FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fuel and oxidizer are the two essential ingredients of a combustion process. Fuels can be classified as
substances that liberate heat when reacted chemically with an oxidizer. Practical application of a fuel
requires that it be abundant and inexpensive, and its use must comply with environmental regulations.
Most fuels currently used in combustion systems are derived from non-renewable fossil sources.
Use of these “fossil fuels” contributes to global warming effects because of the net-positive amount of
carbon dioxide emissions inherent to their utilization. Fuels derived from biomass or from other
renewable means represent potentially attractive alternatives to fossil fuels and are currently the
subject of intensive research and development.

Classification of fuels

Based on physical state- Solid fuel (wood, coal), Liquid fuel (crude, petroleum, natural gasoline), Gaseous
fuel (natural gas).
Based on occurrence- Primary or natural fuels (wood, coal), Secondary or prepared duels (charcoal,
petroleum coke).

Characteristics of good fuel

-ignite easily(ignition temperature), specific heat should be high, it should have low smoke and
combustible matter such as ash, it should inexpensive and readily available, easy to store and transport,
have low ash content.

Types of fuels
Fuels for transportation and power generation can come in all phases: solid, liquid, or gas. Naturally
occurring solid fuels include wood and other forms of biomass, peat, lignite, and coal. Liquid fuels are
derived primarily from crude oil. The refining processes of fractional distillation, cracking, reforming, and
impurity removal are used to produce many products including gasoline, diesel fuels, jet fuels, and fuel
oils.

Typical end products from refining and distilling crude oil

Crude oil-furnace- 20C –gas, 150C-gasoline, 200C-kerosene, 300C-diesel, 370C- fuel oil, lubricant oil,
paraffin wax, asphalt.

Natural Gas: The most widely used gaseous fuels for power generation and home heating are natural
gas and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Natural gas is found compressed in porous rock and shale
formations sealed in rock strata below ground. It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and
animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of
years.
Natural gas frequently exists near or above oil deposits. Raw natural gas from northern America
contains methane (~87.0–96.0% by volume) and lesser amounts of ethane, propane, butane, and
pentane.
Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral
particles that we commonly call "mud." Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the
accumulation or deposition of small particles and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic
particles on the floor of oceans or other bodies.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consists of ethane, propane, and butane produced at natural gas
processing plants. LPG also includes liquefied refinery gases such as ethylene, propylene, and butylene.
Gaseous fuels can also be produced from coal and wood but are more expensive.
Gasoline: Gasoline is used primarily in lightweight vehicles. Gasoline is a mixture of light distillate
hydrocarbons from refined crude oil. The precise composition of gasoline varies seasonally and
geographically and depends on the producer of the fuel.

Diesel: Diesel fuel is used in medium and heavy vehicles, as well as in rail and marine engines. Typical
diesel fuel is also a mixture of hydrocarbons from refined crude oil, but it is composed of a blend of fuels
with a higher boiling point range than that of gasoline.

Fuel(bunker): Fuel oil (commonly called “bunker” fuel) is widely used in large marine vessels.

BIOFUEL: Hydrocarbon fuels can come from sources other than fossil fuels as well. Biofuels are any kind
of solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel derived from biomass, or recently living organisms. Biomass is plant or
animal material used for energy production (electricity or heat), or in various industrial processes as raw
substance for a range of products.
There are several types of biofuels: vegetable oil, biodiesel, bio alcohols, biogas, solid biofuels (wood,
charcoal, etc.), syngas.

BIOFUEL: All forms of biofuels still require combustion for power production, continuous future
dependence on Combustion related technology for transportation and power generation. Straight
vegetable oil can be used in some diesel engines (indirect injection in warm climates), but first
converted into biodiesel. Straight vegetable oil -- oil used directly as a fuel, in either modified or
unmodified equipment, as straight vegetable oil (SVO) or pure plant oil (PPO). soybean, rapeseed,
canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed.

BIODIESEL: Biodiesel is a liquid fuel that can be used in any diesel engine. Made from oils and fats
through a process called transesterification. Compared to traditional diesel fuel, biodiesel can
substantially reduce emissions of unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfates, and
particulate matter. Unfortunately, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are not reduced. NOx has direct
and indirect effects on human health. It can cause breathing problems, headaches, chronically reduced
lung function, eye irritation, loss of appetite and corroded teeth.
Bio alcohols (ethanol, propanol, & butanol) are produced by microorganisms and enzymes that ferment
sugars, starches, or cellulose. Cellulose -- an insoluble substance which is the main constituent of plant
cell walls and of vegetable fibers such as cotton. Ethanol from corn or sugar cane is perhaps the most
common, but any sugar or starch that can be used to make alcoholic beverages will work. In the U.S.,
ethanol is often blended with normal gasoline by about 5% by volume to increase efficiency and reduce
emissions.
With some modifications, many vehicles can operate on pure ethanol. The production of ethanol is a
multi-stage process that involves: enzyme digestion to release the sugar from the starch (hydrolysis),
fermentation, distillation, and drying. Issue on moving toward an ethanol economy will have a negative
impact on global food production, impacting the poorest countries the most.
Using cellulose from nonfood crops or inedible waste products would help alleviate this potential
problem. However, cellulose is much more difficult to break down with standard enzymes and therefore
requires a longer, more expensive process. Cellulose is the substance that makes up most of a plant's
cell walls. Since it is made by all plants, it is probably the most abundant organic compound on Earth.

