been examined yet; and they seem to be very interesting
from the point of view of extending our knowledge of small groups’ types and their properties.
If we attach to a relationship symbol the value of an operator, which transforms one type
into another, then all 16 relationships in a socion will form an Abelian (commutative) group of
the 16th order. The group operation here is the transition of one type into another, and the unit
here is the relationship of identity, i.e. identical transition. In a general form the multiplication
table of relationships for the obtained 35 types of small groups is given in tab. 19.

Tab. 19 Table of relationships multiplication in a complete group

R1 R2 R3 ID
R1 ID R3 R2 R1
R2 R3 ID R1 R2
R3 R2 R1 ID R3
ID R1 R2 R3 ID

Notes: relationship of identity: ID: relationships in a group: R1, R2 and R3

Relationships in a quadruple together with the relationship of identity form a commutative

group of the fourth order; this association of types is isolated from the relationships between
the types and possesses properties of the whole. This quadruple, being a projection of a
socion, acts in it as a whole inside of the whole, therefore the homogeneous and
heterogeneous groups obtained hereafter will receive a name: complete. These quadruples of
types (by the analogy to the science of chemistry) can be considered as social molecules
possessing various properties.
In closing compare the table of small groups made with the use of habitual designations
of relationships between the types according to the table of relationships offered by
Augustinavičiūtė - Leshkiavitchus (see tab. 2). In tab. 20 it can be observed that from the point
of view of relationships between the types’ system accepted now in socionics, five kinds of
relationships are present in heterogeneous groups, whereas in homogeneous groups only
three are present.

Table 20. Small Groups

N Name of the Four Conjunction of Group Formula Notes

o. Attributes
1 Quadra X15, X14, X13 D, M, A Described in detail in [1, 2, 3]
2 X15, X12, X11 D, qID, C Two conflicting dyads
3 Blocking X15, X10, X9 D, S, N Group of suppression
4 X15, X8, X7 A, N, C
5 Club X15, X6, X5 qID, M, N The most interesting sharing of
personal opinions, discussion
6 X15, X4, X1 A, S, qID
7 X15, X3, X2 M, S, C
8 X14, X8, X1 A, RER, B, K, RET
9 X14, X6, X2 M, UC, B, K, Cn
10 X14, X5, X3 M, RER, m, sID,
 RET
11 X14, X7, X4 A, UC, m, sID, Cn
12 X14, X12, X9 ID, RER, Uc, RET,
Cn
13 X14, X11, X10 D, B, m
14 X13, X7, X1 A, RET, K, B, RER
15 X13, X5, X2 M, Cn, K, UC, B
16 X13, X6, X3 M, RET, SID,
RER, m
17 X13, X6, X4 A, Cn, SID, UC,
m
18 X13, X11, X9 D, RET, Cn, RER,
UC
19 Square X13, X12, X10 D, SID, K Relaxation group
20 X12, X5, X1 RER, qID, K, B,
RET
21 X12, X1, X2 UC, C, K, B, Cn
22 X12, X8, X3 RER, Cn, sID,
m, RET
23 X12, X6, X4 UC, qID, sID, m,
Cn
24 X11, X6, X1 B, qID, RET,
RER, K
25 X11, X8, X2 B, C, Cn, K, UC
26 X11, X7, X3 m, C, RET, sID,
RER
27 X11, X5, X4 m, qID, Cn, sID,
UC
28 Bouquet X10, X2, X1 B, S, K Accentuation of type, risk of
aggravation of members' health
condition
29 X10, X4, X3 m, S, sID
30 Health Group I X10, X7, X5 m, N , k
31 Health Group II X10, X8, X6 B, N, sID
32 Request Ring X9, X3, X1 RET, S, RER Increase of energy
33 Control Ring X9, X4, X2 Cn, S, UC Destruction
34 X9, X8, X5 N, RET, RER, Cn,
UC
35 X9, X7, X6 N, RET, RER, Cn,
UC

Notes: D - duality, M – mirror, A – activation, qID – quasi-identity, C – conflict, S – super-ego, N –

neutralizing, K – kinship, B – business, m – mirage, sID – semi-identity, RET – request transmitter
(requestor), RER –request receiver, Cn – controller, UC – under control, servant.

Some Data on Small Groups in a Socion

A person’s behavior in a certain situation may depend on several factors: individual traits
of character, the type of informational metabolism, certain specific factors of the situation; but
to a great extent it depends on the intertype characteristics of the micro group where the
person is currently located.
Socionics helps to foresee the conflict-generating areas of a group as well as the
conflicts. It is possible to construct the matrix of relationships in any given group and look at
the potentially dangerous relationships. The value of any science consists in its predictive
capacity. If a system is capable of predicting things, then it is living and working organism. In
this sense socionics is a working prophetic system of knowledge. It allows minimizing the
psychological price of our activity. Psychological cost should be taken into consideration when
forming a group of co-workers.
Thus in theory we obtained 35 types of small groups (quadruples), which differ in spectra
of intertype relationships (see tab. 18). 15 of them are symmetric groups with only symmetric
relationships, and 20 groups are asymmetric (with asymmetric relationships). We have made a
lot of observations, and thus we may confidently say that a group acquires certain properties
depending on the spectrum of the intertype relationships in it. So far we have been able to
investigate only a small number of these groups. The majority of them are not investigated yet,
but research in this area is very important, it would provide ample opportunities to form smaller
groups with predetermined characteristics.

"Quadra"

This group is described in detail in A. Augustinavičiūtė's works [1, 2, 3]. Quadras are
obtained by splitting of a socion according to two criteria (for example split it into “aristocrats –
democrats” and “objective people – subjective people”, and obtain four quadras). Every type in
a "Quadra" will have a certain spectrum of relationships between the types inside the smaller
group. Each type has the same unchangeable spectrum. It is possible to say that the spectrum
of relationships in a "Quadra" constitutes the formula of this group. The formula of a
"Quadra" is activation, mirror, duality and identity. There are no other relationships in a
"Quadra". Every member has a dual, an activator and a mirror. In this sense the group is
absolutely symmetric.
The "Quadra" group has the following properties. In this group 3 of the 15 criteria
coincide: all other are as though mutually annihilated. All types in a "Quadra" are
characterized by the same means of communication: all of them are either democrats or
aristocrats. They share the same worldview: all of them are either subjective or objective in
their judgments. In one case people are focused on the subjective reality, on their description
of the world, in the other - on the objective reality, facts, reliable data. This scale is also termed
“cheerful – serious.” Subjective people are cheerful, objective people are serious. And the third
criterion differentiates types by the attitude to the integrity of a situation, or, as it was
discovered, by their 'sexual program.' Two different sexual programs can be discerned: there
are eight types who try to get pleasure from the process of intercourse (completeness of the
internal situation), and there are also eight types who are focused on giving pleasure to the
partner (completeness of the external situation). In a "Quadra" this criterion is identical for all
member types.
The fact that these three criteria coincide generates a certain synergism, a common
language, some initial mutual understanding. These are the people who can both work
together and have fun together. Although there might be a tendency for the group interests to
prevail over everything else, which is not good. This group is charged with energy, people in
this group possess different abilities, and they support and compliment each other. A
"Quadra" provides a perfect atmosphere for both work and relaxation; in both cases
it is a pleasant experience. There is a definite difference between a common company and
a "Quadra". I do not think that there are conflict-free groups out there somewhere: conflicts
may arise anywhere, duals are prone to it and so is a "Quadra". Unlike most of the existing
groups a "Quadra" has a common language, which allows its members to come to an
agreement: they understand where the other is coming from. If a group does not have a similar
language, then it is hard to come to an agreement on any given subject; therefore conflicts
become inevitable. They arise unexpectedly, and sometimes it is completely impossible to
determine where it will lead.

If we choose another scale we will get another splitting of a socion, consequently other
groups of types, other spectra of relationships inside of a group. Take, for example, the scales
“logical - ethical” and “sensoring - intuitive”: as a result we will get the four very well known and
described quadruples. These quadruples have been labeled "clubs".
If we change the group formula then we obtain a new object with different qualities and
properties. Here we have not quite touched Physics, but have already approached Chemistry:
 with the help of a formula we are able to design a social object with predetermined properties.
And we can already identify the purpose and use of the group.

"Club"

The formula of a "Club" is as follows: N, M, qID (neutralizing, mirror, quasi-identity). . A

"Club" is a good place to discuss things: the types are so different, they live in absolutely
different dimensions, and so that when they come together they can capture the whole picture.
This group is good at brainstorming. Everyone sees a problem in his/her own way; therefore
discussion may be fruitful and lead to success. However, this group is not fit for communal
physical labor, attempts to make them work together in this area a prone to failure: one has
one approach, the other another approach and so on. One is impulsive, another functions only
according to a strict schedule; still another one works “from dusk till dawn”, the fourth – “from
dawn till dusk", and etc. They will never agree, this group has no energy to work together, but
there is a lot of energy for conversation.
Four "Club" groups may be identified:

1. Intuitive-logical "Club". It is the theorists' club. A Don Quixote, a Robespierre, a

Jack London, a Balzac form it.

2. Art "Club". A Huxley, a Hamlet, a Dostoevsky and a Tutankhamon. Intuitive - ethical

club.

3. Business "Club". A Napoleon, a Dumas, a Hugo and a Dreiser. Sensing - ethical

club.

4. Technocratic "Club". A Zhukov, a Holmes, a Maxim and a Gaben. Logical - sensing

club.

All "Clubs" have the same formula of relationships: neutralization, quasi-identity and
mirror. But the character of each group is different. It essentially differs from the character of
quadras; for example, it differs in its level of energy as well as many other parameters.
These "Clubs" are well researched. Each "Club" has its specific properties; each
"Club" (unlike quadras) has all the IM elements.
Let's go back to the beginning for a moment: divide the socion into "Clubs" and look at
the criteria X and Y; what kind of Z criterion will we get? To semantics of which criterion does it
correspond? On one of the poles there are sensory ethics and intuitive logicians, and on the
other pole - intuitive ethics and sensory logicians. To which criterion corresponds this division?
The third criterion obtained by this observation is the “aristocrats - democrats” scale. We can
also say: “Let's take two scales – “aristocrats - democrats” and “sensoring - intuitive” and
receive the same kind of "Clubs", i.e. the same division of a socion.” Those who are
interested in those kinds of mind games may play away!

It is interesting that chronologically the “aristocrats - democrats” scale appeared long

before the work on the criteria of a socion’s dichotomy was published (1986). It was described
in detail in A.Augustinavičiūtė's work “The Dual Human Nature” (1983), i.e. first of all the
criterion itself was discovered, and only later the theoretical base was given to it.

"Square", or the 'Relaxation Group'

It is enough for the members of this group to simply get together sit down and they are
immediately relaxed and happy. There is no need for introductions, suggestions, or relaxing
music. Relaxation happens spontaneously and naturally. This type of a group works well for
sessions of stress relief, autogenic training, meditation, etc. The "Square" helps its members
to glide into trance much faster and smoother.
1. A Don Quixote, a Dumas, a Gaben, a Huxley.
2. A Holmes, a Dostoevsky, a Hugo, a Robespierre.
3. A Jack London, a Dreiser, a Maxim, a Hamlet.
 4. A Zhukov, a Tutankhamon, a Balzac, a Napoleon.
The formula for this group is B, sID, K (see tab. 20). Nobody knows why this formula
produces such result. It is a fact: when these people get together, the result is relaxation,
period. It is possible that these groups have some other remarkable properties – we have not
had an opportunity to investigate them yet.

"Blocking", or the ‘Suppression Group’

Here we have another set of relationships: S, N, D. Judging by the superficial

manifestations the effect of this gathering on its members looks similar to the one of the
"Square"; however, they do not go into a trance. When given a task they do not do anything.
"It’s been some time. Any results?" – "Oh, everything's fine without any tasks…" They do not
have a motive to fellowship with one another. When they are together they become
irresponsible. The group is suitable for spending time on a vacation only. Significant decrease
of physical, mental and emotional activity can be observed here.
1. A Don Quixote, a Balzac, a Napoleon, a Dumas.
2. A Holmes, a Maxim, a Hamlet, a Dostoevsky.
3. A Jack London, a Robespierre, a Dreiser, a Hugo.
4. A Zhukov, a Tutankhamon, a Gaben, a Huxley.

"Bouquet"

This is a very interesting group especially from the point of view of its effect on the health
of its members. People of certain types are prone to certain illnesses. Here we have four
groups of types, each has a peculiar “bouquet of ailments.”
1. A Don Quixote, a Huxley, a Zhukov, a Napoleon.
2. A Dreiser, a Dostoevsky, a Robespierre, a Maxim.
3. A Holmes, a Jack London, a Hugo, a Hamlet.
5. A Balzac, a Gaben, a Dumas, a Tutankhamon.

When we discovered these groups we came to the conclusion that contemporary

hospitals are poorly managed. In fact, a hospital carries out two functions – that of a medical
establishment and a hotel, i.e. people are treated and they live there for certain periods of time.
It makes more sense to put people of the same quadra in a room together. Quadra would
generate additional energy and support its members. In reality, patients are placed in wards
according to the diagnosis, i.e. basically they are placed in "Bouquets.” This encourages
further aggravation of their condition: their weaknesses come into a resonance with each
other. We carried out a field research in a Rehabilitation Center in Sestroretsk, Russia.
Patients are usually prescribed a one-month treatment. When during the experiment the
patients were placed in wards according to their quadras, they recovered quicker and were
ready to leave the hospital in less than a month in objectively better health condition.
Unfortunately, we were not able to extend this experiment to any other hospitals in Russia,
even though the beneficial effect of the experiment was obvious. Similar interesting discoveries
are common in socionics.

"Health Group"

Members of this group provide each other with additional energy. In 1,5-2 hours of being
together all members of the group experience improvement in health condition, normalization
of objective parameters such as blood pressure, pulse.
1. A Don Quixote, a Huxley, a Tutankhamon, a Balzac.
2. A Napoleon, a Zhukov, a Dumas, a Gaben.
3. A Dostoevsky, a Dreiser, a Hamlet, a Hugo.
4. A Holmes, a Jack London, a Robespierre and a Maxim.

"Social Control Ring”

 In this group three types of relationships are present: Controller, Servant and Superego.
All three kinds of relationships are difficult. Every member has his\her Controller and Servant.
Atmosphere in this group is rather tense; people cannot do anything together. Even a simple
thing like having a cup of tea becomes unbearable: people get headaches, tension grows, and
everyone wishes they’d be somewhere else. It is interesting to note that all these things
happen only when the ring is completed. When it is not, the environment for the [three]
members of the group is more or less tolerable. But as soon as the fourth member steps into
the room and the ring is completed things begin to fall apart. After spending about 15 minutes
together the members of this group grow increasingly anxious and nervous.
Take for example a group of a Don Quixote, a Maxim, a Napoleon and a Dostoevsky –
each one of them has a Controller and a Servant and a Superego partner. There are no other
relationships in this group. Not only they cannot work on a project together, but also they
cannot even be in the same room for more than 10 minutes. They can talk one on one with
each other, but it is a scary thing when they all get together…
It is hard to tell what exactly happens, but there is a deep and very unpleasant
premonition of disintegration.
Once we were offered a problem for analysis: during negotiations in a company office one
of the participants got up suddenly, stormed out of the room and ran outside, took his shoes off
and trotted the snow for quite a while before he was brought back to senses. It turned out that
accidentally a social control ring had been formed in the negotiations room. Coupled together
with serious emotional tension because of a work situation it lead to a nervous breakdown in
one of the workers.
When working with a "Social Control Ring” group it is important to remember that
people are not the problem it is the negative relationship between the types that causes
trouble; and most important here is that there is a way to avoid trouble: the group may be
moved to a different setting, or some of the types may be removed or replaced to change the
relationship between the types.

The small groups issue needs further research. We have some knowledge of several
types of groups. In the prospect of the research there are group properties that could be
extremely useful. For example, the most simple and most effective use of the group of health
consists in bringing its members together to spend some time and reap the benefits. The
health parameters of the participants begin to normalize when they are together. And this
nontrivial property of the group obviously does not follow from our informational models.

Lecture 9
On Definition of the IM Type: Questions and Answers

What is the meaning of the typological approach as a method of

study?
I would like to say a few words about professionalism. I think that this issue is
directly connected to our course on typology.
What is professionalism and what are its components? Who do we consider to
be a "professional" in his/her field? If we turn to different areas of science, art,
crafts, etc. we will see that a "professional" is a person who is able to discern
things (parameters, attributes) in his/her field of knowledge/work better than
others. Therefore it seems to me that the basic, intrinsic quality of
"professionalism" is first of all the ability to discern.
A professional musician distinguishes sounds better than any other person; a
professional weaver discerns about forty shades of black color; a skilled steel
maker can precisely tell the temperature of liquid metal by its color. A professional
psychologist should be able to discern people and distinguish one personality type
from another. The majority of people can tell with confidence only men from
women, further differentiation is difficult. A person whose profession is human
psyche needs a finer tool of recognition.
 The degree of specification and definiteness of different concepts in the
consciousness of different ethnoses differs essentially. If we take the word "snow"
we will see that the Eskimo language has about three hundred words describing
different properties of snow. Languages of those nations who live in areas with
temperate climate have only a few words for snow, and on the equator the word
"snow" does not exist. From this point of view (in regard to snow) Eskimo people
are more professional than the inhabitants of Africa. On the other hand, in the
Bedouin language there are 99 words for camel [in different states or of different
sex/age] whereas in Russian - only one word.
We did a research on how detailed is the concept of "personality" in the
consciousness of different nations. It turned out that in English dictionaries there
are about 17000 words, which describe properties, qualities and states of
personality. In German we have found only 4500 of those words. The Thesaurus of
Personal Properties published by the Moscow University contains 2500 Russian
words pertaining to person/personality. Maybe there is a nation where this concept
is defined to an even lesser degree. We did not have the opportunity to analyze
Chinese or Korean.
I would like to approach the concept of "type" from a different angle, namely,
that of the qualitative distinctness. When, for example, human consciousness
conjures up an idea of something, then a set of certain attributes (properties)
corresponds to this notion. If this is a notion of "personality" it means there are
some attributes of personality. For example, we know that there are extroverts and
introverts, emotional and rational, sensory and intuitive, etc.
How a type is defined? It is easy to imagine the following procedure: take a set
of known personality traits; take also a number of research objects – people in this
case; then begin to formally divide the multitude of research objects by each
property from a set of properties – in succession. On one pole of the scale we have
the extroverts, on the other pole we have the introverts; then one pole we have
the sensory, on the other pole we have the intuitive, etc. this is how we begin to
discern who these people are. Having applied a criterion to a group of people once
we do not use it again to divide people within this group, say, "extroverts –
introverts", within the group of introverts we do not apply it again because it is
homogeneous, though they might be introverted to a different degree. We make
further distinction with the help of another criterion (say, "sensory – intuitive") and
receive another set of homogeneous multitudes (they are homogeneous by two
attributes). Then we proceed to divide with the help of the remaining criteria
important for the definition of the notion or quality in question. Finally we receive a
number of homogeneous subsets or subclasses, which are not subdivided any
further, since we have exhausted the list of important criteria. This is perhaps the
most accurate definition of a type. That is, a type is a specific, logically consistent
realization of the given criterion. When we determine a number of essential
criteria, or qualities in an object, then we can discern its type. Where there are
types, there are criteria of these types. These concepts are connected. There are
formulas expressing the dependence between the number of possible types and
the number of attributes. By the way, those connections were determined quite
recently [12, 16]. Previously a lot of illusions existed in this area.
Thus we can define typology as a description of a quality (property) by means
of a finite set of its logically consistent realizations. In that case the detailing (the
degree of differentiation) of a given quality in the consciousness of a nation could
be measured by the capacity of the typology (the number of defined types).
This statement has many interesting consequences testifying to the fact that
typology is a complex and very interesting mathematical object. It cannot be
represented spatially or as a scheme, but it has certain patterns and rules. So the
16 types, discerned by the most advanced typologies, have more than 30
thousand criteria, which exceeds the volume of spoken vocabulary of any
language. That is, knowing the type of a person we can tell about him/her not only
that he/she is an extrovert or an introvert, or sensory or intuitive person, but also
we can define 30 thousand other properties. Therefore typology is the most
effective, capacious and evident convolution of knowledge of anything, in this case
– the knowledge of personality.

