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introducing

INSTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
Course Outline
1. Introduction
- The four category of measurement
standards
- Accuracy and precision
- Errors in measurement
- Error Calculation
- The elements of electronic
instruments
Course Outline
2. DC Meters
3. AC Meters
4. DC and AC Bridges
5. Other Electronic Instruments
6. Signal Generator and Signal Analyzers
 Course Outline
7. Introduction to industrial instrumentation
- Sensors and transducers
- Pressure, level, and flow
- Temperature and Heat
- Humidity, viscosity, and pH
Other sensors
Course Outline

8. Industrial Control
- Actuators and control
- Signal conditioning
- Signal transmission
- Process control
 Student Outcomes
1. Ability to design and conduct
experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data;
2. Ability to identify, formulate, and solve
engineering problems;
3. Ability to use techniques, skills, and
modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practice;
Introduction

Instrumentation
• Is the use of measuring devices to determine
the values of varying quantities, often for the
purpose of controlling those quantities within
the prescribed limits
• Basic functions of an instrument: indicating,
recording, and controlling
Four Categories of Measurement Standards

All instruments are calibrated at the time of

manufacture against a measurement standard.
Categories of Measurements
1. International Standards
2. Primary Standards
3. Secondary Standards
4. Working Standards
International

• Are defined by an international agreement

• These standards are maintained at the
International Bureau of Weight and Measures
in Paris
• Are periodically evaluated and checked by
absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units in Physics
Primary Standards

• Are maintained at National Standards

Laboratories in different countries
• Are not available for use outside the national
laboratories
• Principal function is the calibration and
verification of secondary standards
Maryland's Metrology Laboratory
Secondary Standards

• Are the basic reference standards used by

measurement and calibration in the industry
• Each industrial laboratory is responsible for its
own secondary standards, which are
calibrated and certified at national standards
Working Standards

• Are the principal tools of a measurement

laboratory
• Used to check and calibrate general laboratory
instruments or make comparison
measurements in industrial application
Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy
• Is the degree of exactness of a measurement
when compared to the expected value
• It is the extent to which the indications of an
instrument approach the true values of the
quantities measured
Precision
• Is measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement
Accuracy and Precision
Error in Measurement

It is the difference between the measured value

and the true value
Categories of Measurement Errors
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors
Gross Errors

• Are generally due to the person using the

instrument
• Human errors
• Examples are: incorrect reading, incorrect
recording, incorrect use of instruments

• Can be avoided by taking care in using and

reading all instruments
Systematic Errors
Are due to problems with instruments,
environmental effects, or observational errors
Types of Systematic Errors
1. Instrument Errors – due to friction, incorrect
spring tension, improper calibration, or faulty
measurements
2. Environmental Errors – due to environmental
conditions such high temperature, pressure or
humidity, or strong electrostatic or
electromagnetic fields
3. Observational Errors – are errors introduced by
the observer such as parallax error and error of
estimation
Random Errors

• Are errors other than gross or systematic

errors
• It can only be analyzed statistically
• Are errors accumulated large number of small
effects
• are caused by uncontrollable fluctuations in
variables that affect experimental results
Error Calculations

Absolute Error
• It is the difference between the expected
value (Y) and the measured value (X)

E =Y − X
Error Calculations

Percent Error
• Is the error expressed in percentage

E
% E = x100%
Y
Accuracy

The accuracy of a result can be quantified by calculating the

percent error.