BIOGAS: Biogas is generated from the anaerobic (absence of oxygen) digestion of organic material, such
as municipal (landfills) and animal waste. When these materials decompose, they release methane. If
this gas is collected and used for power generation, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced both directly
and indirectly by reducing the amount of methane released into the atmosphere and by displacing the
use of non-renewable fuels.
A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in
which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown. The interior of a greenhouse exposed to
sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external temperature, protecting its contents in cold
weather.

Greenhouse gas: is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. The
primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3). Greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing IR radiation
and preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's
atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming. The greenhouse effect is the process by
which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it
would be without this atmosphere.

Syngas (from synthesis gas) is a mixture of combustible gases produced by the gasification of a carbon-
containing fuel such as coal or municipal waste. Synthesis -- the production of chemical compounds by
reaction from simpler materials. Another method of producing syngas is through steam reforming of
natural gas. Typically, syngas is a combination of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. The
benefit of syngas is that it converts solid feedstock into a gaseous form that can be more easily used for
power generation.

HYDROGEN: An alternative to hydrocarbon fuels is hydrogen. Hydrogen use is very significant in the
transportation and power generation industries. Hydrogen provides a means for energy storage and
subsequent conversion into power with reduced pollutant emissions. When hydrogen combusts in air,
the products are water and nitrogen, but there is potential to form nitrogen oxides (NOx).

The main advantages of hydrogen: are that it burns easily, it can be used almost directly in systems that
are well developed and reliable, and it can significantly reduce fossil fuel consumption. However,
because hydrogen burns so easily, safety is a major concern.
Hydrogen can be produced two ways: by the decomposition of water through electrolysis or by the
reformation of fossil fuels.
Electrolysis is attractive because it can generate hydrogen from carbonless energy sources such as solar,
wind, or nuclear, without emissions of CO2. Hydrogen production provides a means to store the energy
generated from sources normally limited by their variability (i.e. solar and wind).

FUEL Usage:Energy consumption has steadily increased during this period (1949 to 2008 ). The primary
source of energy by far has been from petroleum products. The only major declines in petroleum
consumption
occurred during the energy crises in 1973 and in 1977. By 2000, U.S. petroleum imports had reached an
annual record of 11 million barrels per day. Despite an increase in alternative energy sources, nearly
40% of the energy consumption in 2008 was from petroleum.

89% of the energy consumption in the U.S. in 2008 was from technologies that require combustion. This
figure is not expected to change dramatically in the near future, so there is a clear need for ongoing
research and development on combustion systems so that the consumption of fossil fuels and the
resulting emissions can be reduced.

Basic Considerations of the Choice of Fuels

Fuel and oxidizer are the primary components in combustion. For most combustion processes, air is
used as the oxidizer because air is free and available almost everywhere on earth.

An oxidizer is a type of chemical which a fuel requires to burn. Most types of burning on Earth use
oxygen, which is prevalent in the atmosphere. However in space there is no atmosphere to provide
oxygen or other oxidizers so rockets need to carry up their own oxidizers: oxygen, hydrogen peroxide
and the halogens.

Factors that affect Fuel Choice

The choice of fuel will depend on the purpose of the combustion process and is subject to local safety
and emission regulations.

1)Energy content per volume or per mass.

When space (or weight) is limited, the energy content of a fuel per unit volume plays an important role
in determining the amount of volume needed. Normal liquid hydrocarbon fuels contain about 33MJ/L.
Due to oxygen content, alcohol fuels such as ethanol contain a slightly less energy, about 29 MJ/L.
Gaseous fuels often contain much less energy per unit volume due to the large volume occupied by the
gaseous molecules.

Energy content…

Hydrogen at standard conditions (STP) contains only 12 kJ/L (note though that hydrogen has higher
energy content per mass). Therefore gaseous hydrogen needs to be compressed to about 2,500 atm to
get the equivalent energy per volume as hydrocarbon fuels. This obviously raises safety issues and also
weight issues since the hydrogen must be stored in heavy bottles. For the purpose of heating a home or
providing hot water, fuels with low heat content may be adequate. If pipelines are available for delivery
of gaseous fuels, the heating content may be less important in the selection of fuel. [ WHY?]