How do we define the IM type?

New psychometric tools are created on the basis of the discovered rules. Soon,
I hope, newer and more reliable tests will be created (so far we have only had
available to us the tests authored by Keirsey, Temperament Sorter, and
Myers-Briggs, Type Indicator.) All of the latter are built on the Jungian
personality type criteria, i.e. on the four classifying attributes. It is possible to
break a multitude into 16 parts (types in our case) with the use of four
dichotomous scales, but it is difficult to describe these parts by means of the four
bipolar attributes. According to the theory, to make a full description the minimum
of 15 attributes is necessary. The full description of n types is possible by means of
n-1 criteria. Both theory and practice prove that. The most effective personal
questionnaires used all over the world such as Kettel's or Smishek's questionnaires
have 15-16 scales. Usually in personality questionnaires they use 15±3 scales to
determine all kinds of different characteristics of a personality. For example, the
well-known Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) offers a self-report
instrument with about 500 different scales, which allow describing various
characteristics of a person in fine detail.
In fact, the only methods used to create tests nowadays are the methods of
mathematical statistics. These methods are not aimed at the internal structure of
the object researched; their purpose is to describe manifestations only. From my
personal experience and the experience of a great number of psychologists who
had a chance to work with those tests, I can tell that if a test is used on a large
group of people and then the average parameters of this group are deduced, these
parameters would not fit any real person in this group. "An average person" does
not exist! Statistical methods used for the analysis of a total, as a rule, assume
normal distribution of all attributes. Tests are made standard on the basis of some
general average of a total. However, this average of a total has no psychological
meaning and is not applicable to any real person.
From the point of view of a typological approach, two kinds of differences
exist: differences between homogeneous classes or types, which have a
systematic character, and differences inside of a type that have stochastic
character.
Unfortunately, the psychological toolkit is poorly structured. In theory, before
we get down to the actual testing, we first of all apply the general psychological
test to define the type of the tested person, and only then if needed the
specialized tests should be put together. For the purpose of analyzing the talents
and gifts of a person there should be a range of 16 tests, each standardized on a
sample of the given type. That is, each test should pass standardization on a
sample of each type. So far it is not so because on the one hand there has not
been a satisfactory theory supporting the nature of the essential differences, on
the other hand there has been a lack of technical support. Today we have all the
computer help available but it is used inefficiently. Usually computers are
considered to be a simple 'amplifier' of human intellectual skills: man calculates
slowly, computers help him do it faster. But the speed of calculations allows us to
aspire to new goals. For example, a test with fifteen correlated scales could be
processed on a computer only; it just could not be done without it!
Practically all socionics tests are built upon the same principle; it is usually a
questionnaire of a forced-choice format, items dealing with four 'preferences':
intuition - sensoring, logic - ethics, extroversion - introversion and rationality -
irrationality. Depending on answers a type is 'assigned' to the person. When even
on one of the scales a person gives a wrong answer (for whatever reason – a
mistake, insincerity, slyness, a wish to look better, etc.) the result will be incorrect.
Unfortunately, most of the questions make a person assess oneself; this only
hinders the process of testing even more. People answer neutral questions (for
example: "What do you think people think about …?") spontaneously, but an
evaluative question ("Do you prefer this or that?" or "Do you think of yourself as of
… or …?") causes an unconscious tension. I believe that existing tests allow for
maximum of 40 % accuracy.
The four classifying scales used to discern a personality type, cannot describe
the type. The problem of classifying and descriptive attributes exists in many
sciences and for a long time it has had the scientists' attention. An approach to the
solution of this problem is offered in Part II of this book.
The use of correlated scales increases the reliability of the tests as the
information regarding the type is checked and re-checked. Besides, new tests can
be built in such a manner that questions will vary each time the person is being
tested. That is, the test will be "disposable."
I would like to tell you more about the ways the new test should be made, and
the things that secure its reliability. In Tab. 12 the 15 criteria are listed. Take any
pair of types, any two rows. Eight criteria will always coincide, and seven criteria
will differ, i.e. any two types always have some similarities and some differences.
Second, if you take two criteria, two columns of the table, they will always divide
the set of types into four equal parts, i.e. they are always orthogonal. And the idea
of the test is that instead of using only four scales for testing (as in Keirsey
Temperament Sorter, for example) we use all 15 scales. This will only slightly
increase the number of questions (about 100 instead of 70 in the previous one)
and extend the time needed for scoring.
A certain spectrum of criteria corresponds to each type, but there are no two
identical spectrums, they all differ from each other. Nobody could coherently give
false answers to questions on all the 15 scales, no matter how much they are bent
on pretending they are somebody else. This secures reliability. Besides, even if a
person makes a mistake on two or three scales, it is no big deal (all other tests will
fail in this case). 15 scales make 840 different bases similar to the Jungian ones
(see Lecture 6). Imagine 16 boxes (types) and 840 balls (different ways to discern
a type). If we find 500 balls in one box, and the others are scattered among the
rest of the boxes, then we can make definite conclusions about the person's type.
When a doubtful result (50:50) is obtained regarding a scale, the computer will
offer some more qualifying questions pertaining to the same scale. It is like 15
drums with 20-30 questions about the scale. The test throws at you five or six
questions; if you answer definitely then the computer gets an authentic result at
once. If regarding any of the scales results are doubtful, more questions are
offered and the reliable result is obtained. Next time you approach the computer to
test your type you will find a different set of questions.

Are there less formal non-computer ways to define a type?

Today experts often turn to the functional testing. Experience tells us that
people usually give inadequate answers to the questions concerning the third
function. Their answers become either too short, terse or, on the contrary, very
lengthy. Touching upon this subject may cause frustration accompanied by a
vegetovascular reaction.
Questions regarding the first function may cause aggressive reaction. People
protect their principle of existence. It could also help with defining a type.
You can look at the priorities in the individual's everyday activity and try to
define the second function: some people like to draw, some people like to
theorizes, some enjoy driving, etc.
When people say "maybe" it may mean different things, different types may
imply something totally different when saying one and the same word or phrase. If
a Zhukov says "yes" or "no", it is unequivocal. If a Zhukov says "maybe" then
he/she is not a Zhukov. If a Don Quixote says "maybe" it means "no". If he/she
says "yes" then more likely it means "maybe". To be able to say "no" a Don
Quixote needs to pluck up all of his/her courage. If a Dreiser says "no" it means at
least "maybe" or possibly "yes". For different types the semantic fields of words in
the minds of different types may differ to a great extent. When experts do their
testing it is always a process of verifying of their hypotheses.
Descriptions of types also allow us to find out what type we belong to. It is an
interesting, but rather tedious task. There is a photo gallery of the IM types; it is
very informative. Appearance, behavior, clothes, speech may give useful hints at a
person's type.
Besides this each type has its own characteristic attributes; for example, a
Napoleon does not tolerate excessive bodily contacts.
Every quadra has a peculiar kind of humor. They have their own peculiar jokes
and they laugh on different occasions. The humor of gamma quadra seems rude,
obscene and vulgar to the people of the alpha quadra. On the other hand, the
alpha quadra humor may seem too vapid, abstract to the gamma quadra
members. This also may be an effective diagnostic tool.
Type definition can be a source of useful insights into the individual's weak
and strong aspects of character.

What questions can be used to define a type in everyday life?

In everyday life we sometimes have neither time nor chance for proper
testing, there might be a chance to ask a couple of questions. All the same there
should be some preliminary hypothesis for us to prove or disprove: "Let's see if a
Robespierre would fit Michael…” Then we are ready to ask questions. A joke
touching upon the third function (tell a Holmes something about time, for example,
say that the train is coming late) will draw visible vegetative reactions. A Holmes
though could be seen without any questions, people of this type have obvious
bodily dominant at the chest level.
The type of a personality will be expressed in every aspect of its activity, it is
projected on everything he/she does: their dress, haircut, gestures and speech,
even the books they read will tell you what their personality type is. Each type has
its peculiar posture. A Huxley's head is usually thrown back a little. A Dumas is
overweight and has a waddling gait. A Balzac moves cautiously, as if having the
tail between his/her legs, as if the ground is dangerous. The lower part of the body
is very mobile, while the upper part of the body is tense. A Balzac has great
plasticity; his/her movements are few. A Dostoevsky is always a bit stooped,
moves slowly. The Gabens usually have a hollow chest with shoulders thrust
forward. He has a posture of a man who is always alert and on guard, as though a
Gaben suspects everyone around. A Robespierre tends to walk with his back
straight, his/her entire body is tense. A Dreiser has a “supple” back. A Hamlet has
constant fear in his/her eyes; the gait as a rule is free, relaxed. A Zhukov always
tries to move a little bit in a military way, but without success. It seems that a
Zhukov and a Dumas both are characterized by parallel feet with toes turned a
little inside; a Don Quixote's toes are turned out. A Napoleon, a Huxley, a Dumas,
a Dostoevsky could be more easily discerned by their gaits. If you are in the habit
of paying attention to people’s bodily reactions then you will soon discern all of
these personality marks.
Sometimes you have to define the type quickly. I had been doing hard physical
jobs, but the hardest of all for me was the job as a psychotherapeutic consultant.
There the type should be defined while the person was walking from door to chair.
By the time I began counseling I should have already figured out which type of
personality was in front of me. In a matter of seconds I had to analyze a whole
number of attributes: appearance, gait, gestures, mimicry… Words can’t describe
how difficult it is to take in all the parameters at once and at the first glance
process them and make an assumption to be checked and re-checked later on.
Then it is possible to ask some qualifying questions. It is hard to define a type from
a common conversation. Reliable tests should be applied for sure answers; on the
other hand, when the typology ideas will become a part of our culture, people will
automatically know their type. But it is impossible to define the type by means of
one single question.
 We could say that type definition is a science, but it is also a kind of art. Each
expert has peculiar experience and unique style of work.

How is the type of informational metabolism formed?

There is no definite answer to this question. There is some data saying for the
inherent character of some parameters, for example cerebral hemisphere
prevalence. This determines whether the person will be one of the 8 rational or 8
irrational types. It is possible that the rest depends on the intertype environment
where the child develops. Depending on circumstances the child would choose a
comfortable niche, i.e. would 'acquire' a type. Further, a unique personality is
formed within the parameters of the type. In this sense the IM type is an
"informational skeleton" of a person. Something similar happens in various areas.
For example, there are 16 isomers of lime-tree leaf, but every leaf is not an exact
copy of another. Even if they appear similar by structure, they will be of different
color, size and have other unique features.

How is the creative function being formed?

The type traits reveal themselves from the earliest childhood. A Napoleon, for
example, stands out right in the sandbox.
When parents have some definite ideas (acquired during the childhood from
the socio-psychological environment anyway) regarding creativity and what the
child should be, they sometimes try to fit the kid into this frame, to develop the
kind of creative abilities in this child which he/she does not have. But the child
might have some other abilities which the parent does not see or fathom, it does
not happen because parents are not attentive, but simply because those things are
absent from their description of the world.
Socionics, from my point of view, expounds our knowledge of the human
creative abilities. When the knowledge of psychological qualities of different types
is introduced into the culture, people receive the freedom to be what they are
meant to be and develop the strong sides of their type. Parents do not always
provide for this. In school things look really grave: the system of education
attempts to make everyone uniform. Things get really tough when a teacher and a
student make an 'unfortunate' combination of types. They get into an endless
range of conflicts. In this case it would cost less to transfer the child to another
school. Here I talk about the psychological price of this situation, of course.

What if during the school years a child didn't happen to meet a

knowledgeable person who would explain to him what his creative
function is. Would it remain 'undeveloped'?
We can say that a person of the identical type is the best teacher, and the
dual is the best tutor who is training us to better adapt to the society. The dual
introduces us to the behaviors that correspond to our weak functions, thus he
fortifies us. As a rule, everyone meets a dual in his/her life. However, we are going
through a learning process when reading or experiencing nature, using our
imagination to identify with a character or a fantasy.
The world is full of all kinds of things, but it turns its unique side to each and
every person.

At what age the type is finally formed?

I believe that the IM type is an inborn mechanism. But we do not have any
data proving that it is inherent in the same way as it was proved that the nervous
system is inherent.
So far we can confidently say only that the type becomes fixed between the
age of six and seven, it is formed under the influence of both innate characteristics
and external conditions. Further during the interactions with the world the 'filling'
by the concrete contents of elements and functions happen, as well as
development of different ways of self-realization.
 Once, a vocational technical school invited me to work on distributing students
in groups by professions. When I walked into the assembly hall, I could not define a
type of any one of them! They all looked alike to me. It was quite a shocking
experience; I could not read them. There is an age, I guess, a stage of
development of the 'collective part of personality' when externally all teenagers
are identical, and only later all get on their own way of development. During the
childhood years differentiation is more prominent. I think that by the time when a
child is seven years old each child develops a certain type of personality, then they
go into a phase of primary school when they are molded into one mold. You and
your children may have experienced this and may know what happens during
those years and how the kids suffer.
Some people need to be taught "from part to whole"; other people need to be
taught – "from whole to part." I think that we need to differentiate the education
process according to personality types. It would be best to form classes by the
quadral principle and have a teacher of the same quadra teach them. It is difficult,
but it is possible. Once we carried out an experiment: on the basis of this principle
a group was formed in one of the St.-Petersburg Chemical-Pharmaceutical
Colleges. The advancement index was unequivocally higher than that in the other
groups. They studied for five years, and through out all five years they showed
high results. On the average they got sick less often. They would have probably
become geniuses if their teachers were of the same quadra.

Why quadra? What advantages does it have over other small groups?
Let's start with the formal characteristics. In any quadra all four types have
three identical criteria, and all the other criteria are equally neutralized, i.e. they
have two criteria from one pole and two – from another (see tab. 12).
What differs quadra from other small groups? First of all, this is a group of
people who speak one language. The three coinciding quadral criteria determine
the quadral language.
The first criterion, the means of communication: all of them are either
aristocrats or democrats. There are two "aristocratic" and two "democratic"
quadras.
The second criterion, by the way of perception of reality: the cheerful and the
serious (subjectivists and objectivists). Eight types (objectivists) are guided by the
logic of the objective world, the other eight types (subjectivists) – are lead by the
subjective logic. Subjective people are cheerful, objective people are serious. As
far as philosophical categories are concerned the former are more focused on the
description of the world, the latter - on the picture of the world. Objective people
belong to gamma and delta quadras; subjective people belong to alpha and beta
quadras.
The third criterion: reasonable vs. resolute people. It is an especially
interesting splitting. Today many criticize Freud for making an absolute out of the
sexual issue. The division into reasonable and resolute is a rather deep division by
sexual programs also. This division influences many spheres of human activity,
naturally including sexual behavior. According to one program a person seeks "to
give pleasure to the partner", according to the other program a person is looking
"to get pleasure in the process." The former is characteristic of the reasonable
people (alpha and delta quadras); the latter is peculiar to the resolute people (beta
and gamma quadras).
If all three attributes coincide, people find themselves in a very comfortable
situation when they understand each other. They share the same attitude to the
world around them and they have the same way of communication with others. We
carried out an experiment: we gathered people and broke them up into groups by
different attributes. Auto-reports of the quadra members demonstrated that it was
the most comfortable group to be in: "I just feel good in this group".

Do the relationships between the types substitute the live, natural

relationships?
 The relationships between the types serve as a background for the real, live
relationships of particular people. These relationships are always unique just like
each one of our personalities is unique. However, they develop on the background
of a banal, rather simple structure, which could be easily figured out. The
substitution in question is a common mistake of novice socionists. When meeting
another person they may say something like "Hi, I'm a Napoleon" – "Howdy, a
Robespierre"; or, "You can't be a Don Quixote, a Don Quixote would never say
anything like that." Or else people may make excuses: "It's not my fault, this is all
because I am this type, you know."
The type is only a tool, the informational mechanism of a personality. It is
possible to say that the type is a shell, and the relationships between the types are
the interaction of informational shells.

