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Introduction of Mobile Media Into Formal Classroom

Learning Environment

Article · August 2015

DOI: 10.1177/1077695815601170

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JMCXXX10.1177/1077695815601170Journalism & Mass Communication EducatorLaskin and Avena

Research Article
Journalism & Mass Communication Educator
2015, Vol. 70(3) 276­–285
Introduction of Mobile © AEJMC 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1077695815601170
Learning Environments jmce.sagepub.com

Alexander V. Laskin1 and Joseph Avena1

Abstract
Among all the technological changes in the society, smartphones have become one of
the most adopted innovations. Yet, in the classroom a common response to phones
in students’ hands is to ban them! This study uses Social Construction of Technology
theory to investigate whether mobile media can have a place in the classroom. Using
in-depth qualitative interviews, the study finds an unexpected paradox: Students
rarely use mobile technology in the classroom and, moreover, do not expect to use it
in the formal classroom environment, while outside the classroom they fully endorse
the educational applications of mobile media.

Keywords
mobile, phone, smartphone, cell phone, education

Introduction
Technology plays an increasingly important role in the classroom. Instructors at all
levels use new technologies to provide students information and to enhance learning.
In recent years, the pace of technological development in the society accelerated expo-
nentially. Zucker (2008) claims that this rapid advancement of technology offers new
opportunities to students—students are given more access and interaction, increasing
their chances of achievement. This study seeks to understand how one particular type
of technology—mobile media—can affect education by exploring the usage of this
technology for pedagogical purposes.

1Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT, USA

Corresponding Author:
Alexander V. Laskin, Associate Professor and Director of Graduate Studies, Department of Strategic
Communication, Quinnipiac University, CE-MCM, 275 Mount Carmel Avenue, Hamden, CT 06518, USA.
Email: ALaskin@gmail.com

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Laskin and Avena 277

The issue this study explores is the usefulness of mobile technology in the classroom
and how mobile media is being utilized for education. Mobile media consists of a variety
of mobile platforms in which users can be connected on-the-go. Levinson (2004) claims
that the first usage of mobile media can be traced back to ancient times when instead of
drawing on a cave wall, a human being drew something on a rock that could be picked
up and moved. Today, however, mobile media is firmly associated with cell phones,
primarily smartphones (Comer & Wilke, 2008; Levinson, 2004). However, recent tech-
nological developments are blurring the lines between cell phones and tablets. Devices
such as Samsung Galaxy Note, larger than a phone but smaller that a tablet, combine the
functionality and usability of both and, once again, redefine the mobile media. For the
purposes of this study, however, mobile media mean smartphone technology.
Comer and Wilke (2008) claim that the most remarkable aspect of mobile technol-
ogy is the tremendous speed at which persons in nearly every country have adopted it
since cellular public networks were first established in 1981. This made the mobile
phone one of the most widely adopted innovations of the late 20th century. These
handheld mobile devices can capture and display photographs, browse the Internet,
play music or movies, and transmit and receive email or text messages. Current gen-
erations of undergraduate students grew up with this technology; these students are
quite comfortable using mobile media and open to virtual collaborations (Wankel,
2009). Yet, mobile media is still not common in formal educational settings. It does not
have widespread adoption despite the fact the research claims that technology in the
classroom improves a student’s capability of achievement (see, for example, Zucker,
2008). There may be many reasons why educators are apprehensive about including
mobile phones in classroom instruction. Some may see them as distractions. Some
might feel they are meant solely for entertainment, and some may not have realized
their potential because of how rapidly the technology developed.
According to a study done by Squire and Dikkers (2012) regarding cell phone use,
students spent 42% of the time using the mobile devices for Facebook and games—an
inappropriate activity in most classrooms. Thus, typical educators’ response to mobile
media technologies is to ban them (Clark, 2006). So, does mobile media technology
have potential in the classroom?

Literature Review
There has not been much theory-driven research on mobile media in formal educa-
tional settings. Most of the research focuses on examples and case studies of using the
technology in the classroom. However, there is a strong stream of research that focuses
on and investigates the influence of technology on society in general and, vice versa,
the influence of society on technology.