For transportation applications, liquid fuels are preferred due to their high energy content. Most cars
are currently operated with liquid fuels. Liquid hydrogen and oxygen are used in the Space Shuttles. Due
to its very low boiling point (-252.760C), liquid hydrogen can be stored in the tank for only a few hours
before it starts boiling due to heat transfer from its surroundings. [ Implications of low BP? ] When
converted from liquid to gas, hydrogen expands approximately 840 times. Its low boiling point and low
density result in rapid dispersion of liquid hydrogen spills.

For applications in vehicles, the liquid hydrogen would start boiling within a couple of days even with
the current best insulation technologies. For fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen, the low energy density of
gaseous hydrogen presents a technical problem. Therefore, storage of hydrogen is currently a research
topic being pursued worldwide. Potential options include high-pressure tanks, metal hydrates to absorb
hydrogen, and ammonia as a hydrogen carrier.

2)SAFETY- Safety is an important factor in selecting fuels, especially for transportation applications. The
fuel must be safe to handle yet easy to burn under the designed engine conditions. Many properties of
the fuel, such as vapor pressure, minimum ignition energy, flammability, toxicity, and heat release rate,
can influence safety in different ways. Although volatile liquid fuels such as gasoline present safety
issues if spilled because they ignite easily, they are quite safe in a fuel container. Similarly, heavy
hydrocarbons, such as naphthalene (used to make moth balls), are solid at room temperature and are
easy to handle, but they may melt if exposed to heat and burn releasing high amounts of heat. The ease
of ignition and the rate of heat release are important factors in the rapid development of fire. Plastics,
for example, ignite relatively easily and release large amounts of heat when burning. Consequently they
are more dangerous from a fire safety point of view than wood, which is difficult to ignite and burn. The
products of combustion from plastics are also more toxic than those from wood.

3)Combustion and fuel properties- Different applications of combustion processes pose different
requirements on combustion characteristics. For instance, spark ignition engines require the fuel to
meet certain anti-knock criterion. Octane number is a commonly used parameter in gauging such a fuel
property. In diesel engines, the requirements are different due to the different combustion process
used.The ease of auto-ignition is important because diesel engines rely on compression ignition.

Knock 🡪 strike a surface noisily to attract attention, especially when waiting to be let in through a door.
Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark ignition internal combustion
engines occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the
normal combustion front.
Such a property is quantified by the cetane number. In gas turbine engines, the tendency of the fuel to
form soot is an important characteristic and is quantified by the smoke point. Liquid fuel properties such
as viscosity and cloudiness can affect both the storage/handling of fuels and their combustion
processes. For instance, high viscosity may prevent economic transport of some fuels through pipelines.
High viscosity can also cause problems in the fuel injection process of internal combustion engines.

4) COST- From an economic viewpoint, the cheapest fuel that meets the purpose of combustion
while maintaining compliance with local safety and emissions laws will be chosen. Fuel cost and
availability has determined the selection of fuels to use in the transportation and power
industry from the beginning. The relatively low cost of fossil fuels has enhanced the
dependence on these fuels and deterred the development of alternative fuels or energy
sources.

Classification of Fuels by Phase at Ambient Conditions:

Distribution methods and combustion processes vary based on a fuel’s state of matter, making the
phase of a fuel at standard conditions a logical basis for classification.

1) Solid fuels (wood, coal, biomass)-CαHβOγ with α > β, produce more CO2 when burned.

2) Liquid fuels (oil, gasoline, diesel fuel)-CαHβOγ with α < β.

3) Gaseous fuels (natural gas, hydrogen gas, syngas)- CαHβOγ with α << β, have the lowest C/H ratio,
thus producing the least green house gas (CO2) per unit energy output.

Some Related Properties of Liquid Fuels

1) Flash Point- Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel will liberate vapor at a sufficient
rate such that the vapor will form a mixture with ambient air that will ignite in the presence of an
ignition source. When the fuel reaches the flash point, the fuel is ready to combust when there is
ignition source. If a spill of fuel occurs, the possibility of fire is very high if the air/fuel temperature
reaches the flash point.
2) Pour Point- Pour point is defined as the lowest temperature (in 0C or 0F) at which a liquid will flow
easily, meaning it still behaves as a fluid. Hence, pour point is a rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which oil is readily pumped.

3) Cloud Point- The cloud point is the temperature at which wax crystals begin to form in a petroleum
product as it is cooled. Wax crystals depend on nucleation sites to initiate growth. The difference in the
cloud points between two samples can sometimes be explained by the fact that any fuel additive will
increase the number of nucleation sites, which initiates clouding. A change in temperature at which
clouding starts to occur is therefore expected upon addition of any additive.

Nucleation

🡪 the initial process that occurs in the formation of a crystal from a solution, a liquid, or a vapour, in
which a small number of ions, atoms, or molecules become arranged in a pattern characteristic of a
crystalline solid, forming a site upon which additional particles are deposited as the crystal grows.