Are there mixed types? I find my own traits in the descriptions of

several types.
Disputes regarding pure and mixed types started at the dawn of psychological
science and they are not closed even today. Let us try to consider the issue in the
methodological aspect.
Unfortunately, describing the types the majority of authors in aspiration for
pure types make an accent on their distinctions. Similarities of the types, as a rule,
are disregarded.
G. Ekman's work [20] is rather characteristic in this respect. The type here is
represented as a pole of a scale, a "pure type". The author suggests describing
concrete objects (persons) by means of superposition of pure types, the mixture of
their traits that is shown by the example of Kretchmer's pure types (picnic,
athletic, leptosome). Thus the system of types is considered to be constant, and
the system of properties is always open and it is possible to add or take away any
number of parameters.
In my opinion, ignoring the similarity is not an idealization of types; it results
only in incompleteness of their description. Naturally, in studying real subjects the
researchers should face the necessity to use mixed descriptions. This generates
unusually motley spectrum of representations of "mixed types."
Let's consider this problem from the point of view of the bipolar criteria group.
In Table 11 ("Description of Typology by Means of 15 Bipolar Criteria", see Lecture
6) this group of criteria is represented in general, for at the moment we need its
structure only. Table 11 in this case serves as a generalized standard description
of the 16 types by 15 criteria. It is easy to see that any two types in the table have
similarities in 7 criteria but only 8 of 15 [criteria] differ.
When this method of description is used alongside with the distinction
regarding the criteria, a certain "properties corridor" cannot be ignored, this is the
area of similarity, i.e. the area where two types may be similar. Thus, pure (i.e.
completely distinguished from each other) types are non-existent and, as the
theory shows, are impossible. An incomplete, one-sided description of a type
results in the necessity to use the notions of mixed and pure types. In this case the
rule of disjointness of classes is broken which makes discussion of classification
meaningless.
Table 11 does is not claimed to be complete and is shown here only as an
example, but even so it shows that there are neither "close" nor "distant", neither
"bordering" nor "completely opposite" types. Certainly, they may seem to us to be
as such because our human perception is always subjective, i.e. it is mediated by
our worldview. They may also seem as such according to the results of the tests
since those tests are only a formalization of our perception.
Typology, however, is an object with enormous amount of various
communications, and only some of them are investigated, less than half have
names, and the rest are generally unknown. To reduce typology to a set of pure
types is, in our opinion, is to make a serious methodological mistake which may
generate a number of artificial problems.
 Descriptions available in literature are not structured, and it seems that one
type is described from the point of view of some of its attributes, and another is
described from the point of view of some other attributes. And since all the
descriptions are incomplete, descriptions of other types may offer more
information than the description of the type in question. Each type has a unique
spectrum of attributes, and all these spectrums are different. But all types have
similarities as well as distinctions. Thus because of the incompleteness of the
descriptions available there can be illusions of the "intermediate" or "mixed" types.

Part II

The Theoretical Analysis of Typological Descriptions in Psychology.

Foreword

1. Typological and factor descriptions of personality

1.1. Comparison of factor descriptions of personality

Psychology uses different kinds of personal questionnaires, IQ tests, tests of abilities are used
for various practical purposes. They help to determine different parameters of temperament,
character, abilities profile, orientation of the individual. Detailed reviews of the most common
psychometric tools were made in [4, 21, 30, 42, 47, 64]. By 1935 more than 15 thousand methods
of testing existed, and now their number could hardly be counted. There are, however, several
dozens of most frequently used tests.
This extensive though poorly structured and rather uncoordinated psychological toolkit allows
us to successfully tackle a wide spectrum of practical tasks in various spheres of human activity.
Let us consider some of the most common techniques of analysis and description of
personality from the point of view of their formal characteristics. We will mainly focus on the number
and structure of the chosen factors.
R. Kettle and his colleagues when working on factorizing the matrices of correlations of
personal assessments of a person by other people distinguished 15 factors of individual/typological
distinctions [4]. One of the most compact personality models is the model offered by Izenk [76]. He
distinguishes only two mutually orthogonal factors: “extravert - introvert” and "neurotic (high - low)”
as well as “psychotonic" as a degree of deviation from norm. Other personality properties Izenk
considers to be hierarchically subordinate.
R. Kettle’s questionnaire, the 16 PF, consist of 16 correlating scales that measure various
personality traits [4, 30].
The Californian Personal Questionnaire (CPI) is rather widespread. It consists of 18 scales
measuring dominance, sociability, emotional maturity, intellectual efficiency, etc. The CPI is
intended for normal (without mental deviations) people of 13 y.o. and older; it has 15 basic scales
with behavior parameters. When interpreted the scales of the questionnaire are grouped together in
4 groups. The factorization reveals 5 factors where contents do not coincide with the 4 groups
specified by the author. There is a high correlation between the 18 scales; this indicates
considerable superfluity [4, 30, 41].
Minnesota Multipersonal Personality Inquirer (MMPI) – was designed for clinical diagnostics. It
is based on E. Kraepelin's psychopathy typology and contains 10 basic scales - 8 clinical scales
and 2 biosocial scales (“masculinity - feminity ” and “extroversion - introversion”), 3 auxiliary scales
and about 400 additional scales for estimation of different personal features. As A. Anastasi says,
“high intercorrelation of the MMPI scales makes their value for a differentiated diagnosis rather
problematic” [4, 7, 15, 30].
T. Leari's technique studies the sphere of interpersonal relationships. It offers two basic
scales: “domination - submission” and “amicability - aggression”. On these axes a discogram of
eight octants is drawn which corresponds to the eight scales of MMPI [42].
 Gilford-Cimmerman's questionnaire is widely used for career guidance. It includes 10 scales
corresponding to various personality traits: activity, impulsiveness, dominancy, sociability, etc. [30].
A. Anastasi notes that some correlations between these 10 scales are still significant, though
attempts have been made to create independent non-correlating category of properties [4].
The Freiburg personal questionnaire FPI-R distinguishes 12 traits, which basically
characterize the level of social adaptation of the person.
As to the motivation sphere of personality: McDaugoll considers 18 basic driving forces,
G. Murray considers 20 needs. Anry Pierron examines 20 needs but gives them slightly different
names. J. Gilford discerns 19 motivating factors; R. Kettle discerns 12 motivating feelings.
L. Szondi examines 16 impulsive tendencies [84]. R. Meiley makes a comparison of all the
"motivating factors" described by different personality researchers known to him [20].
According to some sources [42] the questionnaires focused on the sphere of motivation are
most popular in the West. A. Edwards' “list of personal preferences” (EPPS) - contains 15 scales
measuring the power of the needs listed by G. Murray. D. Jackson's “Personality Research Form” -
PRF - contains 20 motivation variables, 12 of them are similar to the "needs" of EPPS. The
“personal humor test” (IPAT) reveals the motivational variables. It discerns 13 personal factors [4.]
The “Motivational Analysis Test” (МАТ) allows to estimate 12 factors (10 factors are "needs" and 2
factors are "attitudes") [30].
In the sphere of temperament S. Bert discerns 3 orthogonal factors of temperament on the
basis of McDaugoll’s set of 11 emotions [54]. J. Gilford offered the 13-factor theory of temperament
that allowed L. Terston to single out 7 factors of the second order while K. Lowell singled out 4
independent factors.
The “individual style of activity”, or “cognitive style” (CS) also reflects peculiar features of
personality. S. Messick discerns 19 bipolar parameters of CS [78]. At least some kind of correlation
can be found between most of the parameters.
In the work [84] 4 general independent CS factors are represented:
• the type of thinking - “ divergent - convergent”;
• the type of perception - “field of dependence - field of independence”;
• the type of reaction - “impulsiveness - reflectivity”;
• the type of training - “seriality - integrity”.
In the field of vocational counseling the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) is very popular.
It consists of 12 subtests developed for 9 abilities. Subtests have been obtained by the analysis of
50 tests for different occupations [42]. By the results of the factorial analysis of 6 thousand
examinees H. Schmidtke and H. Shmale allocated 4 independent factors of abilities [80, 81]:
general intellectual mobility, motor dexterity, spatial vision, perceptional accuracy. On a Russian
version of the sample 4 interpretable orthogonal factors were also obtained.
The sphere of system of values is also a reflection of personality traits. In the Western
occupational psychology D. Super's occupations value questionnaire [4] is rather popular. It
contains 15 parameters of values such as intellectual activity, creativity, interaction, confidence,
prestige, and altruism.
M. Zuckerman has developed a questionnaire for estimation of an individual's drive for
stimulation - SSS (Sensation Seeking Scale) [30]. The factor analysis of statements in the
questionnaire singled out 4 independent factors: experience seeking - ES, thrill and adventure
seeking - TAS, disinhibition - DIS and boredom susceptibility - BS. It is necessary to mention such
techniques as the Standard Multifactor Personality Analysis Method (SMPAM, 13 basic and about
200 additional scales) and the Complex Personality Analysis Method (CPAM, 13 basic scales). The
factor analysis gives 4 independent factors; the PDT (L. T. Yampolsky's "Psychodiagnostic Test ”
[37]) contains 10 scales of the first level and 4 independent scales of the second level.
Standard multifactor method of personality testing (SMPT), complete version.
This list of popular personality testing techniques is far from being complete, of course.
Let us consider the data in Table 21 in the context of those characteristics that are of special
interest to us.
It could be understood from the table that the number of primary factors is in the range of
15± 5, and in this case essential correlation between them could be revealed. A large number of
publications on orthogonalization of various techniques' factors come to the same conclusion: they
single out four orthogonal factors1.

1
See, for example, [37]
 It seems pertinent to note the existence of an intermediate level with the number of factors
8± 2 with smaller correlation. Factors of the second order pertain to this level (6- and the 8-factorial
resolution) as well as T. Leari's 8 psychological tendencies [42] [37], L. Szondi's [84] 8 impulsive
factors, L. Terston's 7 factors of temperament [56]. Apparently, GABT 9 factors of abilities pertain to
the same level.
# Method The number of The presence of The number of
the primary intercorrelation of independent
factors factors factors
1 H. Izenk - no 3
2 16 PF 16 YES 4
3 CPI 18=15+3 YES 4;5
4 MMPI 13 YES -
5 Gilford-Zimmerman 10 - -
6 FPI-R 12 - -
7 L.Sondy 16 - 4
8 EPPS 15 - -
9 PPF 20 - -
10 IPAT 13 - -
11 MAT 12 - -
12 GATB 9 - 4
13 D.Super 15 - -
14 SSS - No 4
15 SMPT 13 Yes -
16 MMPT 13 Yes 4
17 PDT 10 Yes 4
18 T.Leery 8 Yes 2
19 W.MacDougoll (driving forces) 18 Yes -
20 G.Murray 20 Yes -
21 G.Gilford (motivation factors) 19 Yes -
22 R.Kettle (motivation feelings) 12 Yes -
23 W.MacDougoll (emotions) 11 Yes 3
24 G.Gilford (temperament factors) 13 Yes 4
25 S.Messic 19 Yes 4

1.2. Comparison of typological descriptions of personality

Psychological dictionaries [25, 49] do not have the concepts of "a type" and “a type of
personality”, however, as it was already mentioned, the typological approach, alongside with the
dimensional2 [57] approach, is still one of the most important directions of research in the sphere of
personality.
There are a number of typological descriptions covering all basic sides of personality:
temperament, abilities and orientation.
The typological approach allows examining the type of a person as an integral unit, which
could not be reduced to a mere sum of separate personal factors. Any typology uses a set of ideal
images (archetypes) on the basis of which the grouping of examinees is done. The meaning of this
grouping is to put together the research objects in classes according to their similarity to an
archetype. Similar procedure is performed during diagnosing and assessment the accentuation or
pathology of individual. The means to define similarity may be different; they may range from the
method of expert estimation to the use of various nonverbal tests [84] and personal
psychodiagnostic questionnaires [6, 9, 21, 55, 77, 81].
In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia the word "type" (Greek typos – "print, form, sample") is given
the following interpretation:
1. The form, appearance of something possessing essential attributes.
2. A sample, a model of something.
3. Units of division of the examined reality in typology.

2
I.e. based on "features", or "dimensions".
 4. Taxonomic category or units of classification in the sciences studying separate components
of natural environment: landscape, relief, climate, ground, flora, etc.
5. A person possessing characteristic properties, an outstanding representative of a group of
people, in particular of a class, a nation, an epoch.
6. In art and literature: a typical character.
Further it is underlined that a typology built on theoretical premises gives an important
advantage allowing not only to comprehend all known forms, but also to reveal some "free cells"
where newly found forms3 could be placed later.
A soviet philosopher A. V. Gulyga [17] who considered typological models to be “the school of
thought”, discerns three scientific meanings of the word type:
1. A sample; a standard without deviations (the adjective "standard").
2. The most typical individual phenomenon, fully expressing the essence of a similar
phenomena (the adjective "typical").
3. A prototype, basic form allowing some deviations (the adjective "typological").
A typological model in art is some kind of an outline picture. It is more schematic than a typical
character, but also it is more capacious. A typical character is closer to the perceptible
concreteness, and a typological character is closer to the conceptual concreteness.
In accordance to these notions it is possible to discern two kinds of typologies:
• Theoretical typologies built on a conceptual personality models;
• The typologies built on the basis of empirical summary of clinical data.
The theoretical typologies are usually well structured and meet the qualifying standards of
classifying procedures; however, the description by means of classifying attributes only lacks
detaling. Therefore such typologies often use bipolar constructs, and the number of types, as a rule,
is divisible by two (2, 4, 8 and 16). Such are, for example, K. Jung's typology [16] and typologies
based on it (16 personality types) [79, 66], T. Evald's typology (16 types of characters) [84],
G. Hejmans and E. Virsmy typology of temperament (8 types of temperament) [56], L.Szondi's
typology (16 kinds of impulsive tendencies) [82] and, at last, Avicenna's typology of temperament
which defines 4, 16 and 48 types of temperament [1]. Besides the classification descriptions the
majority of authors of theoretical typologies offer typical descriptions, which are not based on
classification, thus being to a great extent arbitrary.
The empirical typologies often use striking typical characteristics convenient for practice;
however, they are far from being exhaustive, they allow for ”crossing" of types and do not define the
classification basis most of the time. The number of the types discerned in these typologies, as a
rule, is rather arbitrary and is determined by the needs of practice (for example, the typology of
teenagers' character accentuation by A. E. Lichko [34]).
Available data in [37] and [33] provide for the opportunity to compare the three typologies
popular in clinical practice: K. Leongard's [32], A.E. Lichko's [33] and E. Kraepelin's4 [7, 75]. As Tab.
22 clearly demonstrates, the typologies in question have a number of intersections and only three
types are discerned only once. Thus all three typologies single out 17 types total.
Here, however, we cannot agree with the authors [37] because they consider the poles of the
general psychological scales "introversion" and "feminity" to be types. These types are not equal
with the rest of the types; this is confirmed by their absence in the two other typologies. So 15
different types of character accentuation should be considered in the future. To illustrate the
existing polymorphism we adduce very brief clinical characteristics of these types.

Table 22
Comparative Table of Typologies

Author A. E. Lichko K. Leongard S. Hatway, J. McKinley

Number (MMPI)
1 Hyperthymic Hyperthymical Hypomania
2 Circular Affective-labile -
3 Labile Affective - ecstatic -
4 - Labile -
5 Asthenoneurotic - Hypochondria
6 Sensitive Anxious (timid) -

3
Just like it happened with the Mendeleev's periodic table of chemical elements
4
The basis of MMPI
7 Psychasthenic Pedantic Psychasthenia
8 Schizoid Introverted Schizoid
9 Epileptoid Excitable -
10 Hysteroid Demonstrative Hysteria
11 Unstable - Psychopathy
12 Conformal - -
13 Conformal-hyperthymic Extroverted -
14 - Clamping Paranoidity
15 - Dysthymic Depression
16 - - Feminity
17 - - Introversion

1. Hyperthymic type. Their mood is always good irrespective of circumstances. They are
active, vigorous, cheerful, have a high need in contacts with people. The persons of this
type possess various abilities, their interests are superficial, and they do not have enough
persistence and endurance. They do not tolerate constraint of freedom; neither do they
tolerate criticism of them.
2. Circular, or affective-labile type. Constant interchange of hyperthymic and dysthymic
phases is characteristic of these people. During the former phases they show hyperactivity,
vivacity, levity, bent for pleasures; in the latter phases slackness, depression, increased
irritability prevail.
3. Labile, or affective - ecstatic type. These people’s reaction to the events of life is more
violent and loud than that of others’. They are equally quick to delight in joyful events or
despair when something sad happens. Extreme sensitiveness, impracticality in life, artistic
skills, and propensity to excessive alarm are characteristic of them.
4. Labile, or emotive5 type. People of this type do not fall in the extreme, affective- ecstatic
realms of emotional sphere. They are kind; they are more compassionate than other types.
Expressive mimicry and especially tearfulness is characteristic of them. Any event of life
they take more seriously than other people. Strong fear of punishment.
5. Asthenoneurotic type. The main features of this type are increased fatigability, irritability
and propensity to morbid depression. Irritability causes sudden affective outbursts, often
without any serious reason. Serious illness of a friend or a relative deepens the depression.
Low endurance, asthenia.
6. Sensitive, or anxious6, type. The basic features of these people are increased
impressionability, sensitiveness and the feeling of their own inferiority. Propensity to fears.
They are afraid of all kinds of inspections, check ups, examinations. Excessive moral
requirements to themselves and those around them. Shyness.
7. Psychasthenic, or pedantic type. Anancastic psychopathy corresponds to this type at the
level of obvious pathology. It is an anxious/hypochondriac type of character. The basic
features are high level of anxiety, suspiciousness, and propensity to doubts. People of this
type carefully think over their behavior, repeatedly recheck and alter already finished work.
Psychasthenics are not capable of suppressing doubts, which impedes their actions.
8. Schizoid, or introverted type. Most common feature of these people is the absence of
integrity and coordination of mental processes. Persistence and quick wit in realization of
their own strategic goals is combined with the indifference and passivity in solution of
everyday problems. They are capable of subtle sensitivity and emotional reactions to
imagined events, abstract ideas.
9. Epileptoid, or excitable type. It is a passionate type. People of this type are prone to
spells of angry/melancholic moods. The satisfaction of their strong appetence is
accompanied by numerous conflicts. In a group they try to establish orders to their likes, but
can well adapt in an environment with strict discipline. Aspiring to power, propensity to
gambling.
10. Hysteroid, or demonstrative type. The main features of this type are strong egocentrism,
craving for attention and sympathy, need to amaze, to be admired. All other characteristics
are determined by these traits. They incessantly play, invent, fantasize easily getting used
5
According to K. Leongard
6
Also known as 'timid'
 to the role and misleading credulous people. They like to be externally outstanding; at the
same time they often overestimate their own abilities.
11. Unstable type7. Persons of this type are weak-willed, easily suggestible; they easily come
under other's influence. Circumstances often dictate their actions.
12. Conformal type. The main feature of this type is unwavering orientation to norms and
values of the closest milieu. People of this type accept everything new, unusual with
difficulty; they negatively take any changes in life. Aspiring to fit in, they cannot resist the
environment at all. It is hard for them to get adjusted to a new and unusual environment.
13. Conformal-hyperthymic type. Besides of the expressed conformity people of this type
have inflated esteem of their own vitality. They are somewhat euphoric, emphasize their
health and vivacity. They are also prone to excessively optimistic estimation of their future;
pliable to discipline and regulated environment. They show neither activity nor leadership
skills.
14. Clamping, or paranoid type. The most characteristic feature of people of this type is the
propensity to fixed ideas. Expressed egotism, complacency, excessive self-conceit. They
attach great importance to insignificant failures; success is also overestimated. Affect is
extremely stable with these people; sthenicity in realization of plans, vindictiveness, and
ruthlessness could also be mentioned as characteristic features of this type.
15. Dysthymic type. People of this type are characterized by habitually lowered mood as a
background, pessimism, and fixation on the darker side of life, lethargy. Propensity to
depression (similar to the hyperthymic type), diligence, conscientiousness, high morality.
They are not capable of the acts of will and fall into despair after facing slightest difficulties.
They are characterized by increased sensitivity, anxiety, dissatisfaction with themselves and
their own abilities.