Mobile Media in Education

While this recent push from desktop and laptop computers to mobile devices has
advantages in terms of cost and maintenance, the educational potential of this new

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278 Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 70(3)

platform has been sparsely explored (Klopfer & Squire, 2008). As mobile devices
become increasingly more prevalent, it is imperative to study their use and effect on
education (Fuegen, 2012). Perspectives range from believing higher education should
capitalize on technologies and perhaps electronic devices that students are already
using for personal reasons to struggling about how to effectively integrate the technol-
ogy whose use has been so heavily informal and user driven into a setting known for
its more formal and structured experiences (Hrastinski & Dennen, 2012).
Some studies single out classroom instructors as inflexibly resistant to mobile tech-
nology. They stubbornly engage in a close-door policy toward using new mechanical
and automated instructional aids and prefer banning mobile phones in the classroom
altogether (Clark, 2006; Cuban, 1986). Squire and Dikkers (2012) suggest that instruc-
tors may ban phones in the classroom for several reasons: “distraction, theft, and the
potential for engaging in nefarious behaviors” (p. 446).
Yet others propose looking for ways to use students’ obsession with mobile media to
improve education (Bannasch, 1999; Reiger, 1997; Roschelle & Pea, 2002; Solochek,
2009; Soloway, Grant, & Tinker, 1999; Squire & Jan, 2007; Squire & Klopfer, 2007).
Commins, Duffy, and Liang (2010) propose that rather than attempting to foist old
media teaching assumptions upon new media learners, advocates from the digital
immigrant generations must learn to meet youth where they are—even if that means
embracing and even joining their online communities, and empowering unstructured
networks of youth to teach and mentor each other. According to Fuegen (2012), flexi-
bility, portability, and accessibility contribute to an overall positive impression on stu-
dents, whereas faculty concerns can be met with appropriate training and tailoring to
the various teaching and learning styles present in distance education. Although
Fuegen’s main focus is on distance education, the same ideas can be applicable to the
day-to-day classroom environment. It is, however, unclear how the mobile media tech-
nology is used in formal classroom settings. As a result, this study proposes to investi-
gate the actual use of mobile technology in the classroom:

Research Question 1: How do academic institutions and teachers already utilize

mobile media in their classes?

Mobile media not only allows students to be connected to an unlimited amount of

information, it also interconnects students through the use of social media on their
mobile devices. Studies on mobile media tend to focus on the instructional perspec-
tive, while ignoring what students actually have to say about it. Yet, the student’s point
of view on the subject of mobile technology is extremely valuable as many students
are native users of mobile technology for many reasons. Dubose (2011) claims that
new technology’s main focus is the ability to share information. Students are getting
information from their peers. This rapid exchange of information affects society on
many different levels and in many different environments, including education, health
care, and business. Thus, students become more adept and comfortable with commu-
nicating thoughts and ideas through the written word. Introducing mobile media to
learning can increase that social interaction and a capability to balance schoolwork

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Laskin and Avena 279

and other demands. Mobile technologies provide students with the flexibility to access
content at a time and place most convenient to them (Fuegen, 2012).
In addition, mobile technology enables a deeply personal relationship with informa-
tion as people use a customized media device with personalized access to their media
library and social networks (Squire & Dikkers, 2012). In other words, students choose
not just what information to receive but also how and from whom they get their infor-
mation. Squire and Dikkers go on to say that as pencils and paper effectively changed
both the medium and the means of learning centuries ago, mobile media may be chang-
ing learning practices through interest-driven learning. This can result in more con-
nected, efficient learners and instructors who will continue to thrive in an increasingly
networked world (Fuegen, 2012). Thus, this study proposes the following research
question to investigate the use of mobile media from the student’s perspective:

Research Question 2: Do students wish to use mobile devices for formal class-
room learning, and, if so, how and why?

The Social Construction of Technology Theory

Technological change does not occur in a vacuum—technology affects the society and
is affected by it at the same time. Thus, technological artifacts cannot be understood
through features and affordances alone (Squire & Dikkers, 2012). What makes today’s
students feel a strong connection to their mobile devices and what makes them use
their devices constantly? It seems that this technology responds to the expectations of
its users and fills the void that other technologies could not address.
In fact, the Social Construction of Technology theory suggests that consumers
influence the technology based on their needs. If technology does not help the user, it
will not be required and purchased. In fact, sometimes users change or modify the
usage of technology. For example, the iPod was designed primarily for music. Yet, it
gave a tremendous impulse for developing the new industry of podcasts. iPod users
had the need in addition to music to listen to non-musical information for learning,
entertainment, news, and other purposes, and thus constructed a different application
for the existing technology.
As a result, to better understand how mobile media can enhance education, one
should investigate the expectations of learners and what learners’ needs mobile
media can address. Klein and Kleinman (2002) apply the concept of interpretive
flexibility to technological artifacts to show how artifacts are products of intergroup
negotiations. Because mobile technology is being created so rapidly, the opinions of
its users help mold what the following model will look like. This is particularly
important with mobile media devices, technological artifacts that have undergone
several rounds of reinterpretation between 1990 and 2010. In deciding what value
technology can bring, a crucial role is played by the social groups concerned with
the artifact, and by the meanings that those groups give to the artifact: A problem is
only defined as such, when there is a social group for which it constitutes a “prob-
lem” (Pinch & Bijker, 1984).