Y−X
A = 1−
Y
Problems

1. A resistor with a color code of Red, Brown,

Green, Gold is measured in an ohmmeter. It
reads 2.05 mega ohm. Calculate the error
and accuracy of the ohmmeter.
2. A voltmeter has an accuracy of 99.96%.
What is the expected value when it reads
220 volts? Compute the error.
Error in measurement Statistical Analysis

The information needed to make quantitative

judgment of the variations or errors in the data
are:
1. Mean value
2. Average deviation
3. Standard deviation
Mean Value

• Average or mean is a value typical or most

representative of a set of data
• Arithmetic mean is the most frequently used
average value

x1 + x 2 + x3 ... + x n
x=
n
Deviation

• It is the difference between each piece of test

data and the arithmetic mean

d1 = x1 − x
d 2 = x2 − x
d n = xn − x
Average Deviation

• It is a measure of variation or dispersion of

data
• It may be used as an expression of the
precision of a measuring instrument
• Dispersion or variation is the degree to which
numerical data spread about the average
value

d1 + d 2 + ... + d n
D=
n
Standard Deviation

• It is the degree to which the values vary about

the average value

d1 + d 2 + ...d n
2 2 2

S=
n
Standard Deviation

• For small numbers of readings (n<30)

d1 + d 2 + ...d n
2 2 2

S=
n −1
Problem

• Below are the tests used to determine the

precision of a voltmeter. Determine mean,
average deviation and standard deviation.
PRECISION
Precision
Sample Problem

• Calculate the precision of the 6th

measurement.
Limiting Error
Sample Problem

• A 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate

within + 2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to measure
a voltage of 250V.
Elements of Electronic Instruments
Elements of Electronic Instruments

• Sensor
– This is the element of the system which is
effectively in contact with the process for which
a variable is being measured and gives an output
which depends in some way on the value of the
variable and which can be used by the rest of the
measurement system to give a value to it.
Elements of Electronic Instruments
Elements of Electronic Instruments

• Signal Processor
– This element takes the output from the sensor
and converts it into a form which is suitable for
display or onward transmission in some control
system.
– The term signal conditioner is used for an
element which converts the output of a sensor
into a suitable form for further processing
Elements of Electronic Instrument
Elements of Electronic Instruments

• Data presentation
– This presents the measured value in a form
which enables an observer to recognize it. This
may be via a display, e.g. a pointer moving across
the scale of a meter or perhaps information on a
visual display unit (VDU). Alternatively, or
additionally, the signal may be recorded, e.g. on
the paper of a chart recorder or perhaps on
magnetic disk
Elements of Electronic Instrument
Elements of Electronic Instruments

Transducers are defined as an element that

converts a change in some physical variable into a
related change in some other physical variable.
– It is generally used for an element that converts a
change in some physical variable into an electrical
signal change. Thus sensors can be transducers.
However, a measurement system may use
transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other
parts of the system to convert signals in one form
to another form.
Elements of Electronic Instruments
DC METERS
DC METERS
• DC Ammeter
• DC Voltmeter
• Ohmmeter
Introduction

Meter: Any device built to accurately detect &

display an electrical quantity in a
readable form by a human being.

• Visual
• Motion of pointer
Readable form on a scale
• Series of light
(digital)
 DC AMMETER
• A device that indicates the amount of current
flowing through it
• Analog system makes used of a moving coil
called D’ Arsonval Ammeter
The D’Arsonval Meters

◼ In 1880s, two French inventors: Jacques d’Arsonval and

Marcel Deprez patented the moving-coil galvanometer.

Jacques d’Arsonval Marcel Deprez

(1851 – 1940) (1843 – 1918)

Deprez-d'Arsonval Galvanometer
 The D’Arsonval Meter Movement

◼ The basic moving coil system

generally referred to as a
d’Arsonval meter movement or
Permanent Magnet Coil
(PMMC) meter movement.
◼ Current-sensitive device
capable of directly measuring
only very small currents.
◼ Its usefulness as a measuring
device is greatly increased with
the proper external circuitry.
Fig 1-1 The d’Arsonval meter movement
D’Arsonval Meter Movement Principle
Current from a circuit in which measurements are being made with the meter
passes through the windings of the moving coil. Current through the coil causes
it to behave as an electromagnet with its own north and south poles. The poles of
the electromagnet interact with the poles of the permanent magnet, causing the
coil to rotate. The pointer deflects up scale whenever current flows in the proper
direction in the coil. For this reason, all dc meter movements show polarity
markings.
Problem
D’ARSONVAL USED IN
DC AMMETER
 Ideal Ammeter
Two Basic properties
1. Internal resistance is zero
2. Needle deflection is directly proportional to
current
3. The meter spaced is mark off with uniform
spacing between divisions
 Real Ammeter
Two Properties
1. Has some resistance but it is made as low as
possible
2. The needle deflection is not exactly
proportional to the amount of current
D’Ársonval Meter Movement
Used In A DC Ammeter