From our point of view, it is necessary to add to the list the demonstrative - clamping
type examined in detail by K. Leongard [32]. It might be defined as a combination of
demonstrative (hysteroid) and paranoid character traits. Such combination often causes
ambitious aspirations, especially in the prime of life. Later in life an abrupt turn to increased
sensitivity and accusation of the external world is observed. Desire to draw attention,
ambitions, and mendacity.
It is rather hard to draw a conclusion regarding the completeness of this united typology. It is
possible to ascertain a concurrence in the number of types with that in some theoretical models.
The same number of types is defined in A. Augustinavichjute's typology [5]. This typology (just
as I. Myers - Briggs typology [79]) is based on four orthogonal criteria defined by K. Jung [66].
L. Szondi singled out the same number of types when applied three consecutive divisions: 4
hereditary circles, 8 impulsive factors and, finally, 16 impulsive tendencies. The same number is
described by N. A. Belov8 [6] whose typology, however, has not been applied.
The theoretical and empirical typologies discerning about 8 types could be considered to be
the next quantitative level of typologies.
R. Chernavsky [65] outlines 8 reflexological types: static, substatic, unstable, plastic, excited,
subexcited, inert and torpid. T. Leari [42] describes 8 octants (psychological tendencies)
corresponding to E. Kraepelin's types:
1. The tendency to leadership - authoritativeness, despotism.
2. Self-reliance - self-confidence, vainglory.
3. Exactingness - irreconcilability, cruelty.
4. Skepticism - obstinacy, negativism.
5. Compliance - mildness, passive submission.
6. Trustfulness - docileness, dependence.
7. Goodheartedness - dependence, excessive conformism.
8. Responsiveness - unselfishness, sacrifice.
G. Heimans and E. Virsma [56] examine 8 types of temperament: sanguine, phlegmatic,
choleric, enthusiastic, amorphous, indifferent, nervous and sentimental formed by three orthogonal
factors. Among the same group, in our opinion, the 8 types of activation discerned by means of the

7
Psychopathy according to the MMHI scale.
8
16 personality types discerned by the development of endocrine glands
factorial analysis Q-techniques [30] should be considered. The intermediate step of L. Szondi’s
typology - 8 impulsive factors – also belongs here.
A wide practical use was made of the values examination technique offered by E. Shprangler
in his work “Types of People”. It defines 6 basic types of interests, namely: theoretical, economic,
aesthetic, social, political and religious.
In the sphere of temperament (to a larger extent determined by the constitutional
characteristics) the majority of authors discerns no more than 3 or 4 types. Let us consider as an
example the comparison of some typologies by J. Streliau [56] (Tab. 23).

Tab. 23
Comparison of Temperament Typologies

No. Author Temperament Type

1 Hyppocratus - Galen sanguine phlegmatic choleric melancholic
2 E. Kretchmer cyclothymic ixothymic - schyzotimic
3 W. Sheldon viscerotonic - somatonic cerebrotonic
4 K. Konrad cyclothymic viscose type spiritistic type schyzotimic
5 I. Pavlov strong strong strong weak
balanced balanced inert unbalanced
labile

Some authors discern a larger number of types of temperament. It is determined, in our

opinion, by the interpretation of the concept. However, the analysis of this situation is outside of the
present work's scope.
Let us point out here two more typologies of personality, which single out 4 types.
1. A working group at the Social Studies Institute of Scientific Information of the Academy of
Sciences in the former USSR considered the following “types of mind”: conceptual, social, aesthetic
and industrial (technological) [54].
2. R. Akoff and F. Emeri [2] offer a theoretical typology of personality characterized by three
pairwise orthogonal attributes (Tab. 24).

Tab. 24
Personality typology according to R. Akoff and F. Emeri

No. Name Subject version - Internalization - Centro version

object version externalization
1 Subjective internalist + + +
2 Subjective externalist + - -
3 Objective internalist - + -
4 Objective externalist - - +

It is easy to see that the three factors are pairwise orthogonal. Thus any pair of attributes can
be used to define a type.
In clinical types descriptions, as a rule, the attributes specific to the type, singling it out of
many others are accentuated. Each type is described as an individual phenomenon. Descriptions
thus almost do not overlap. The attributes covering the whole set of researched objects are used for
theoretical descriptions. These attributes draw borders, breaking the set of researched objects into
classes. The description of classes made by means of borders is less striking than the typical one,
it appeals to conceptual concreteness using the same attributes for differentiation of all classes.
Thus, winning in completeness and conceptual presentation the typology loses in perceptual
clearness.
However, as it was noted, the authors of theoretical typologies besides the classifying
descriptions determining the borders of types offer bright typical descriptions and discerned unique
features peculiar only to this type. At the moment the number of the attributes used for the
description of an archetype is chosen at random, as needed; connections between the attributes
are not examined.
 Not having an opportunity to review here all known personality typologies, we shall only note
that such outstanding Russian scientists as P. B. Gannushkin [15], A. F. Lazursky [31],
A. G. Kovalyov, V. N. Miasishchev [24], V. S. Marylin [38], B. M. Teplov [57] and many others have
worked on solving this problem.

1.3. Comments on the psychological descriptions of personality

A detailed review of the basic personality concepts in psychology is offered in [68, 18]. The
primary goal of further research, according to E. V. Shorohova [67, 68] will be the “completion of the
list of personality traits and determination of the character of their relationship.” Now it is difficult to
prefer any of the offered concepts to others, but the fruitfulness of structuring of properties,
qualities, features of personality cannot be doubted. The majority of authors discussing the situation
in contemporary psychology in general, and in the personality researches in particular, agree to
some extent with this statement.
R. Meili point out the fact that each experiment in the sphere of personality “concerns only the
individual fact which is absolutely incommensurable by its complexity with the object itself. It is
necessary and useful to make attempts from time to time to synthesize all the accumulated facts”
[64].
Let us try to summarize our review of the factor and typological methods of description of
personality:
1. There are two poorly connected systems of description of personality: the description by
means of features, attributes, factors and the description by means of typology.
2. A lot of different ways of describing a personality exist today. Classifications based on
different attributes (criteria) sometimes coincide, sometimes differ.
3. The total number of features used for the factor description of personality is usually within
the limits of 15 ± 5. At the same time many factors significantly correlate.
4. The number of discerned orthogonal characteristics is no more than four. However, in
different researches these characteristics are different. This result is, from our point of view,
completely authentic as it is received in different countries, on different samples, with the
use of most different personality testing techniques.
5. Many authors of both theoretical and experimental works discern no more than 16 types of
personality in its different spheres.

1.4. A hypothesis of mutual conformity of the two kinds of descriptions

On the basis of the results of a number of researches carried out by representatives of various
schools in the field of personality we may point out the following patterns:
- the maximum number of discerned orthogonal factors is 4;
- the maximum number of discerned types in different spheres of personality is 16;
- There are data on a great number of correlations of factors pertaining to various aspects of
personality.
Generalization of these observations allows for formulating of the following hypothesis:
There is a limited set of types, i.e. a uniform typology of personality, which defines the
interconnected character of manifestation of personality traits in different spheres.
In experimental researches this set of types appears either as some typical profiles of
personality traits, or as a number of private (focused on concrete spheres) typologies, or as a basis
of orthogonal factors.
The fact that the number of discerned orthogonal factors does not exceed 4, and the number
of types found empirically is no more than 16, gives grounds for the assumption that the number of
types in this typology makes:

24 = 16, (1)

this also corresponds to the number of types discerned in different theoretical typologies.

Conclusions
 1. Comparison of the most widespread factor techniques of personality research shows that
the personality testing techniques use basically 15 ± 5 factors which when orthogonalized
give four independent factors.
2. The comparison of three clinical typologies allows discerning 16 types of personality. The
same number of types is discerned by the most advanced theoretical typologies.
3. A hypothesis of a uniform 16-element typology of personality is formulated on the basis of a
systematic analysis of the published data; in it the idea of coherence and complementarity
of the typological and factorial approaches is realized.

2. Typology as a mathematical object

2.1. Defining the concepts "type" and "typology"

Psychologists always face the problem of description of different phenomena such as

"personality", "mental process", "state of consciousness" and many others, as well as the problem
of structuring multiple objects connected to these phenomena.
At the initial stage of the system analysis of those objects they apply different kinds of
grouping, or splitting of sets into subsets. This procedure is usually termed "typology" (T) and
"classification" (C). However, there are some distinctions in interpretation of these two terms by
psychologists, sociologists and representatives of other areas of knowledge.
Let us examine some of the interpretations:
Classification - a special case of applying of the logic operation of a concept object division.
Classification based on essential attributes is called typology [63].
Classification - a way of organized representation of a phenomenological field (motivating
factors, personality traits, properties of the examined objects) [19].
Classification by types – the discovering of the combinations of attributes [82].
Typology – the splitting of a studied whole into groups of objects of the same kind. "Objects of
the same kind" are those that differ in accidental factors in relation to the examined phenomenon
and the mechanisms determining its character [59, P. 9]. In the same publication classification is
defined as “a splitting of the initial whole into classes of objects done by means of a formal method”
[59, P. 11].
In [41] the following definitions of T and C are offered: “The splitting where classes are
described by means of the attributes used for its formation is called typology, or typological
grouping. If in addition the typological grouping is described in terms of another system of
attributes pertaining to the phenomenon, i.e. it obviously establishes theoretical connections
between different aspects of the system examined, it is called classification.” Different definitions
of the concepts of "typology" and "classification" are also available in [61].
M. S. Kagan defines typing as splitting of a whole into static homogeneous sets of objects;
each of the latter is a modification of the same quality, i.e. of some "archetype". Typing according to
M. S. Kagan is a direct continuation of classification since the latter divides groups of different
objects right down to the level of their qualitative uniformity [22].
The study of a great number of formulas in different fields of knowledge points to the fact that
some authors consider the concepts of T and C to be almost synonymic, others think that they are
mutually inclusive, it is either T includes C [2], or C includes T [41]. Besides, in many works T and
C are not defined at all or used as synonyms [37, P. 7].
Such inconsistency in formulations leads to terminological mess and methodological mistakes.
From our point of view, the essential attributes of the concept of type are provided in
M. M. Kabanov's definition [21] and definition similar to it in [59]. We make an attempt to analyze
the concept of type in detail on the basis of these definitions.
Let's consider the semantic field of some phenomenon (for example, "man", "tree", "snow")
represented by a multitude of its essential attributes:

A = {A1, A2, …, Am}, (2)

where m is the number of the essential attributes available for the description of the phenomenon.
Any attribute A allocates in a set of objects S (which we think are connected to the
phenomenon) a number of nonempty homogeneous subsets. Homogeneity in this case means
impossibility to differentiate objects by means of this attribute. Further we shall imply that attribute is
a bipolar construct (a, ā).
Classification of S elements S by means of the A attributes generates splitting into two
homogeneous subsets, Sa and Sā. Such splitting can be written down as an ordered pair:

X = <Sa, S ā >. (3)

Continue splitting until none of the subsets remains heterogeneous regarding any of the
attributes. As a result of this procedure you will obtain a number of disjoint subsets homogeneous
regarding the set of attributes A, and a number of sections:

R = {X1, X2, …, Xq}, (4)

where q is the number of sections.

Since the same section from R may correspond to several attributes from A, the R set in
general case is a homomorphic image of the A set. The classes thus obtained, unlike
heterogeneous groupings, will be considered types.
Thus, the type is a set of research objects; it is homogeneous regarding the specified set of
attributes. It is obvious that the type here is a relative concept since the homogeneity of the set is
also relative.
The typology then is a set of all types discerned on the set of researched objects by means of
a set of attributes.
From these definitions it is seen that the concept of typology is connected to some set of
attributes. Type manifests one of the possible logical realizations of the feature set corresponding to
the researched phenomena, and typology is the totality of all possible manifestations.
With relation to the classification procedure, reaching the level of homogeneity means that no
more elements inside classes could be distinguished. If that is so then all attributes that distinguish
elements of the researched set of objects one from another become by definition the attributes of
intertype distinctions.
Thus real differences between two objects have two basic components:
1. Intertype differences that have a systematic, complex, qualitative character [59, P. 9].
2. Differences within a type (similar to the intraspecific ones) of incidental, quantitative
character [59, P. 9].
Let's note that both kinds of differences are measured with a help of a system of attributes
corresponding to the given typology.
Further the set of all intertype distinctions will be labeled as the contents of typology, and
the number of the constituent types will be labeled as the volume of typology.
The contents of typology is comprised by all the attributes essential for the distinction of
researched objects or, in other words, the attributes that split a set of types in any way.
Here it is necessary to note that this definition of typology meets all formal requirements for
classification, namely: the typology is exhaustive, the classes obtained are exclusive, and the
requirement of unity of the basis is fulfilled automatically for each attribute Аi of A.
So typology is a set of concrete manifestations of a phenomenon. Or, in other words, typology
is a method of describing a phenomenon by means of a final number of its realizations.
Typology appears as soon as we begin to use a multitude of the object’s essential attributes
for the description of some of its phenomena. When we have the attributes, then we can begin to
sort the objects, thus typology is born. Typology by virtue of its construction holds the condensed
variant of all the information available about a phenomenon or a concept in question; it is the
description that is very adequate to the factor description. These are two complementary ways to
describe a semantic field.

2.2. The analysis of the contents of typological description

Let's a closer look at the contents of typology.

What is the number of attributes that make up the contents of typology? What does this
number depend on? Is there a correlation between the number of types and the number of
attributes?
 The existing publications do not give answers to these questions. However, a number of
research papers are devoted to some aspects of relationships between the typological descriptions
and dimensional descriptions. Detailed reviews of research on the classification problem are
available in publications [11, 52, 59]. The methodology of the system approach in classification
research is described in [69]. The question of the ratio of the number of types and the number of
properties has been raised in [57, 74]. G. Eckmann in his work On Typological and Dimensional
Systems of Reference in Describing Personality [74] defines type as a pole of a measuring axis, i.e.
"the pure type", and the specific objects he describes by means of super positioning of "pure" types
and mixing of their characteristics. In the context of this interpretation the description by means of n
pure types is equivalent to the description by means of (n - 1) properties. This law at work is
demonstrated by the example of Kretchmer's pure types (picnic, athletic, leptosome). The author
believes that the system of types is constant, whereas the system of properties is always open and
it is possible to add to it or take away from it any number of dimensions. A. Anastasi [73] formulates
Eckman's position as follows: “Any data set which can be adequately described by means of n
types can be as well described by means of (n - 1) properties” ([57, vol 2, P. 257]). As it will be
demonstrated below, this thesis (proved only for a special case) is also valid for accepted here
notions of typology, its volume and contents.
Let's consider the contents of typology according to its definition.
The problem of defining a number of attributes corresponding to a given typology boils down
to the problem of defining the capacity of the set of intertype distinctions.
What is the capacity of this set? Let us consider the problem in general. Let there be a
typology which on the set of researched objects allocates n types: Т1, Т2, …, Тn.
Thus, naturally, the requirement of completeness is met:
(5)
and the requirement of mutual disjointness of types is also met:
(6)

Let Jn be a set of types:

Jn = {T1, T2, …, Tn}. (7)

Then to any attribute (a, ā) from A there corresponds a splitting of the Jn set into two subsets,
which can be written down as:
X = <x, x'>, (8)
where x is the set of types belonging to one pole of the attribute - a; x' is the set of types belonging
to the other pole - ā.

The number of variants of allocation on the Jn set of a subset of possible combinations by i

from n will be:
. (9)
The values – binomial coefficients – could conveniently be represented as Pascal pyramid
(Fig. 11). In line n there are the following quantities:
. (10)

Since one section allocates two sets from k and (n - k) elements at once, then taking into
account that
,
(11)

it is easy to determine the number L of possible sections of the Jn set: .