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280 Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 70(3)

Squire and Dikkers (2012) sought the reason for the strong connection of students
to their mobile devices and what needs their mobile devices resolve. Indeed, it is cru-
cial to understand the practices that users engage in, their goals and intentions, and
how different user groups construct technologies. They conclude the participants of
their study enjoyed using mobile devices because they amplified their access to social
networks, interests, and access to information, which taken together constituted a form
of learning.
Mobile media is also an important source of social interaction. Through a constant
information-sharing environment, students expect information to be available to them
in formal and informal education. The Social Construction of Technology theory sug-
gests that students have been introduced to and have created a social network where
that information is available to them. The use of mobile media in their education is
now necessary and expected because they have constructed a form of technology that
allows them the convenience of constant learning. As a result, future generations of
mobile technology may be shaped by the expectations of its users today. Thus, the
study proposes a research question to investigate the expectations of students toward
the utilization of mobile media in the educational settings:

Research Question 3: How do students expect academic institutions, programs,

and instructors to utilize mobile technologies?

Method
The study relies on in-depth interviews as its primary method. According to Babbie
(2011), an interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than the
use of standardized questions. Because interviews are more conversational, this gives
the researcher a chance to probe deeper into certain topics. By digging deeper into the
opinions of the participants, better understanding is expected.
This study takes place at a private mid-size university in the northeast of the United
States. The interview questions are open ended: designed to provoke responses from the
students but not influence their answers. The answers are analyzed at the end of the study
to see whether there are any common themes among the responses. The study relies on
volunteer sample. An email was sent to undergraduate and graduate students inviting
them to volunteer to participate in the study. Out of 28 students, 15 students volunteered
to be interviewed. Students met with the interviewer independently outside of the class-
room. Each interview-conversation lasted for about an hour. No compensation was pro-
vided to the study participants. The study protocol was approved by the Institutional
Review Board of the university. The interviews were very conversational and open ended.
However, the respondents were directed to focus the discussion on these five questions:

1. In your classes, how do teachers use mobile media (cell phones, tablets, etc.)?
In-class/out-of-class? Did it work? What benefits did it create?
2. How do you think mobile media should be used? What would you like to hap-
pen in terms of mobile media use in education?

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Laskin and Avena 281

3. What can mobile media provide that nothing else can? How can it increase the
value or effectiveness of education for you personally?
4. What is a cell phone for you? What purpose do you use it for most? Are any of
your uses educational or related to education?
5. Do you think your uses and views on mobile media are similar or different to
those of other students?

Results
In response to Research Question 1 about the current use of mobile technology in
educational settings, students overwhelmingly claimed that such usage does not exist:
All 15 participants said they had never used it in the classroom for learning. They also
claimed that neither instructors nor administrators had ever required the usage of
mobile media in the classroom. The most common answer was that their professors
had not used mobile media at all: “I haven’t had any teacher use mobile media in or
outside a classroom”—one of the respondents said. Students seemed to be disap-
pointed that professors and universities have not adopted mobile media as a useful
resource for education. One student, however, mentioned that in the class focused on
new technologies they were required to design an app for mobile media—yet, the class
itself did not use any mobile technology for education.
To investigate Research Question 2, students were asked how they use their mobile
devices and what role these devices play in their lives and what value they can have for
formal education. The responses greatly varied among the participants. One common
theme, however, emerged in the interviews: Students themselves did not feel that mobile
media had any place in education. “In my opinion, phones shouldn’t be used in the class-
room at all”—one respondent stated, echoing the sentiments of all 15 participants.
Interestingly, although students claimed that mobile media should have no place in
educational settings, they praised how much value their mobile devices contribute to
other aspects of their lives. Students praised their phones as an amazing resource, mak-
ing statements like “My phone can literally do anything, hence why it is my lifeline.”
Students saw the biggest value of mobile media as an access channel to informa-
tion: Participants praised their devices for being able to access information about any-
thing at anytime. One participant referred to her abilities to “google” something
whenever she wanted. Another respondent commented on the availability of informa-
tion by saying, “Mobile media is a great way to find instant information on things that
could be going on in the world.”
Although students tended to think that mobile media should not be used in education,
several respondents mentioned that mobile media technology could help build stronger
relationships between instructors and students. “The younger generation spends their
recreational time engrossed in games and activities on mobile media,” one noted.