◼ Since the windings of the moving coil are very fine wire, the basic
d’Arsonval meter movement has only limited usefulness without
modification.
◼ One desirable modification is to increase the range of current that can
be measured with the basic meter movement.
◼ This done by placing a low resistance called a shunt (Rsh), and its
function is to provide an alternate path for the total metered current, I
around the meter movement.
DC METERS
• DC Ammeter : The shunting resistor Rsh and d’Arsonval
movement form a current divider
• DC Voltmeter : Series resistor Rs and d’Arsonval
movement form a voltage divider.
• Ohmmeter : Measures the current to find the
resistance
 Basic DC Ammeter Circuit
Ammeter

Where

Rsh = resistance of the shunt

Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movement (resistance of the moving coil)
Ish = current through the shunt
Im = full-scale deflection current of
the meter movement
I = full-scale deflection current for
the ammeter Fig: D’Ársonval meter movement
used in ammeter circuit

In most circuits, Ish >> Im

 Meter Shunts
▪ Meter Shunts
▪ Meter shunts are low-value precision resistors that are
connected in parallel with the meter movement.

▪ Meter shunts bypass a portion of the current around the

meter movement. This process extends the range of currents
that can be read with the same meter movement.
Example

Calculate the value of the shunt resistance

required to convert a 1-mA meter movement,
with a 100-ohm internal resistance, into a 0-
to 10-mA ammeter.
Problem

A 100uA meter movement with an

internal resistance of 800Ω is used in a 0 - 100
mA ammeter . Find the value of the required
shunt resistance.
Problem

• Design an ammeter to measure the following

current range using a 50mA PMMC meter
movement with internal resistance 3000 ohm.
a. 0-100mA
b. 0-200mA
c. 0-500mA
d. 0-1A
MULTI-RANGE AMMETER
 Multirange Ammeters

• In practical terms,
ammeters with a single
range are not very
useful;
• The current range of a
dc ammeter may be
further extended by a
number of shunts,
selected by a range
switch. Such meter is
called multirange
ammeter.
Multirange Ammeter

• What happens if as the switch is moved from

position 1 to position 2 say, it momentarily
loses contact with both 1 and 2 while still
carrying current?
• This can be solved in 2 ways
– A make-before-break switch
– A Universal or Ayrton Shunt
Make-before-break

• To avoid damaged, a make before break type

switch is used. The switch is so designed that
when the switch position is changed, it makes
contact with the next terminal (range) before
breaking contact with the previous terminal.
Therefore, the meter movement is never left
unprotected. Multirange ammeters are used
for ranges up to 50 A.
Make-Before-Break
Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt

William Edward Ayrton studied under Lord

Kelvin at Glasgow. In 1873 he was appointed
to the first chair in natural philosophy and
telegraphy at Imperial Engineering College,
Tokyo. In 1879 he was the first to advocate
power transmission at high voltage, and with
John Perry (1850-1920) he invented the spiral-
spring ammeter, the wattmeter, and other
electrical measuring instruments. The
ammeter (a contraction of ampere meter) was
one of the first to measure current and voltage
reliably. They also worked on railway
electrification, produced a dynamometer and
the first electric tricycle. William Edward Ayrton (1847-1908)
British Engineer
The Ayrton Shunt

◼ The purpose of designing the shunt circuit is to allow to

measure current, I that is some number n times larger
than Im.

I = nIm

Rm
Rsh =
n−1
Advantages of the Ayrton

◼ Eliminates the possibility of the

meter movement being in the
circuit without any shunt
resistance.
◼ May be used with a wide range
of meter movements.