(12)
Let's note here that an identical section corresponds to the combinations ……:
(13)

Fig. 11 The Pascal pyramid

 It can be considered to be the extreme case of splitting of the set of types (see also § 2.4), i.e.
an identical operation. Thus the maximum possible number of intertype distinctions (N) for a set of
n types will be:
(14)

The record (8) can be considered both as a section of a set of types, and as a description of
an attribute by means of a set of n types. In the latter case the obtained result can be formulated as
follows:
With the help of n types it is possible to describe no more than 2n-1 – 1 different attributes.
So, the two values: the number of types and the maximum number of intertype distinctions
strictly correlate with each other by the proportion (14).
The set of classifying attributes A may not include all intertype distinctions. The number of
attributes in it may be more or less close to the maximum. For example, to obtain 16 types 4
independent attributes are enough, and the number of possible distinctions between these 16 types
will make almost 33 thousand. We introduce designation Rn for the set containing all variants of
intertype distinctions for the typology of n types:

(15)

Rn is the set of all intertype distinctions, which by definition is the contents of the typology of n
types. The correlation of the volume and content of typology is provided in Tab. 25.
Table 25

The correlation of the volume and content of typology

Typology
Volume n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Typology N
Content 2n-1 - 1 0 1 3 7 15 31 63 128

Typology
Volume n 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Typology N
Content 2n-1 - 1 255 511 1023 2047 4095 8191 16383 32767

Table 25 demonstrates that the ability of typology to estimate the properties of objects
measured by the number of intertype distinctions, at n ≤ 4 is insignificant; however, when n > 10 the
number exceeds one thousand, at n = 16 it exceeds the average volume of written speech
vocabulary (20 000 words) [13, P. 117].
In 1914, when dealing with a classification problem, G. S. Mille wrote: “...properties which we
put in the basis of our classes, sometimes exhaust all general attributes of a class or in some form
or another imply them; in other cases, on the contrary, we select a few properties from a greater,
even inexhaustible number; and since we do not know the limits of this number we may
consider it infinite” [40, P. 109]. The analysis of publications reveals that today neither a solution of
the problem of correlation between the number of properties and the number of classes, nor even a
clear definition exists.
In 1986 S. S. Rozova wrote [52, P. 20]: “The basis of classification is some kind of a 'technical
device' needed to amplify the effect of the process of classification. The amplification effect here
consists of the identity of objects in a small number of properties (ideally – in one property), which
turns out to be their identity in a multitude of (almost in all others) properties. This effect is possible
due to the presence of different sorts of correlations, in particular, the laws connecting different
properties of objects. Once such law is found it is possible to "fish out" a huge, literally
inexhaustible stock of different correlations.”
This figurative and nevertheless precise description of the process, unfortunately, does not
bring us really closer to the essence of the phenomenon.
 Let's go back to the typological descriptions. If each attribute Аi of A is considered as some
logic condition which determines whether the object belongs to the Sa set, or to the Sā set, then the
typology corresponding to the set of attributes is, as it has already been said, a set of their logically
consistent realizations.
If all attributes Х1, Х2, Х3..., XN were independent from each other, then the number of types
would be equal to 2 raised to the power N: 2N. However, since at n> 3 the value 2N is much greater
than n, it is clear that we deal with a system of attributes with a complex structure of internal
connections.
Considering the complexity of the object of our analysis, we shall consider the structure of the
Rn set in the following aspects:
1. The depth of its in the context of "essence - phenomenon.”
2. The structure of the set of attributes.
3. The structure of connections.
4. Observability.

2.3. Analysis of the contents of typology in the "essence – phenomenon” context.

Let's consider the Rn constituent sections from the point of view of their corresponding
attributes.
Generally each splitting Хi from Rn implies a set of attributes from A. This set is an equivalence
class, which contains all attributes generating one and the same splitting of the S set.
To this class may belong:
1. The attributes from the "essence - phenomenon" context. For example: the atomic weight is
a phenomenon, the number of nucleons in the nucleus is the essence. Some authors
pursuing this aspect introduce the division of attributes into "attributes - causes" and
"attributes - manifestations" [60, P. 25].
2. Projections to different areas of manifestation of the same property without any direct
causal connection. The same property may be manifested in absolutely different spheres of
human life.
As a rule, it is not the intrinsic attributes, but the observable ones (i.e. attributes that are below
a certain level in the "essence - phenomenon" context (Fig. 12)) that are distinguished.

Fig. 12 The "essence - phenomenon" context

Essence

The area
of the manifested
properties

Phenomenon

3. Different causes may also generate identical effects.

The "essence - phenomenon" aspect requires, however, some special, more philosophical
analysis which is beyond the scope of our study. Here it is essential to make a statement that there
is an intrinsic dimension on a set of attributes, namely, depth.
 From this position it could be interesting to examine the meaning of a single section (E). There
we find:
1. The attributes generic for the set of examined objects. In other words, general attributes of
the typology substratum, i.e. those concerning the whole set of examined objects.
2. All the attributes that do not pertain to the contents of the typology. For example, the
attribute of sexual dimorphism is not essential for the typology of temperaments.
In the most general case Е means all attributes supplementing the set {X1, X2..., Xn} up to the
universe of constructs. Thus, the condensed Rn set reflects the whole universe of all possible
constructs of the language.
At the same time the semantic part of the set – the attributes X1, X2..., Xn – as if highlights the
area of the examined phenomena.
So some kind of homomorphy is established A  Rn which "assembles" all the attributes,
which generate identical splittings of the set of types Jn, in one construct from the set Rn.

2.4. Structure analysis of the set of attributes.

The general – the individual – the specific

K. Kalakhon and G. Murrey wrote that each person has something in common with every
person in the world; each person has something in common with some people, and at the same
time each person has something absolutely unique (cit. by [42, P. 228]). Same is true about a type:
it has something in common with all other types, it has some things in common with some types,
and some things that are absolutely unique.
So there are attributes common for all. These are obviously generic attributes; they are the
characteristics of the substratum of the set of researched objects. Species of common correspond
to them. There are attributes, which divide the set of types into approximately equal parts; each part
is comprised of similar elements. Species of particular correspond to them. And, at last, the third
group of attributes, these distinguish only one type; the attribute is the individual property of a type
and it constitutes its uniqueness.
Let's look at a line in the Pascal pyramid (see Fig. 11) corresponding, for example, to the
typology of 4 types. The first element C₀⁴=1 pertains, as it was already noted, to the species of
common and corresponds to section Е (see § 2.2 and 2.3). The second element C₁⁴=4 is the
number of attributes, each discerning one element of the typology; for example, the attribute "power
- weakness" of the nervous system discerns one type out of four. The number of these attributes
equals to the number of types, and in the Pascal pyramid they are located on periphery - we shall
name them peripheral attributes. And, at last, C₂⁴=6 – combinations of 2 types. 6: 2 = 3 attributes
correspond to it and split the set J4 in half (see, for example, Tab. 22). The central axis of the
Pascal pyramid corresponds to them. We shall name them central attributes.
Thus, we discern two kinds of attributes (peripheral and central) on the R n set. Along the line in
the direction from the side to the center the attributes lose the individual features and "acquire"
particular features, the number of attributes grows. According to the information theory, the closer
to the maximum of the logical opportunities of attributes combination a statement cuts off, the more
the statement is informative. From this point of view for n=16 the central attribute cuts off 8
opportunities, the peripheral attribute cuts off 15. In case when 0 opportunities cut off, the
information value of the statement equals zero. Peripheral attributes give us maximum information
about one type and are used for the description of types, whereas central attributes tell us little
about a type, but give us a good idea about the typology and they are used as classifying attributes.
A typical example is the MMPI technique [79] where in order to reach the level of the type of a
person four independent constructs are used, but for its description – capacious, vivid individual
characteristics discerning each type are used [66, Chap. 3.6].
It is difficult to put together a system on the basis of the peripheral attributes reflecting single
individual traits of a type, therefore empirical typologies use simple unstructured list of types.
Comparison of the two kinds of attributes is shown in Tab. 26.

Table 26
Comparison characteristics of central and peripheral attributes
Central Attributes
Tend to the conceptual concreteness
Used for building concise classification
Split the set of the examined objects into two
generalized types, for example: extraverts and
introverts
Both poles are equally informative
The sampling regarding these attributes could
be regarded as more homogeneous
Peripheral Attributes
Tend to graphic concreteness
Used for concise description of the typical and
the isolated
Highlight features of one type, for example,
schizoid or epileptic
Only one pole is informative
The sampling is heterogeneous to the maximum
regarding peripheral attributes

All other attributes located between the center and periphery, are not too generalized on the
one hand, and not too specific on the other. Distribution of attributes for the typology of 16 types is
shown in the Tab. 27 (see also Fig. 11).

Table 27

Distribution of attributes from the periphery to the center for n = 16

Х₁/1
Attribute 5 Х ²/14 Х³/13 Х4/12 Х5/11 Х6/10 Х7/9 Х8/8
Number of
attributes 16 120 560 1820 4368 8008 11440 6435
The sum from the
periphery to the
center 16 136 696 2516 6884 14892 26332 32767

By Gilford's definition, a property is a quality revealed by any method, which distinguishes one
individual from another [47].
The movement from periphery to the center is ascension from the concrete, individual to the
general, specific. It is natural to assume that concrete features, most strongly pronounced
properties of personality are represented in a language in greater degree, whereas the central
generalizing properties pertain more to the special, professional terminology and are represented in
smaller numbers. Then the area of the central attributes and those close to them (Х 8/8 - Х6/10) could
have poorer representation in a language than the area of the peripheral attributes.
Alport and Odbert found about 17000 words for personality description, 4505 of them were
character traits [73] in the English language. Clages discerned about 4000 such words [64, P. 216]
in German. The data permits to estimate the number of discerned features only approximately.
Here it is necessary to take into consideration both the incompleteness of dictionaries and the
polysemantic nature of different terms.
As it has already been said, when a description reaches the level of typology the individual
distinctions turn into the intertype ones. The capacity of the set of intertype distinctions for n = 16 is
almost twice as big than the number of conceptions providing the basic needs of a language (see
tab. 27). If we accept, after R. Kettle [64, P. 229], that in an ordinary language all aspects of
personality are reflected accurately enough then the typology of personality is an adequate
representation of this concept.
By means of comparing the capacities of typologies it is possible to compare the volumes of
the same concepts in the collective consciousness of different nations. The existence of such
difference, in our opinion, is one of the basic difficulties in translation of psychological texts into
foreign languages.

2.5. Structure analysis of a set of intertype distinctions.

Group properties of attributes

Considering the Rn set we study a system with a highly developed structure of inner
connections.
 Let's begin analyzing the structure of the Rn set of attributes with the simplest two-dimensional
example. Consider two bipolar attributes:

X = <x, x'> and Y = <y, y'>. (16)

These attributes divide the set of researched objects S into 4 types: Т1, Т2, Т3, Т4 (Fig. 13).

Each of the attributes divides the set of types

J4 = { Т1, Т2, Т3, Т4 } (17)

into two parts with two types in each. Thus the attributes X and Y can be written down as:

X = <{ Т1, Т3}, { Т2, Т4 }> = <x, x'>,

Y = <{ Т1, Т2}, { Т3, Т4 }> = <y, y'>. (18)

Henceforth the intersection of sets procedure (xy = x ∩ y) is omitted. Fig. 14 demonstrates that
there is one more attribute Z, which also divides J4 into two parts with two types in each:

Z = <{ Т1, Т4}, { Т2, Т3 }> = <Z, Z'>. (19)

All three attributes X, Y, Z belong to R4 because they are the sections of the J4 set. However,
as the construction demonstrates, the splitting of the set of researched objects by these three
attributes does not produce new types. Those attributes we shall call interdependent attributes
(see, for example, Tab. 24). The mathematical reflection of this dependence is a binary operation of
composition of sections - ρ. We shall write it down as follows:
Z=Xρ Y=<xyχx’y’, x’yχ xy’>=
<{ Т1, Т4}{ Т2, Т3 }>=<Z,Z’>.
(20)
The result of the composition of sections is shown on Fig. 14.
From the mathematical point of view all three sections (as will be shown below) are identical.
This fact indicates that the third bipolar axis might have a content reading.
Then, since this exhausts all possible splittings of a set of 4 types into two equal parts, the
description of type can be obtained by means of the central attributes (Tab. 28).
Table 28

The description of 4 types by three central attributes

X Y Z
T1 + + +
T2 + - -
T3 - + -
T4 - - +

Note: the "+" sign corresponds to the positive pole, "-"sign - to the negative pole of the attribute.

Tab. 28 demonstrates that this description does not allow for diametrically opposite types. Any
two types have two different attributes and one attribute in common. Thus, there is always a point of
view from which these two are one. For example, both Т1 and Т3 have property x in common,
though all their other attributes are different.
It is, however, a general description of 4 types. Let us look at some examples.
1. The description of typology of personality by R.Akoff and F.Emeri [2, p. 128] (see Tab. 24).
2. As applied to the description of types of temperament Tab. 28 will look as follows:
Table 29
 Types of temperament

Stability Speed ?
Sanguine + + +
Phlegmatic + - -
Choleric - + -
Melancholia - - +

How could the content of the third column be interpreted? What unites the sanguine and the
melancholic on the one hand, and the phlegmatic and the choleric on the other? There is an
obvious section here; but what does it mean? The question remains without an answer.
Tab. 28 can be used for building a typology on any two independent axes, for example:
Table 30

Correlation of potentials and tendencies

The level of expectations (potentials) The level of claims (tendencies) ?

T
1 + + +
T
2 + - -
T
3 - + -
T
4 - - +

In this case the third attribute will most likely be the adequacy of claims and expectations.
Let's return to Tab. 28. On the one hand, each line of this table represents a description of one
type by means of three bipolar attributes. On the other, each column of the table can be considered
as a description of some bipolar attribute by means of two pairs of types, each belonging to one of
the poles. Thus two problems could be set: the direct problem, the problem of definition of types
through attributes, and the counter problem, the definition of attributes through the known types
(identification of a section with a property of the type).
Let's consider now the properties of bipolar attributes. Using the expression (18) it is easy to
show that for the combination of sections we introduced the following equations are true:
XρZ=Y
Yρ Z=X
Xρ X=E
Yρ Y=E
Xρ E=X
Yρ E=Y
Zρ E=Z
(21)
Where Е is the identical section (see (13)).
Let us solve some of the problems:
Xρ Y== <xxχxx’’, xx’χ x’x>= <xχ x’, Øχ Ø>=<J, Ø>=E

(22)
(23)
It is easy to get the following equation also:

(24)

Henceforth the sections satisfying equation (24) will be called linearly dependent.
 Thus to the four types allocated on the S set correspond three linearly dependent axes any
pair of which can be chosen as the orthogonal basis for the definition of a type.
What are the properties of the set of the central attributes derived by us (let us designate it L 4
= {X, Y, Z, E}) with the operation of multiplication ρ introduced on it?
1. On this set the binary operation is set, so that for any Xi, Xj є L4 the following is true:
Xi ρ Xj є L4. (25)

2. The operation (20) is associative and commutative by virtue of associativity and

commutative property of the U and ∩ operations, i.e. for any X i, Xj, Xk from L4 the following
is true:

(Хi ρ Xj) ρ Xk = Xi ρ (Xj ρ Xk) - associativity, (26)

Xi ρ Xj = Xj ρ Xi – commutative property.

3. There is an element Е є R4, that for any X є L4 the following is true:

X ρ E = X.
(27)

4. For any X є L4 there is an element X - 1 є L4 for which:

X ρ X - 1 = E. (28)

So the set L4 is an Abelian group regarding the introduced operation of multiplication (Tab.
31).
Table 31

The multiplication table for group L4

X Y Z E
X E Z Y X
Y Z E X Y
Z Y X E Z
E X Y Z E

In mathematics this group is known as quadrantal [16, p. 97], or Kelli's group, it is rather
popular in different applications.
This group is isomorphic to the group of M substitutions {m1, m2, m3, m4} (see Tab. 32):

…………………. (29)

Table 32

The multiplication table for M group

m1 m2 m3 m4

m1 m1 m2 m3 m4

m2 m2 m1 m4 m3

m3 m3 m4 m1 m2

m4 m4 m3 m2 m1
 In crystallography the crystallographic group of symmetry 2/m=81,2,1’,m≅ [70, p. 201-202] is
isomorphic to this group.
In physics it is the group of double antisymmetry СРТ = {I, P, T, C} which has fundamental
value in the quantum theory of field [70, p. 288].
In psychology application of this group is associated with J. Piaget. The group of propositional
operations IRNC [45] derived by him in the research of intellectual structures is isomorphic to the
examined group L4. Here, in our opinion, besides the formal isomorphism of structures some
substantial analogy is possible. The development of invariant personality structures in the process
of person's socialization can be considered analogous to the making of the intellectual structures.
Until now we have been examining the central attributes (L4 set) for typology J4 = {Т1, Т2, Т3,
Т4}. Let us now find its full set of sections, R4.
According to (14) at n = 4 the capacity of R4 set is:

N=24-1 – 1 = 7. (30)

From the 4-th line of Pascal pyramid (see Fig. 11) it can be seen that for n = 4 there are 3
central and 4 peripheral attributes. If we consider the elements of R4 from the point of view of the
introduced operation of multiplication, it is easy to show that any result of multiplication of R4
elements is some section J4 and belongs to R4. Here three variants of combination of the attributes
are possible:

- central and central -> central;

- central and peripheral -> peripheral;
- peripheral and peripheral -> central.

These 7 attributes together with Е form a group of the 8-th order. The full description of all J4
types according to the attributes from R4 and the multiplication table of attributes are given in Tab.
33.
The rearrangement of poles, which sometimes happens as a result of multiplication, is neither
important nor reflected in the table. Similar groups of attributes and tables of their multiplication can
be derived in the same way for any n.
Table 33

Full description of J4 according to the R4 attributes and the multiplication table for R4 group

Attribut
e Central Attributes Peripheral Attributes
Type
X Y Z P1 P2 P3 P4 E
T1 + + + + - - - +
T2 + - - - + - - +
T3 - + - - - + - +
T4 - - + - - - + +
X E Z Y P2 P1 P4 P3 X
Y Z E X P3 P4 P1 P2 Y
Z Y X E P4 P3 P2 P1 Z
P1 P2 P3 P4 E X Y Z P1
P2 P1 P4 P3 X E Z Y P2
P3 P4 P1 P2 Y Z E X P3
P4 P3 P2 P1 Z Y X E P4
 In the system of the R4 attributes we can easily calculate the number of P connections of the
X ρ Y ρ Z = E kind. Such connection can be identically written down as three expressions:

XY = Z; YZ = X; XZ = Y. (31)

Hence, Р could be written down as:

…………. (32)

The number of connections depending on n is shown in Tab. 34.

Table 34

The number of connections between attributes for different typologies

Number of types, n 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of attributes, N 3 7 15 31 63 127
Number of connections,
P 1 7 35 155 651 2667

From Tab. 34 it is seen that at n> 5 the number of connections in the Rn system rapidly grows.
The description thus appears redundant. Attributes, which can be derived by means of combination
of other attributes, do not make the description any more informative, but they do increase its
reliability.

2.6. Conditions of adequacy of typological and factor descriptions

Different procedures of factorization are actually used in search of some optimum in order to
reduce the number of the factors employed without taking away from the description
comprehension. As it was demonstrated above, the results of such development are in the range of
15 ± 5 factors. It is an empirically found optimum.
Let's try to derive this optimum theoretically. For this purpose we shall introduce two concepts:
The basis of typology – a set of attributes, which allows discerning all types.
The basis of description – a set of attributes, which allows deriving all elements of the Rn
set.
The minimum set of features, which allows discerning all types, is usually used as the basis of
typology. The number of those attributes is equal to the number of the binary digits necessary for
listing of all the types in typology. For example, for 14 types 4 digits are enough, and for 17 types 5
are necessary. The basis of typology is convenient for classification, but it is too poor for the
description of types.
Let's look now at the basis of description from the point of view of the group structure of the
set of attributes. B is the generating set:

B= {Х1, Х2..., Хk}. (33)

B is a set of attributes comprising the Rn group then all possible combinations of attributes from B
generate all other elements of Rn that do not belong to B.
At the same time for any combination of the elements of B set the requirement of their linear
independence is fulfilled:

, (34)

where a1, a2, …, aw is any combination of indexes from {1, 2, …, k}.