If we can provide academic content through the same mobile media sources, students will
become more engaged in their learning. It can increase motivation and encourage the
students to use the same online resources that we use in school at home.

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282 Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 70(3)

In response to Research Question 3, about students’ expectations for mobile media

usage in education, participants seemed puzzled at first and could not understand the
question. However, a few moments later they explained that the inclusion of mobile
apps to help the learning process would be an interesting idea for teachers to carry out.
Some students even cited specific apps they thought could be appropriate in the class-
room. One student, for example, stated,

I’ve never really thought about it, but I’m sure there are interesting ways to use them . . .
like apps that help you to learn about a subject. The duolingo app is helpful when you are
learning a new language, for example.

Other respondents cited apps that they already use without the instruction of their
professors: “There are apps that I use for school such as flashcard apps that can
help me study on the go rather than keep track of paper flash cards that can be
lost, etc.”
Another common feeling among the participants is that mobile technology
should be used to produce a greater connection and relationship between them and
the teacher. “It also works to create a more comfortable environment that welcomes
students to contact professors, knowing they will receive the message immediately.
It also serves to increase the accountability of both sides of the student–teacher
relationship.”

Conclusion
After conducting in-depth interviews with students, the study evaluated how educa-
tional institutions use mobile media, how students utilize mobile media for education,
and how students expect mobile media to be used for education. The study discovered
an interesting paradox: Although students claim that the best use of mobile media is
unlimited access to information, they do not believe it should be used in the classroom.
Furthermore, students wanted to use their phones in every aspect of their life except
for education. This conflict can perhaps be explained by the Social Construction of
Technology theory. In fact, the theory states that it is important to evaluate who are the
people defining the technology and evaluating its key functions.
It seems that in the case of education, instructors have the power to define the tech-
nology in the formal learning environment—inside the classroom. Because previous
research showed instructors as a limiting influence on mobile media use in the class-
room, it makes sense that their disapproval of this usage translates into students’ views
on the appropriateness of mobile media in the classroom. However, outside of the
classroom, where students define the technology for themselves, they do not encounter
this limiting presence and, hence, endorse mobile media fully. This perhaps also means
that as the generation of instructors changes and their views on mobile media evolve,
mobile media will be used more in the classroom.
These conclusions are partially supported by the fact that in many reported uses of
mobile media in classrooms, students actively engaged with and relied on mobile

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Laskin and Avena 283

technology without much resistance. Thornton and Houser (2005), for example,
describe using mobile technology for teaching English in Japan and even document
better learning outcomes with mobile media versus paper or desktops. In fact, Burger
(2006) claims that mobile learning will become a norm in the future. Finally, the
industry research group estimates that the market for mobile learning has reached $1.4
billion in North America—it is still an almost negligible amount in the total expendi-
ture on education, but mobile technology is expected to grow in the educational setting
and capture more and more of the educational market (Adkins, 2013).
Another important conclusion stems from the finding of relationship building as a
key use of mobile media. Social Construction of Technology theory suggests that
human needs shape how the technology is used and not the other way around. Thus, to
be successful, technology should address a real human need. Mobile media can enable
students to get access to classmates and instructors, communicate with them, ask for
assistance, and build relationships—thus, addressing a real need and, as a result,
enhance the learning experience.
Finally, students who readily deny mobile media any place in the classroom, after
being asked for more details, can, in fact, even name specific apps they use for learn-
ing. It seems that mobile media technology is already being utilized by students for
learning without students recognizing it.

Limitations and Future Research

This study relied on a small volunteer sample and thus its findings cannot be general-
ized to the overall population under study. It conducted an in-depth look into the opin-
ions and perceptions of students about the usage of mobile media in the formal
classroom learning environment; future studies should employ survey research meth-
ods with large representative samples to see whether the findings of this study can be
replicated across universities, states, and, perhaps, countries. In addition, this study
was limited to the perceptions of students—future research should also include the
perspectives of instructors, administrators, and educational technology providers to
better evaluate the process of social construction of mobile technology. Finally, mobile
media continues to evolve with new applications being developed daily and, as a
result, any study of mobile media gets outdated the moment it is published. Continued
research is needed to advance the understanding of mobile media and its potential in
the formal classroom learning environment.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

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284 Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 70(3)

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Author Biographies
Alexander V. Laskin, PhD, is associate professor and director of graduate studies in the
Department of Strategic Communication, School of Communications, Quinnipiac University.
Joseph Avena is a public relations master’s student in the Department of Strategic Communication,
School of Communications, Quinnipiac University.

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