Fig 1-3 Ayrton shunt circuit

Con’t

◼ The individual resistance values of the shunts are

calculated by starting with the most sensitive
range and working toward the least sensitive
range.
◼ The shunt resistance is:
Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc
◼ On this range the shunt resistance is equal to Rsh
and can be computed by Eqn
Rm
Rsh =
n −1
Con’t

I m ( Rsh + Rm )
Rb + Rc =
I2

I m ( Rsh + Rm )
Rc =
I3

Ra = Rsh − ( Rb + Rc )
 Problem

• Calculate the value of Ra,

Rb, Rc as shown, given
the value of resistance,
Rm=1000 ohm and a full
scale current of the
moving coil = 100µA. The
required range of current
are:
I1 = 10mA ; I2 = 100mA ;
I3 = 1A
 Problem

• Design an Ayrton
shunt to provide an
ammeter with a
current range of 0- 1
mA, 10 mA, 50 mA
and 100 mA. A
D’Arsonval
movement with an
internal resistance of
100Ω and a full scale
current of 50µA is
used.
Ammeter Insertion Effect
Problem
D’ARSONVAL USED IN
DC VOLTMETER
▪ The basic meter movement becomes a dc
instrument, measuring
▪ DC current, by adding a shunt resistance,
forming a microammeter, a milliammeter or an
ammeter.
▪ DC voltage, by adding a multiplier resistance,
forming a millivoltmeter, voltmeter or
kilovoltmeter.
▪ Resistance, by adding a battery and resistive
network, forming an ohmmeter.
– A voltmeter is connected across two points to
measure their difference in potential.
– A voltmeter uses a high-resistance multiplier in
series with the meter movement.
– A dc voltmeter must be connected with the
correct polarity.
 D’Ársonval Meter Movement
Used In A DC Voltmeter

◼ The basic d’Ársonval meter movement

can be converted to a dc voltmeter by
connecting a multiplier Rs in series
with the meter movement
◼ The purpose of the multiplier:
❑ is to extend the voltage range of the Fig: The basic d’Arsonval meter
meter Movement Used In A DC Voltmeter
❑ to limit current through the d’Arsonval
meter movement to a maximum full-
scale deflection current.
Basic Meter as a DC Voltmeter

• To use the basic meter as a dc voltmeter, it is

necessary to know the amount of current
required to deflect the basic meter to full
scale.
• This current is known as the full scale
deflection.
• This full scale deflection will produce the
voltmeter’s sensitivity.
 Sensitivity
• The ratio of the total circuit resistance to the
voltage range.
• It can be used to calculate the value of the
multiplier resistor in a dc voltmeter.
• An important parameter in resolving loading
effect of an instrument.
 Problem
• Calculate the sensitivity of a 200 uA meter
movement which is to be used as a dc
voltmeter.
Example

Calculate the value of the multiplier

resistance on the 50V range of a dc voltmeter
that used a 500A meter movement with an
internal resistance of 1k.
 Problem
• A basic D’ Arsonval movement with a full scale
deflection of 50 uA and internal resistance of
500 ohms is used as a voltmeter. Determine
the value of the multiplier resistance needed
to measure a voltage range of 0 – 10 V.
 8-4: Loading Effect of a Voltmeter

▪ When voltmeter resistance is not high enough, connecting it

across a circuit can reduce the measured voltage.

▪ This effect is called loading down the circuit, because the

measured voltage decreases due to the additional load
current for the meter.
 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter

▪ High resistance circuits are susceptible to Voltmeter loading.

Loading Effect of a Voltmeter
 Multirange Voltmeter

• Multirange voltmeter is obtained by

connecting a number of resistors (multipliers)
along with a range switch to provide a greater
number of workable ranges
Multirange Voltmeter
VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECT
• A voltmeter (0-10V) that has an internal resistance of
78 ohms is used to measure the voltage across the
resistor RB. Determine the percentage of the reading
due to voltmeter insertion. Let E = 4V Ra = Rb =
1kohms, S = 1kohm/volts
Questions?
END