If k is the number of elements of the generating B set, then the number of the D elements
generated by it will be:
, (35)
where: Ck2 is the number of paired; Ck3 - triple;... – CKX-(k - х) combinations of the B elements.
 Then for N we can write:

N=D+k (36)

or
………………………. (37)
After substituting in (37) the values Ck1 = k and CK0 = 1, we get:

…………………………………… (38)

………………… (39)

k = n - 1. (40)

So the number of the factors forming all the attributes of intertype distinctions is equal to the
number of types minus one. The correlation (40) establishes a strict numerical dependence
between the two complementary descriptions – the factor description and the typological one. Thus,
the following general statement can be formulated:
For any typological description of n types there is an adequate description of n - 1 factors.
In [74] this pattern was considered in case of 3 types only. Here the validity of this statement
for the most general case is proved. Let us consider simple examples.
There will be one new element for the two forming elements Х1, Х2:

X1 ρ X2= X3,

R3 = {E, X1, X2, X3}. (41)

The number of types n = 3.

For the three forming elements (, X1, X2, X3) there are four new elements X1X2, X1X3, X2X3
and X1X2X3. At the same time:

R4 = {Е, , X1, X2, X3X1X2, X1X3, X2X3, X1X2X3} =

= {Е, Х1, Х2, Х3, Х4, Х5, Х6, Х7}. (42)

The number of types is n = 4.

For the four forming elements Х1, Х2, Х3, Х4:

…………………………………………….. (43)

This is the full description of the five types.

The description by means of a generating set is equivalent to the full description since any
attribute can be derived by means of some combination of generating elements. If one element is
excluded from the description basis then it is not possible to derive some of the Rn elements – the
description thus becomes less informative. If just one element is added to the description basis it
does not make it more informative.
The description basis can be made up of peripheral, or central or any other attributes. Any pair
of the forming B elements X and Y generates the third element, Z; the latter is not a part of the
generating set. If Z replaces any element of this pair, a new generating set B will appear. Repeating
such procedure we can derive all generating sets for the Rn group. Without elaborating on the
calculations we shall only note that the number of generating sets when n increases grows faster
than the number of sections N.
Thus, when n is big enough, a huge number of description bases will be possible. Hence, a
final number of adequate factor descriptions may correspond to one typology.
So, there are three levels of descriptions characterizing a typology:
 1. The level of classifying attributes. It is a so-called basis of typology. A minimal number of
attributes corresponds to the number of binary digits which are used to number types.
Central orthogonal attributes are usually used for classification.
2. The level of description basis is a description, which consists of the elements of a
generating set. The number of factors is n - 1.
3. The level of full description - the greatest number of intertype distinctions possible for this
typology. At n> 5 it is immense.
These three description levels are shown on the nomogram (Fig. 15).
From the nomogram it can be seen that to the typological description made up of 16 types
corresponds an informatively equal description made up of 15 factors, this absolutely coincides with
the number of the empirically found average optimum volume of factor descriptions of personality
(used in the majority of popular questionnaires).

Fig.15 Connection between factor descriptions and typological descriptions

Number of types, n

Max number of
attributes
power of the
classifying basis

min power of the

adequate typological
description

complete number of factors

number in description
of attributes
…

2.7. Comparison of theoretical results with experimental data

The task of the present paragraph is to compare the results of the research of the
mathematical properties of typological description with the available experimental data.
The experimental material for comparison in this case are the experimental and theoretical
typologies described in published thesis as well as information about the popular factor techniques
and the connections between factors. Practically all the necessary data is contained in section 1 of
this part.
For clearness we present the result of this comparison in the form of a table, having in the left
column the data on how the set of 16 different types of personality should (in theory) look like to an
external observer, and in the right one – the data on how that what the psychological science deals
in practice with really looks like (Tab. 35).
The resulted comparison shows that the hypothesis of the presence of 16 basic types in the
sphere of personality is not only in contradiction with the experimental data, but confirmed by them
to a considerable degree.
It is necessary to separately examine the problem of the causes of correlations between
factors:
1. From the position of the typological approach a set of the researched objects possessing
the researched quality is a heterogeneous set which can be considered as an association of
homogeneous subsets (types). Each type on the Rn set has a unique spectral characteristic
consisting of poles of attributes Х1, Х2..., ХN. Between these values there is a concrete
systematic connection according to the multiplication table of attributes.
2. The degree of heterogeneity of the set of the researched objects will be different for the
central and the peripheral attributes. The central attributes divide Jn into two homogeneous
classes regarding the attribute. The peripheral ones discern one class (type) on the Jn set,
the class is homogeneous according to all the other attributes
 3. And, at last, in each concrete sample there is a certain distribution of the examinees
according to their types. According to data in [21, 26], this distribution is not even; however,
clinical data here cannot be used when dealing with "normal" contingent.
In this connection many questions arise concerning the accuracy of application of different
statistical methods in psychological researches, which require, however, separate detailed
consideration.

Comparison of theoretical results with experimental data
Theory
1. 16 different types are discerned
2. Lesser number of types is allowed
3. The minimum base of classification for 16
types is 4 orthogonal attributes
4. It is possible to build different classification
procedures for splitting of the J16 set but the
resulted typology will be only one.
Intermediate classes may substantially vary.
In other words, different ways, the same
result.
5. The number of possible intertype differences
N = 32767. The most informative of them
are: X1/15 – 16; X2/14 – 120; X3/13- 560; X4/12 -
1820
6. There is a great number (>10 000) of
different factor descriptions which could be
15 factors long, these descriptions are
adequate to the typological one
7. With the help of a 10 factor basis it is
possible to describe N = 210-1 – 1 = 511
intertype differences
8. The correlation of attributes. If two factors
are considered chance quantities on the set
of types, all factors except for the orthogonal
ones seem to an external observer to be
correlated. The presence of multiple
correlations is determined by the relations in
the Rn structure the number of which is P =
N(N-1)/6
9. Presence of the Rn set of types, the R16 set of
attributes and the P16 set of connections
allows building of different consistent models
of personality properties, which are
homomorphic images of the structure
described by these three sets.
Таблица 35
Experiment
1. Clinical typologies discern no more than 16
types. Some practical typologies discerning
16 types really work
2. In practice there are typologies discerning 2,
3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 and 16 types in
different spheres of human activity
3. In the majority of factor researches of
different areas no more than 4 orthogonal
attributes are discerned
4. There are a big variety of classification
procedures. For typologies with n<16
classes may either differ or coincide. (For
example, 4 types of mind [41] and 4 types of
temperament [57].) The research of clinical
typologies resulted in 16 types (see p.1).
5. The number of characteristics of personality
discerned in different languages may be as
large as 17 000.
6. There is a great number (>10 000) of
different factor descriptions used in different
spheres of personality; the number of factors
used is in the range of 15 ∀ 5.
7. For MMPI with its 10 main scales there are
more than 400 additional scales describing
various traits of personality [30, p.181]
8. In all models, except for orthogonal two-,
three-, and four-factor ones there is a
considerable correlation of factors
9. There are a lot of theoretical concepts of
personality characteristics. The central
attributes are often used for building different
classifications – both hierarchical and non-
hierarchical [2, 9, 66, 84, 74, 77]. "Presently
there are more and more factor personality
theories appear based on the use of different
tests and establishing correlation between
derived factors" [47, p.99].

2.8. Typological approach to the measurement of differentiation degree in any subject field
 Let's get back to the definition of concepts "type" and "typology" (see paragraph 2.1).
Strictly speaking, type is one of possible logically consistent realizations of a set of attributes
characterizing the phenomenon in a concise form; and typology is the totality of these realizations,
being at the same time the full and consistent description of the semantic field.
For description of the semantic field of a phenomenon a set of essential attributes is used:

A = {A1, A2..., Am}. (2)

Any attribute from A allocates in some subject field (which our thinking connects to this
phenomenon) a number of nonempty homogeneous subsets. Homogeneity in this case means
impossibility of distinction of objects by means of this attribute.
It was shown (see paragraph 2.2) that the maximum number of intertype distinctions for a
typology of n types is determined by the formula (14):

N = 2n-1 - 1.

That is, there is a precise quantitative dependence between the volume of semantic field and
the number of discerned types.
Analyzing the process of differentiation in the given object sphere we can introduce the
concept of the degree of differentiation as a number of logically consistent realizations of a set of
essential attributes.
The degree of differentiation thus determined turns from an indistinct notion into a concrete
value, which can be subjected to exact quantitative estimation.
For example, the typology of personality is a set of concrete realizations of the concept of
"personality". The number of types discerned is a quantitative characteristic of the degree of
differentiation in the given subject field.
This approach allows to make comparative estimations of the degree of detaling of concepts in
different social - psychological strata, professional groups, nations [50, 51].

2.9. Available results

As a result of the analysis of typological description a theoretical model of the structure of

personality traits is obtained which allows us to bring typological and factorial descriptions of
personality together as one.
The analysis has demonstrated:

● There are two levels of individual distinctions:

1. Systematic level determined by the spectrum of intertype distinctions.
2. Stochastic level where individual distinctions are characterized by accidental, non-
systematic deviations from an average representative of a type along the axes of intertype
distinctions.
The presence of the two levels allows to draw the conclusion on the necessity of two steps of
testing:
1. Definition of type.
2. Definition of introtype deviations (distinctions within the type).

● The number of possible intertype distinctions N depends on the number of types n  a

 ccording
to the rule N= 2 n
 -
 1- 1 which determines the volume of the factor contents of typology.

● There are two dimensions on the set of essential attributes:

1. Along the "essence - phenomenon" line grouping together the attributes corresponding to
one section of the sets of types.
2. Along the "general – individual – specific" line distributing the attributes according to the
degree of the data-traffic on poles.

● A set of intertype distinctions Rn is an Abelian group regarding the binary operation
introduced on it (see 2.5). The fundamental subgroup of this group is the “group of four” isomorphic
to the IRNC group used by J.Piaget in his research of intelligence.
 ● For any typological description of n
 types there is a description adequate to it comprised of
n - 1 factors. The number of attributes in the factor description (which is adequate to the typological
one) is equal to the capacity of the generating set for the  Rn group.

 Comparison of the obtained results with the published data on the factor and typological
●
descriptions allows to consider the hypothesis of the existence of a uniform typology of personality
consisting of 16 types to be fair.

So far not only the solution of the problem of correlation of the number of properties and the
number of homogeneous classes, but even its distinct formulation has been absent. The present
work fills in this blank in the theory, developing the theoretical notions of the properties of a
personality attributes set.
A complex object like a set of psychological properties of personality is essentially impossible
to describe completely neither by means of a hierarchical structure of properties, nor by means of a
Cartesian space even of a very large dimension, nor to present by means of a graph.
Typology seems to be the most full and evident "convolution" of knowledge in this area.
Actually this approach offers a change of the reference frame in psychological description of
personality. As a reference point, instead of some universal-set-average vector of psychological
properties, a typology, i.e. some nominative scale, a set of types each element of which has both
mathematical and deep psychological meaning, is offered.
The typological approach in psychology developing concepts on the general psychological norm,
allows comprehending and synthesizing the enormous volume of data accumulated in different
psychological researches of personality.

Part III
Types and Situations

Types of information metabolism and situations

An attempt to analyze behavior of people of different types of information metabolism in

some typical situations might be presented as some kind of uniquely structured description of
types, the latter being examined through the prism of interactions with the environment.
To begin with, let us examine a spectrum of situations theoretically, taking into account
the eight elements of information metabolism (IM):

Positive subject intuition (+ ). Integrity of the inner situation: good, pleasant

mood, harmony with the external world; fun, happiness; plunging in thought.
Inverse subject intuition (- ). Infringement of the inner peace: irritation, moral
discomfort; internal contradictions.
Positive objective intuition (+ ). Integrity of the environment: everything is known
from beginning to end; the world as if rolls on straight tracks; there is a schedule; the
world is predictable, people are predictable, too.
Inverse objective intuition (- ). Infringement of the integrity of environment:
unexpectedness, breach of schedule; the result of events is unpredictable, or an
unexpected event.
Positive subjective sensing (+ ). Various bodily sensations: that of being strong
and healthy, taste, color, smells. The practice of cleansing and healing techniques and
diets; attention to health. Following fashions in the area of health.
Inverse subjective sensing (- ). Indisposition, pain, hunger, fatigue, unpleasant
sensations of other origin.
Positive objective sensing (+ ). Form, fashion, appearance. Movement, action,
activity. Skills. Will.
 Inverse objective sensing (- ). Beautiful/ugly (judgment). Physical violence,
danger.
Positive objective logic (+ ). External circumstances, events, facts. Personal
space. Technology of arrangement. Statistics. The external world is the objective reality.
Matter. Documents. Rules, laws. Material values. External social norms.
Inverse objective logic (- ). Loss of values, money. Infringement of the order.
Natural disasters. Traffic jams. “Facts are the objective reality.” Numbers, statistics. Loss
of territory. Car breakage; TV, home appliance breakage. Dirt in the hall on the carpet.
Positive subject logic (+ ). Understanding, hierarchy, structure.
Inverse subject logic (- ). Difficult task; a challenge to the intellect. Necessity to
figure out and understand.
Positive objective ethics (+ ). External relationships. Relationships with people.
People’s attitude to me. Negotiations. Meetings with friends. Fellowship with close ones.
Inverse objective ethics (- ). Conflicts. Intrigues. Slander. Quarrel with near and
dear ones. Conflicts at work.
Positive subject ethics (+ ). My attitude to people. Necessity to express my
attitude, opinion, feelings of love. Pleasant/unpleasant. My evaluation of a thing, an
object, a person.
Inverse subject ethics (- ). I abhor, reject, detest.

Formally, this list can be regarded as an exhaustive one; however, at the same time it is
rather abstract, remote from real life.
Let us pick an example from the abundance of daily situations and examine the `0:00

1. Active interactions in the social sphere, both successful and unsuccessful.

2. Intemperance; quarrels.
3. Relationships with the opposite sex.
4. Impossibility of definite actions; wavering and procrastination.
5. Impossibility to assert one's own interests, to pursue the set goals.
6. Extreme situations, natural disasters; dealing with masses in these conditions.
7. Difficulties in communication. Impossibility of compromise.
8. Personal conflicts.
9. Bad health condition.
10. Situation when a person is open to external influences. Deceit and intimidation.
11. Behavior not usual to the person. Change of the image.
12. Unexpected event. Frustration of the schedule.

Though incomplete, this set is not random. Our purpose now is to vividly demonstrate the
socionic instrument at work. We shall address each type individually. Here we consciously will
not adhere to an austere style, but shall try to model the "client - consultant" situation. Besides,
here we will not consider all types in all possible situations.
So, we have a client who may end up in one of the twelve situations listed above.

Active social cooperation (success, failure)

A Don Quixote
Social cooperation is not your strongest side. You are running the risk of excessive
emotional overreaction and doing something stupid. Make a correct estimate of your time and
energy to be realized in the social sphere. In moments like this it is good to have a practically
minded friend who can see and plan ahead.

A Dumas
You will hardly have any problems in the area of relationships. Everything will be fine.
You, however, should not relax during signing of a contract or important papers: in fact, you
will have to pay through the nose for your own mistakes. Invite an expert; do not rely on
yourself only.

A Hugo
Try not to confuse business and human relationships. Do not neglect advice of competent
people; do not rely on your communication skills only.

A Robespierre
Things might happen that you have not been able to discern ahead of time. You probably
will not be able to ignore them. People, unfortunately, do not always do the things they should
do or the way they should. You cannot change that; they have a different view of life. Do not
take it too close to heart. If you want to be a success, remember that any social activity is
limited in time. If something does not satisfy you, you attempt to do or make something better,
and even the best. But the best is the worst enemy of good; you might simply exceed the time
permitted for a move and not realize what is already in your hands. An advice: timing is
important.

A Hamlet
The situation is similar to that of a Hugo. Besides, in your interactions with social
structures there might be a necessity of some paperwork. Then remember, there are lawyers
and economists! Go for consultation!

A Maxim
The situation is similar to that of a Robespierre. Besides: if there is a person you trust 100
%, take him/her with you. Alone you can miss something important. Some people are good at
putting on the looks of solid and respectable people, you might be deceived.

A Zhukov
Many envy your business acumen and energy. People often agree with you, trust you.
Try, however, to take into account other people's opinions. It might happen that their
concession is not sincere and later you will not be able to rely on them. Advice: Take into
consideration opinions and the real mood of your partners.

A Tutankhamon
You are able to communicate with different people, and this is your trump card. However,
when the business gets into a formal phase, do not do it all yourself. Get your assistants
involved, they can do the paperwork quickly and competently. Advice: Beware least you get
involved in activity you do not need to be involved in.

A Napoleon
You are a born leader. You are not afraid of responsibility, and it is very important in any
social activity. Try, however, to be more diplomatic. People like your openness and frankness;
they know that it is better than vague hints and roundabout insinuation. Just do not put too
much pressure on people, and many will follow you. Social interactions are your strong side.
The only recommendation: try to define your goals and your territory (social 'territory' as well)
as precisely as possible; that will allow you to foresee the consequences of your actions and
control the situation. Your energy allows breaching any wall, to solve any problem. Carefully
choose the area where you will invest your time and energy. Do not give in to your mood, it
can destroy everything.

A Balzac
Your social activity may sometimes lack energy. You perfectly see the course, the
development of the situation, the hidden dangers and the latent opportunities. However, a
good energetic team is necessary for realization of your ideas, it is not necessary to rush into
the journey alone. Active interactions require support. Be attentive to what is going on,
otherwise you might find yourself in a situation you neither want nor need. Your ability to
change your image is very useful in different interactions. However, do not lose yourself;
people get quickly used to what suits them, and after a while they expect you to behave in a
certain way. Advice: energetic assistants and partners are necessary to bring about your risky
plans in the social field. Do not lose control; otherwise they will be in charge very soon.

A Jack London
What can be recommended to a pro? We would like to learn from you the skill to survive
and win in the society. Your knowledge of the real situation, the ability to take into account the
time factor and the objective laws of the society cause envy in others. You can be successful
in ventures others consider impossible. Think, however, are you not too carried away in this
sphere? Do not forget about the family. Your own home requires not only the financial support
and ideas, but also your personal presence.

A Dreiser
Your nature is not that well adapted to the demanding social interactions. Watch yourself.
Quite often you are in the position of an observer, not making any active moves. The society is
not too attentive, therefore your may not be appreciated or you may simply remain unnoticed.
Other people, unfortunately, could not hear your inner tune. The world is inharmonious and in
order to be heard it is necessary to make considerable efforts. People are what they are; you
cannot change them. To expect people or the world to act in certain ways is not always the
best strategy. They probably live by their own rules. Advice: do not let the emotions rule you;
they can sometimes overpower you. Do not give in to the hypnosis of the circumstances.

A Holmes
In this sphere you will not have problems unless you get stuck on trifles. Remember the
main thing, and some details can be specified later. Do not be afraid of the new. Some things
might be rather effective in spite of the fact that nobody has tried them before.

A Dostoevsky
You can excel in this area. Just get to work. People may consider you a formalist;
however, a decent amount of formalism would not hurt in business. Anyway, you will make
things clear for you and your partners.

A Huxley
Be attentive when working with papers: contracts, instructions, agreements, etc. Try to
see the core of things, get down to the root of problems; people are always looking to their own
interests. Do not let other people to hypnotize you with facts.

A Gaben
You know perfectly how to arrange everything in the most rational way: it will be simple,
beautiful, inexpensive and convenient. You will always have your own perfect way, the main
thing – do not argue with fools.

Intemperance. Quarrels.

A Don Quixote
Any situation has several stages. No quarrel arises instantly. Try to recognize the first
stage, catch it in the very beginning. You always have a span of time when emotions get
stirred but are still under control. Take care: if an emotional explosion might be good for people
of other types, for you it is a stress, and it will take a long time for you to recover. A situation of
emotional tension will probably hunt your thoughts for several days. Do you have to pay the
high price of your carelessness?

A Dumas
If you suddenly understand that you have missed the beginning of a quarrel, you should
have enough skill to suspend the unnecessary conflict, you do not let it develop into something
huge. People of your type, as a rule, are rather skilful in the sphere of emotional interactions.

A Hugo
 You understand relationships well enough to recognize a conflict long before emotions
splash out. And in case you do not need it at the moment, you will manage to smoothly change
the subject. You have a remarkable skill to create a cozy emotional atmosphere. Use it!

A Robespierre
You should be especially attentive to those near and dear. Miss a moment – and
emotions may blaze up, relationships may be spoiled for a long time.

A Hamlet
You will do your best for sure. Your skill to control your emotions can be only envied. We
hope, however, that this will not cause a real fight.

A Maxim
It is possible eventually to quarrel, however, you must pay for the assault and battery.
Advice: do not yield to emotions. You will not find the truth in a quarrel anyway, but the
consequences might be sad. Remember this – and you will cope with the situation much
easier.

A Zhukov
You know yourself. At times it is difficult to cope with a bad mood. Be ready for this,
especially in a situation of a conflict.

A Napoleon
Well, you cannot deny it: it is easier for you to express your feelings than to conceal them.
Sometimes it might hurt the situation, but even knowing that, you can do little about it.
Strangely enough, other people do not have this problem at all.
When you divide people into friends and foes, it has some deep meaning for you. Your
attitude to someone can abruptly change and move a friend into the “foe category” or a foe into
the “friend category.” You do not want to be liked by everyone, and it is a precondition of your
success in social life. As a rule, people of your type do not fear conflicts. Nevertheless, be
attentive and do not go overboard when your are in a bad mood.

A Balzac
You will rather avoid a quarrel than be a part of it. Why waste energy on nonsense? At
times you blow up too. In moments like that it is better to stay away from you. Be especially
attentive in those cases, in fact these fits hurt you more than anyone else.

A Jack London
As a rule, you do not like conflicts, but nevertheless such situation may arise. Usually you
try to avoid it. Is it always the best strategy? Do not you pay too much for it? Do not run from
all conflicts; and observe yourself. You may probably find new strategies of dealing with people
and situations.

A Dreiser
You may fly into a rage, sometimes your statements are harsh, but you will never prolong
conflicts and just cannot be angry for a long time. You have a good memory, but nevertheless
are easily appeased. Advice: If you are ready for the conflict beforehand, it will most likely
never happen. You will simply not let it break out. The position of the observer often helps you
in difficult situations, especially in the company of strangers. Anyway you do not like quarrels
and will try to avoid them.

Relationships with the opposite sex.

A Don Quixote
You are amorous. First of all you see in other person a representative of the opposite sex,
and only later – a person. It is easy to infatuate you; you easily fall in love. Even one touch can
sometimes drive you very far. You like to be liked, but consider this: it is a weakness!
 A Dumas
Strangely enough, people of your type sometimes fail in relationships with the opposite
sex due to an excessive rationalism. Do not forget that some things are not designed for
understanding at all; the logic of life sometimes requires acts beyond human logic. Advice: a
little recklessness would do you no harm.

A Hugo
People of your type show certain contradiction between outward openness,
communicative skills and internal indecisiveness, even shyness in relationships with the
opposite sex. You feel perfectly well in a company, you can be the life and soul of the party.
However, in a one-on-one situation you often seem to be too irresolute, expecting initiative
from your partner. You understand relationships well. Sometimes people may take your
indecision for coldness.

A Robespierre
It is hard for you to talk about your feelings. It is easy to demonstrate what you feel in a
practical way, but to put it in words is another story. However, some people just need to hear
about your feelings, otherwise they cannot feel secure. If the object of your sympathy is
insecure you should gather your courage, maybe even write down what you are going to say in
advance and read it.

A Hamlet
Remember: your emotional sphere is much deeper than the one of the majority of people.
Your normal way of expressing of emotions may seem to another person too strong or
extravagant. Advice: watch the partner's reaction. If your vis-à-vis became quiet, he or she has
probably been frightened.

A Maxim
People of your type have a problem expressing their feelings, their attitude to things and
people. It is a hundred times easier for you to do something to demonstrate your feelings than
put it in words. Great, if your partner does not need words, but what if at least some talking or
explaining is necessary? Then make an effort and get ready ahead of time, otherwise you
might frighten your partner or get across as a rude and careless person.

A Zhukov
Some people expect subtle expression of feelings. And for you it is a hard task. You have
a gentle soul, but externally may seem rude. Advice: pay attention to your emotional sphere,
but do not fantasize, be yourself. Your energy will probably make up for some involuntary
roughness in the expression of feelings.

A Napoleon
When young people of your type have especially tense relationships with the opposite
sex. Not only sweet romances are possible in this period, but also affairs that could hurt. Later
these problems smooth out. As a rule, in these situations you are the active party. Be,
however, attentive: your energy can break barriers, but something subtle in the relationships
can be destroyed in the process.

A Balzac
At times your relationships with the opposite sex you are not active enough and you let
your partner take the initiative. If you agree with this statement, observe: at times do you find
yourself involved in relationships against your own will? If you do not agree - well, you do not
need our recommendations.

A Jack London
In relationships with the opposite sex people of your type are rather conservative. Watch
for artificial restrictions in this area, which you do not need.

A Dreiser (female)
 Looking very active and labile, you are nevertheless rather conservative in this area.
However, your coquettish attitude might make people think that you are easy to seduce. You
may agree that in your life such misunderstanding happened more than once. But in general
you do not need many recommendations in this area since you are able to keep the distance
like nobody else. Advice: remember that not everybody understands hints.

A Dreiser (male)
Your conservatism in this issue protects you well from difficult and ambiguous situations.
You are capable of flirtation, but your home, family and its interests is your basic value. In this
sphere you are perfectly competent and do not need any advice.

Impossibility of definite actions; wavering and procrastination

A Don Quixote
For you it is a grave situation. See if your own wavering is the reason (or one of the
reasons) for the impossibility of definite actions. Try to step aside, have a detached view of the
situation, as though seeing it on a silver screen; soberly, unbiasedly estimate the actions of the
"characters" (including yourself). It could probably appear that you should be more resolute. An
unresolved situation of this sort may seriously damage your health.

A Dumas
Same case as a Don Quixote’s. It is better to make your own choice; otherwise someone
else will make it for you. Remember: 80% of the cause of wavering and procrastination is you;
the impossibility of resolute actions is the result of your own indecision. You can never know
everything from beginning to end. There will never be a 150 % guarantee of success.

A Hugo
The most difficult thing for you is to see the borderline of the situation. You may not notice
the moment when the time of wavering and procrastination ends and begins the time of
resolute actions. Look out for this transition and do not miss it.

A Robespierre
Remember: nerve cells do not restore, or, more accurately, they restore much more
slowly than other cells of the body. There is no need to stress out over objective
circumstances. No matter how hard you try you cannot foresee everything. Induced delays are
inevitable even with most flexible planning. Take a contrast shower or read your favorite book
if you get a chance.

A Hamlet
Relax! This situation does not need any activity on your part. Try not to miss the moment
when it is time to make decisions. Advice: Be alert!

A Maxim
This situation will demand self-control from you. Actions during these moments can be not
only ineffective, but also even counterproductive. However, because you know when this
interval will end, little effort will be required from you to endure it.

A Zhukov
Wavering and procrastinations are not in your book, but when all you could do has been
done, let the situation ripen. Not always a mistake can be corrected by means of punishment
of those at fault. It is needed and even necessary to put demands on people, however, there
are also objective reasons. Advice: take it easy.

A Tutankhamon
You may simply not notice this situation. Be attentive to join in activity at the moment
when resolute actions do not meet resistance any more. The motto: “Be ready!”
 A Napoleon
Unfortunately, not everything depends on us, sometimes external circumstances
overpower us. Be patient, try to relax. At this time resolute actions are impossible anyway.
Switch to another activity, engage in something pleasant. Some problems take more time to be
solved than we would prefer.

A Balzac
It is important for you not to miss the moment when the situation of induced
procrastination may turn into a chronic one. See who benefits from it and do not let the things
stagnate. Analyze all the reasons for the delay; you will probably see not only the objective
circumstances, but also the interests of certain people. If it is so, do not be afraid to involve
vigorous assistants: it will take more than your own energy to put things in motion.

A Jack London
Psychologists believe that people of your type are not confused by any delays and
procrastination caused by objective circumstances. You have enough patience, and you will
not go into extremes, worry or fret. If a delay has objective character, you will continue on with
your activity, with the only difference: your actions will become internal, you will turn to
developing your inner resources and searching for new options. The only thing that would be
necessary is a precise self-positioning in the situation.

A Dreiser
Much like a Maxim. Plus: if you learn how to smoothly pass through the situations of delay
it will save a lot of nervous energy in the future.

A Holmes
For you, just like for a Robespierre, various delays are the time of processing additional
data, time for analysis. Probably this period would prove beneficial for you. Analyze the
situation once more, look through the papers again, and make correction of plans for the
nearest future if necessary.

A Dostoevsky
You should not worry too much. In the world there are a lot of things and situations
completely independent of our plans. Try not to miss, however, the end of this stage and be
ready for definite actions. All your energy and concentration could be required then.

A Huxley
Take the advantage of the moment to estimate the situation, make a detailed analysis of
data and make a decision. It will make for your success, and when the adverse period ends,
you will be ready for resolute actions again.

A Gaben
Much like a Huxley. A plus here is that you have the time to think! Maybe you can find a
more rational way to bring your plans about.

Impossibility to assert one's own interests, to pursue the set goals

A Don Quixote
Since your activity in these periods will be inhibited, try to put it at rest. However, if there
is the need to assert your purposes, you will certainly rush to fight despite of the forecasts
even if it will be the struggle against windmills.

A Dumas
People of your type find it difficult to assert their goals. In such situation it will be even
more difficult since your activity is inhibited. Think beforehand, whose help you could use at
this time.
 A Hugo
If you precisely know when it will be necessary to fight for your goals, call for somebody to
whom the stars are more favorable at this period. A warning: standard ways could let you
down.

A Robespierre
Unfortunately, in this situation it might not be enough to just rely on your own strength.
Habitual behavior might "not work". It is best to secure someone's support. Why risk in a
disadvantageous position? The fact of the matter is, you might not be able to ignore reality.

A Hamlet
People of your type are characterized by some indecisiveness. In these circumstances
this feature may amplify. Be attentive: during those periods of time decision-making requires
even more energy than it usually does.

A Maxim
Try to relax. It is best to plan for yourself something pleasant, a holiday or an
entertainment, otherwise you could waste too much energy for upholding your goals, it may
unsettle you for a long time. Advice: take this situation for granted, just like rainy day or bad
weather.

A Zhukov
You are used to relying on your own resources. As a rule it is enough, so the situation of
compelled inactivity, impossibility of action for you is especially unpleasant. Unfortunately, you
cannot do anything right now. Relax, do not waste your energy, you will need it soon.

A Tutankhamon
If you are going to assert your goals during this period, get someone else's support. You
will not make it alone. Even your communicative skill may not work.

A Napoleon
The situation may seem especially difficult since you are a person of action. The
compelled inactivity may seriously upset you. However, when you know precisely the time
when the spell ends, it is not necessary to worry as much. You can wait till this period is over.
Caution: Alcohol is not the best remedy for bad mood.

A Balzac
This situation is not too dangerous for you for your goals might be of a deep internal
character.

A Jack London
Usually you do not depend on external circumstances, you move towards your goals no
matter what. However, be ready for delays you will not be able to overcome. In that case do
not waste your energy; it is better to temporarily switch your attention to something else.

A Dreiser
For you this situation should pass easily enough: you know about it already, and it will not
fall out of the general harmony of daily events.

Extreme situations, natural disasters; dealing with masses in these conditions

A Don Quixote
People of your type show their maximum potential under extreme pressure. During those
moments you may demonstrate the character qualities you did not know you had, so there is
no point to prepare for this beforehand.

A Dumas
 You probably noticed that in unexpected, extreme situation your body and mind either
freeze or continue working automatically. Expect this reaction and acknowledge the problem
as soon as possible. The quicker you come out of this state the easier you will be able to
overcome the danger.

A Hugo
You are subconsciously ready for this situation. You have enough energy for both
resolute actions and control of people in extreme situations.

A Robespierre
If something of this kind really happens, try to not lose sight of the integrity of the
situation. Otherwise rash decision may lead to unreasonable and excessive waste of energy.
Try to catch the whole picture of what is happening.

A Napoleon
In an unexpected extreme situation you can lead people like nobody else. You are able to
take fast and drastic measures. People of your type are as though prepared by the nature for
extreme situations and do not need further recommendations.

A Balzac
In an extreme situation you are capable of resolute selfless actions; however, you are not
fit for the role of a leader. You may get stuck, or stop if it seems to you that someone else
should take the responsibility.

A Jack London
In an extreme situation you will act confidently enough. The maximum of your abilities will
be revealed here. Anyway, it is better that you would not have to use them.

A Dreiser
An extreme situation may unsettle you for a moment. However, you are capable of quickly
bracing yourself and working energetically.

A Gaben
People of your type in an extreme situation can behave energetically and rather rationally.
However, during the first moments of the situation you may stop, get stuck, or go into a stupor.
Be ready and try to make this period of time as short as possible.

Difficulties in communication. Impossibility of a compromise.

A Don Quixote
Usually you manage to find common language with people. However, failures are
possible: when people are not constructive, you are in a difficult situation. Advice: do not be
too self-confident, your communicative skills may fail.

A Dumas
You successfully communicate with almost everyone. This is your strong side. Probably in
these circumstances you will have to invest more energy and attention. However, if the
situation demands serious compromises, it is better to look for other time and other
circumstances.

A Hugo
Do not be too self-confident. It is quite possible that it is not the best situation for a
dialogue. Negotiations requiring serious compromises should be postponed. Advice: it is better
to wait than get involved in anything at times like this.

A Hamlet
 You are perfectly able to control your emotions. However, other people may
misunderstand you and misinterpret your words or acts. During the periods of distorted
perception it is better to refrain from any actions and decisions.

A Zhukov
In a situation when understanding between people is difficult some of their statements
may seem insulting to you. Stop, do not draw any conclusions. Most likely it is a simple
misunderstanding. He or she meant something absolutely different and simply failed to convey
their thought. Be attentive, otherwise relationships may go sour and stay like that for lengthy
periods of time.

A Tutankhamon
Similar to a Dumas. The following situation is possible: you have come to an agreement
with your partners but it turns out that you misunderstood each other. Clarify whether you have
really come to an agreement or it is a mutual illusion. Advice: Be especially attentive.

A Napoleon
If you manage to adhere to a 'dry' official style, everything should turn out OK. For
compromises, however, it is better to choose another time, and if possible, another place,
otherwise your business may suffer.

A Balzac
In this situation you should avoid prickly statements. Your conclusions might prove to be
correct... And nevertheless it is better to leave them for tomorrow. You will still understand
people well (which could not be said about representatives of other types).

A Jack London
If it is impossible to postpone a serious meeting, try to be especially attentive and check
how other people understand what you said. Especially if they agree with you! It is quite
possible that each party understood the state of things in their own way.

A Dreiser
Psychologists say that people of your type generally do not seek depth in relationships,
and are content basically with superficial dialogue in which are not inclined to compromises.
But there is a small circle of people (as a rule limited to the family circle) with whom you are
very close and there is a number of already settled compromises. In this light the situation is
not too disturbing for you - you are attentive enough in the sphere of interpersonal
relationships. However, be ready that partners would show more misunderstanding and
obstinacy than usually. But an emotional move can always help you.

A Holmes
In this situation it is better not to plan any personal meetings. There might be
misunderstanding you would regret later. Should you stay away from the difficult people for a
while? By the way, there is always some unfinished paperwork.

A Dostoevsky
You have probably been in a situation when people do not understand too well what you
are telling them, but pretend that they do. Pay special attention to this: people may agree with
you probably having in mind their own goals. If in your relationships with someone serious
adjustments and compromises are required, it is better to devote this time to other things.

A Huxley
As a rule, you judge people characters rather accurately and talk to people in their
language. On the one hand, it facilitates contacts, but on the other makes them more so to say
'artificial'. Slips are possible here. Try to define your assessments more accurately. The initial
opinion may prove to be not absolutely true. As to the 'near and dear' ones, here the contacts
already exist and are finely tuned. Beware, however, of losing your temper, it may put you to a
disadvantage.
 A Gaben
Do not make appointments with new people: the probability is great that the dialogue will
fail. Your professionalism and knowledge may certainly help, but most likely you will
misunderstand each other. Even if someone in this situation agrees with you, be not
delusioned, there might be no understanding at all.

Interpersonal conflicts

A Don Quixote
Any conflict between people (even if it does not concern you directly) bothers you. The
more you are involved in a conflict, the higher the psychological cost for you will be.
Remember that you may lose much more energy than other participants of the conflict. You
know the famous formula of a failure: “Be good to everyone, please everyone.” Check yourself
and see if you follow the formula?

A Dumas
As a rule you successfully avoid these problems. You are able to help a person calm
down or at least switch the focus of attention to another topic or person. Advice: practice self-
control. Even if your opponent gets personal, do not retaliate. It does not help resolve the
conflict at all. This situation may be creative for you, however, try to stay away from the front
lines. Direct conflicts are not recommended for you.

A Hugo
Generally, fighting and conflict is not your part in life. There are people who get a kick out
of fighting, they even get charged in a conflict; you instinctively try to avoid conflicts. And
remember nevertheless: sometimes it is better to call a spade a spade, and an open and direct
talk is much more effective than hints and equivoques.

A Robespierre
Of course, you want justice and you strive for it. Pay closer attention to the means you
use. Are they too radical in this situation? Is your approach too harsh and serious?
Stand back and look at the situation from outside. It is a good quality to have – to be able
to laugh at yourself.

A Hamlet
People of your type are good actors. It is easier for you than for other types to put on a
face and live with it for some time and then discard it. You are better than many others able to
control your emotions and inner states. Since you have this remarkable gift, you do not need to
fight with anybody. Advice: Choose a suitable role for yourself and change the script. Or, to put
it more accurately, the script will change itself according to the logic of life of the image
chosen.

A Maxim
The ability to work under the pressure of conflict is not your strongest side. To act, to risk
is another story, you are good at it, but the sphere of emotions... In this place you are
unprotected, open for influence of other people and, unfortunately, might find yourself involved
in a conflict against your will.
It is very important to know this zone. The situation of interpersonal conflict provides a fine
opportunity to observe your own behavior. This observation will help you to learn something
new about yourself, get more protected.

A Zhukov
You are a rather rational person and absolutely not inclined to personal conflicts.
However, if this happens, you have a problem coping with the subsequent stress. You are
ready to cut off relationships with people after a minor conflict. Advice: Remember that people
are what they are. Does it really make sense to take offence? You will get hurt, but they will not
change.

A Tutankhamon
People of your type are good diplomats. Even in a difficult situation of interpersonal
conflict you will manage to find the necessary course and prevent emotional explosion.

A Napoleon
Emotionally intense conflict is a habitual working situation for you, you do not take things
personally, it is a stimulus to action, and it does not disturb you emotionally. You do not cling to
negative emotions; you get rid of them soon. And often people are grateful to you: it is pleasant
to deal with a person who does not keep a grudge.

A Balzac
Quarrels and conflicts are not your element. You adhere to a constructive rather than an
emotional manner of dealing with problems. It may happen, however, that you get involved in a
conflict. Advice: Be ready and try to use the situation for introspection. Be diligent and you will
get a lot of invaluable information about yourself.

A Jack London
As a rule, you do not initiate conflicts. Nevertheless, this may happen to you. Usually you
try to avoid it. Is it always the best strategy? Is the price you pay for it too high? Do not run
from a conflict and observe yourself. You might discover a new strategy of interaction with
people.

A Dreiser
You may blow up, and be harsh in your statements. But you will not prolong conflicts and
be angry for a long time. You have a good memory, but nevertheless you are easily appeased.
Advice: If you are ready for a conflict, it will most likely not happen. You simply will not let it
develop. The position of an observer quite often helps you in difficult situations, especially in
an unfamiliar company.

A Gaben
You do not like disputes and conflicts. People of your type prefer to escape from conflicts;
they do not support disputes. You are not excited about convincing anybody of anything. The
sphere of conflicts is not your strong side. If you had a choice, you would avoid them
altogether. Advice: If a conflict occurs do not blame yourself too much. Usually everybody’s
guilty.

Bad health condition

A Don Quixote
If you feel sick and it is nothing extraordinary, just wait through this period of time.
Besides, it is better to refrain whenever possible from food, especially avoid tasting new foods
and unfamiliar kitchen.

A Hamlet
Do not be afraid. If you can make it without taking medicine, try to just wait through this
period while doing something pleasant.

A Maxim
You are certainly a patient person and can endure a lot of pain. Nevertheless, sometimes
it is necessary to go and see a doctor, at least for consultation. It is simply dangerous to ignore
certain things.

A Zhukov
 It is often said about people of your type that they have a peasant's attitude to health: “He
ploughs until lies in the furrow”. Advice: Find time in you schedule to take care of your health,
then problems will not build up.

A Tutankhamon
You do not enjoy talking about these issues; conversations about illnesses have little
attraction from your point of view. However, sometimes it is necessary to make an effort and
see a doctor. People of your type should schedule regular physical check ups.

A Napoleon
At times people of your type tend to ignore sickness, turning their attention to other things.
However, it is necessary to take time to take care of your health. Your body, just like any
mechanism, requires not only repairs, but also preventive maintenance.

A Balzac
You, just like a Tutankhamon and a Dreiser, pay enough attention to your health and try
not to neglect minor sickness. You are patient and try to endure sickness. You do not like to
visit doctors. You worry about your relatives' health much more than they do. Observe
yourself. Probably somewhere in the body there is a misbalance, and at this point simple
measures are required.

A Gaben
You are very rational in health issues. You know precisely what is the problem and how it
should be treated. You are always ready to face health problems. You can help yourself and
other people.

Vulnerability to external influences. Deceit and intimidation.

A Don Quixote and a Huxley

Be attentive to health issues. You have probably noticed your suspiciousness in this
sphere. Do not take too serious what others may say about your health. It is better to trust the
experts.

A Dumas and a Gaben

Circumstances, schedule, plan, and timetable force you to live rigid life. Take part in
planning and scheduling, otherwise you will have to do unnecessary things and take care of
somebody else’s business.

A Hugo and a Hamlet

Can you think of a time in your life when somebody explained something to you so
logically and rationally that it took a while to figure out that you have been deceived. Does this
happen to you too often? Pay attention, do not take in a beautiful and logical reasoning, and
look for the motives and premises. Advice: Get at the root! Remember that facts are stubborn
things; do not despise them. Works speak louder than words.

A Robespierre and a Maxim

If people compliment to you, idolize you, admire you, you cannot resist. Discern flattery
and2 hypocrisy from sincere attitude, otherwise those who need something from you will
quickly learn to use this 'button'.

A Zhukov and a Napoleon

Strangely enough, your most unprotected spot is your mood. Remember that in a bad
mood it is possible to do a lot of things in a short time but you will be sorry later. In a good
mood pay attention to what you sign. And, at last: no business when even slightly intoxicated!

A Tutankhamon and a Balzac

 When people expect you to do certain things, see if you need it. It might be that they want
to accomplish things at your expense, to take advantage of your good attitude. Be attentive.

A Jack London and a Holmes

A certificate is not always the true proof of professionalism. A book with a nice cover does
not always contain truth. Do not let yourself be hypnotized by the quality of print! Considering
modern technical equipment it is not hard to arrange.
Observe how your opinion is being formed. Do you prefer to turn to "objective" and
"competent" sources, other people? If yes, here you are not protected, more open for external
influences, your opinion might be controlled from outside. Look at the situation it might prompt
a correct decision.

A Dreiser and a Dostoevsky

Facts are a stubborn thing; that is true. And nevertheless do not jump to conclusions.
Watch attentively: facts might be represented in different ways, or simply juggled. Look who
and how interprets these facts and what are their motives. Maybe the solution of the problem is
not as simple as it seems to be.

Extraordinary behavior.
Change of image

A Don Quixote
You can catch yourself doing something unnatural, unusual for you. Observe: there is an
impulse for change, expansion of abilities. An unusual situation gives you an opportunity to
look at yourself as if in a mirror. Advice: Be attentive, and you will learn something new about
yourself.

A Dumas
Extraordinary behavior - excellent! This is a good opportunity for you to look at yourself as
if from outside and go beyond the limits of the habitual image. Be not afraid of yielding to this
temptation, and you will learn something new about yourself. This experience might prove to
be extremely useful.

A Hugo
Be attentive in this situation, especially if you have essential problems at the moment.
Maybe an unusual image will help you to find a non-standard way of solving your problems.

A Robespierre
There is something of an artist in you. An unusual situation, a change of image is an
opportunity to expand the “bouquet” of your roles, to experience and master a new behavior
pattern, a new view of the world, to become someone or something new. New states of mind
will help you to go beyond some routine limits and norms. Advice: Be daring, and
understanding will come.

A Hamlet
With your artistic turn and ability to control different moods and states some new, unusual
images are a wonderful boon. Be attentive, though: a new role may lead you too far. Advice:
Remain alert and take it easy keeping everything under control.

A Maxim
Pay attention to new patterns of behavior, expression of emotions. You have an
opportunity to enjoy them to the fullest. It will probably be an unusual state or movement.
Observe the form, it might be a wonderful adventure.

A Zhukov
Generally people of your type do not fancy change of the habitual image. As a rule, they
are set in their judgments, appearance and behavior. These are vigorous, active, at times even
too straightforward people. And nevertheless they might sometimes display a completely
unusual behavior. Do not be afraid to discover new sides of your personality. It will not harm
you at all. Certainly, people around you will be surprised, but this is not your problem.

A Tutankhamon
You have an artistic bent, your are capable of changing your image easily. You do not
bother with technique; it comes naturally. In different psychological spaces, with different
people you can be a different person. But even you have an area of extraordinary images and
deeds. Catch the moment, investigate this area, and it might become an interesting journey
towards yourself. It is always good for you to test the limits of your habitual behavior.

A Napoleon
It is not easy to perplex the people of your type. You are not afraid of extravagance
neither in clothes, nor in behavior. You have enough willpower to defend your own image even
if some people do not like it. So why not try something new, unusual? Have you been too
predictable lately? Let it be astonishing. Sometimes it is good for people to be surprised.

A Balzac
You as nobody else are able to fit in any concrete situation, concrete psychological space.
Sometimes you even experience difficultly separating yourself from the common image in
which you spend most of your time; but even for you, certainly, there are unusual or impossible
roles. Extraordinary situations allow you to take a look at yourself, and it gives you a good
stimulus to self-development.
Modern man is so constrained by circumstances and overloaded with stereotypes that
there is almost no room for live, natural manifestation.

A Jack London
You have two completely different personalities – one on the inside, another on the
outside. Your external image is quite stable, even conservative. But in the inside a constant
change of states and images is going on… Now you have an opportunity to work on your
external image, to leave the habitual behind and dare into the unknown. Be daring, this may
become an unusual fascinating research and finally could help remove restrictions, maybe
even psychological suppressions.

A Dreiser
People of your type are not very predictable. At times people can hardly grasp the logic of
things you do. Although you know the reason why you do certain things, it is hard for you to
explain it to others, and you detest doing that. But all the same some of your actions may
seem extraordinary to you first of all and they will not seem so unusual to others. Anyway,
there is no need for you to analyze your new behavior. Simply enjoy a new experience, a new
aspect of your nature.

A Holmes
Usually people of your type are rather conservative in their habits, their choice of clothes
and manners of behavior. You do not favor extravagant deeds or powerful emotional outbursts.
It is possible that one day you will surprise yourself by a new or unknown trait or behavior, this
will give you a new vision of self. Do not be afraid; let it be. Those experiences may be
fascinating. Advice: Relax and look at it from the outside
A Dostoevsky
At times it seems to you that people should be more understanding, they should
appreciate your feelings, and see your virtues. Alas, it is a grave mistake. People just do not
have time to see the subtleties. Advice: assert yourself with more confidence.

A Huxley
As a rule, people of your type are well aware of their own behavior, though they are not
always able to cope with emotions. Probably an unusual image and extraordinary behavior
could be a great tool in your study of self. You will be able to understand some things you did
not understand before.

A Gaben
You are rather conservative. You are not fond of changing images. Then this situation
may serve you well. If you approach this experiment unbiasedly, you might receive a new
stimulus for creativity.

Unexpected event. Frustration of the schedule

A Don Quixote
When an unexpected event occurs you stay cool. You do everything right. You realize
that it is impossible to foresee everything. The best thing to do is to have a relaxed control of
the situation.

A Dumas
Try to get ready for an unexpected event, or frustration of schedule by developing an
automatic program of behavior in case of emergency. You have a quick mind and can foresee
most of possible ways of further development of events. You successfully cope with 95 % of
situations. What if a quick reaction is necessary, but you do not have a prepared program of
actions? Then it is your weak spot, you may end up in a very unpleasant state, even in a
stupor. Here you will need some other patterns of behavior, some emergency strategy. Think
back, probably something of this kind has already happened in your life.
Options:
1. Get your focus off yourself, try to be adequate to the situation as much as possible.
2. Take time to analyze similar cases in your life. Remember that you are not perfect.
Now all that has happened is history, you have learnt your lessons and it will be easier
in the future. Consider the things you lacked earlier, and take them into account in the
future.
3. Make a list of all similar cases, then imagine that you are in a movie hall watching a
movie about a gentleman (or a lady) and when the story comes to the critical scene, let
go of the control button. Let the script develop by itself, but do not forget that you are an
onlooker. It is possible that the ending will be different from what has really happened.
Do that with episodes of your life. If you caught the idea you will probably enjoy the
experience. Rely on this aloofness of a spectator in any similar situation. There is one
problem though: you may not have the time to recognize the situation. As soon as you
feel that you are "not OK", switch to the state of an onlooker.

A Hugo
Will an unexpected situation interfere with your meditation or your fellowship with people?
If it won’t, fine. But nevertheless be prepared. Be attentive, and your reaction will be adequate.
You might experience unpleasant feelings, you might waste a lot of time, but correct
understanding of the problem will secure the sympathies of people around you.

A Robespierre
The world is not very harmonious. The unexpected is waiting for you just around the
corner. This energizes you. You might have to experience sickness and injuries. But your
correct understanding of the situation, the love of your close ones, the respect of your
associates will restore you and help you to cope with any surprises in any extreme
circumstances. There is one thing here that is dangerous for you. In your yearning for the
optimal and the maximum effective you may cause misbalance and go overboard. Remember:
The best is the enemy of the good. You need to catch the moment when you need to stop and
make a decision.

A Hamlet
The situation catches you off guard! Wrong actors came on the stage and they are
playing the wrong play. This is the perfect timing to use your amazing flexibility. You can play
any role still being yourself, having your ideas and principles intact. Never mind the change of
the scenery and plot; if your intention remains firm, external forms will not matter. You can do
wonders!

A Maxim
You have a good reaction, and the unexpected physical events tone you up. However,
there are surprises of a different sort, they are harder to cope with. Those surprises happen in
the area of relationships with other people. You expect certain things from certain people,
expect certain results by a certain time, you trust other people... and suddenly... Treachery,
you are deceived by your business partners; they have been telling you half-truths, etc. All this,
unfortunately, are modern realities of life. Relax, and remember the Buddha saying: “People
are people, they cannot be different.” Do not jump to conclusions. Angels, after all, live in
heaven; here on earth you are more likely to meet sinners. Look for the “golden middle”, it will
be helpful: a lot of your difficulties in relationships will be dissolved. You have a strong
personality and you can do it.

A Zhukov
An unexpected event is just another working situation! You will certainly find a way out at
once, and maybe there will be more than one way out. There is just one request, please, take
into consideration what price other people will have to pay for it. Some people may find it too
high, and you will make enemies. You certainly have a strong personality, but do not turn down
other people's help. Even when they do not want to work as hard as you do. You should
estimate other people's resources more accurately. Then they will be more helpful.

A Tutankhamon
Try to stay in control of the situation; observe. Do not let others get you involved in
anything against your own will.

A Napoleon
An unexpected event?! Do not worry, life is full of the unexpected. Every moment of life
brings something new. What’s there in life if everything is known from beginning to end? Your
desire to get involved in a situation is honorable and often bears its fruit. It is a winner's
strategy. And nevertheless, if you have a sober-minded partner, get together with him/her and
brainstorm the possible hidden dangers. Do not rely on the intuition only. Certainly, it is good to
have the gut feeling, however, even your energy is not infinite. Probably it is necessary to
spend a little more time to make an accurate choice of the direction you will be working in.
Details are not very important. People trust you, but do not forget that you need a strategy.

A Balzac
Something unexpected, disruption of a schedule – it is certainly an unpleasant situation,
but try to understand the reasons for this disruption. Think where the harmony of the situation
was broken? When doing the analysis you may discover the weak spots of the structure you
are working with. When you get on this way of thinking you will find surprising discoveries, the
benefit of which will make up for any minor disadvantages. Consider this a working situation,
and you will reap the benefits soon. A hard-to-endure, tense situation can turn into a creative
one, and you will know it when people will give thanks.

A Jack London
As a rule, you are ready for the unexpected. You can quickly find your bearings in a new,
even absolutely strange situation. The world is what it is, and you accept it. Whatever surprises
and difficulties you face on your way, whatever cataclysms and natural disasters may happen,
you will have enough strength and patience.

A Dreiser
Unfortunately, unexpected situations happen more often than you would want them to!
The world turned out to be not as harmonious as it promised to be in the beginning. And the
less we expect from it, the less we are disappointed later. You need thicker walls to protect
your inner tune and make it less dependent on external circumstances, and then the world will
cause you less grief and disappointment. Advice: build up an immune system to the
unexpected.

A Holmes
Frustrated schedule, disharmony is something you do not plan for. If all things depended
on you, nothing like that would ever happen. But some people, unfortunately, do not have
respect for time whether it is their time or somebody else’s; some people do not pay attention
to this at all. Expect this, and you will save yourself a lot of trouble. Make your schedule more
flexible and have plan B,C, etc.. Alas, the punctuality is kings' courtesy, not everyone practices
this virtue.

A Dostoevsky
The world around you will be less aggressive if you lighten up, and ease the inner tension.

A Huxley
The situation may force you to do something against your will. Try to resist the external
pressure. Observe. Try to stand your own ground.

A Gaben
An unexpected situation?! Great! Let us consider the objective aspect of things. People
always complicate simple things. It takes just a little observation, and a simple way out always
presents itself. It is absolutely unnecessary to use standard patterns. Why pay so much for
useless garbage? It is necessary to look at things from a different point of view, and then you
will move on. Do not forget about your ability to find simple solutions. There is no need to
argue with fools! Let them scratch the right ear with the left hand.

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