Religion notes

Islam

THE PRINCIPAL BELIEFS OF ISLAM

 It is almost impossible to separate beliefs from practices...
 Beliefs are more aligned to the teachings of the Qur’an
 Practices are more aligned to the 5 Pillars
 Islamic belief comes from Allah as revealed in the Qur’an
 There are 7 articles of its creed – Aqida ul-Islam – as revealed by Allah
There are 7 basic articles of faith set out in the Qur’an-:
1. Tawhid – the Oneness of Allah
2. Angels
3. The Sacred Books of Allah
4. Rusul – Prophets
5. Yawmuddin - The Day of Judgement
6. Al-Akhira - Life after death
7. Al-Qadr - Fate or predestination
These beliefs can also be classified according to the following three headings: -
 Tawhid – the Oneness of Allah (1 & 7)
 Rusul – Prophethood (2, 3 & 4)
 Akhira – Life after death (5 & 6)
TAWHID – THE ONENESS OF ALLAH
 The belief in – and the declaration of – the oneness and unity of God. This is recited
as part of the five daily prayers: “He, Allah, is One. Allah is he on whom all depend . He
begets not, nor is he begotten. And none is like him.”

 Only Allah must be worshipped and no other being should be associated with Allah
 The sin of idolatry – shirk – is the worst of all sins
 Allah is all knowing and all powerful and the creator of all things- transcendent
 Yet Allah is also immanent- close to the heat of all,
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 Tawhid does not allow pride or arrogance, possessions to be regarded as anything

than transitory, and sees all things as purposeful – Allah has allowed them to happen
 As Allah is all knowing to act out of impure motives, or be hypocritical is wrong
 Ignorance is wrong as to submit to Allah requires you know his ways.
 Belief in tawhid creates meaning for Muslims
ANGELS

 They are created by God from light to serve and worship him – especially the Angel
Gabriel (Jibril)
 Two guardian angels are assigned to each person
 Every thought and action will be recorded by these two angels (so that the life of a
Muslim may be assessed after death)

SACRED BOOKS - QUR’AN

 Islam has two sacred texts – the Qur’an and the Hadith
 The Qur’an is the (last) book revealed by his (last) Prophet Muhammad – that is, it is
the direct word of God
 The Qur’an contains all the essential teachings of Allah – the stories of the prophets
and the consequences of good and evil deeds
 Thus, it covers how to live your life and also provides all the answers to the
important questions; e.g. who we are and why we are here.
 It was told directly to Muhammad who committed it to memory.
 It was finally written down by scribes exactly as it was received.
 Hence it is the complete and reliable source of Revelation.
 The Qur’an contains 114 sura – chapters – subdivided into 6000 verses.
 It is written in Arabic – which is the language of Allah
 Many Muslims memorise and recite the Qur’an
 When translated, it provides only an approximate interpretation of the original
words of God – and therefore, when true meanings are required, one must go the
original Arabic.
SACRED BOOKS – HADITH
 The second of the Sacred Texts is the Hadith
 This book records the traditions words and practices of Muhammad – i.e. The Sunna.
 It is these traditions and practices upon which Muslims model their lives
 To most Muslims, there are 6 collections of Hadith which are all to be treated as true
teachings of Muhammad
 These were written during the first three centuries of Islam

RUSUL – PROPHETS
 A prophet is a messenger from God
 God speaks to us through the prophets
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 Islam believes that there were many prophets – 25 are named in the Qur’an
including Abraham, Moses, David and Jesus – but that Muhammad was the last.
 Yes – it believes that Jesus was a prophet – not God.

DAY OF JUDGEMENT – YAWMUDDIN & LIFE AFTER DEATH – AKHIRA

 Allah will determine whether a person will spend their afterlife in Jahannam (hell) or
Jannah (heaven)
 Every thought and action of a Muslim’s life on earth will be recorded – and revealed
on the day of judgement
 This record is kept by the two guardian angels who are assigned to each person so
that– on the day of judgement –the person will then see themselves as they really
are

PREDESTINATION (FATE) – AL QADR

 Everything that happens does so by the will of Allah and that there is nothing that
anyone can do to change it.
 That is – Allah knows what will happen in our lives – i.e. nothing can happen without
the knowledge, will and power of Allah.
 Muslims also believe that Allah has given them free will in order to respond to life’s
happenings and that it is this response which is important. i.e. It is what a person
does with his/her free will that is important
 Muslims believe in an afterlife - Jahannah (hell) or Jannah (heaven).
 Allah does not prevent humans from using their free will – but it is by this use that
they will be judged. i.e. how their lives on earth will be assessed.

Sacred Texts and Writings

Aim for Muslims:
To submit to Allah, obey his laws by following the Qur’an, the prophet Mohammed and
his teachings and actions so as to get to Heaven.

Holy Books of Revelation

• According to Islam, God has spoken to humanity through divine revelation compiled
in holy books of various lengths throughout human history.
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“Verily, We have inspired you as We have inspired Noah and the Prophets after Him…”
(Qur’an, 4:163)
The Qur’an mentions that God has revealed four major holy books:
− The Torah to Moses
− The Psalms to David
− The Gospel to Jesus
− The Qur’an to Muhammad
“…It is He Who has sent down the Book (Qur’an) to you (with truth, confirming what
came before it. And he sent down the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injeel Gospel).” (Qur’an,
3:3) “…and to David We gave Zabur (the Psalms).” (Qur’an, 4:163

The Qur’an
The Qur’an is a book of:
• 30 equal parts (juz)
• 604 pages (suhuf)
• 114 chapters (sura)
• 6238 verses (ayah)
four key themes covered in the Qur’an throughout the whole book:
1. Monotheism – The Qur’an describes God, His existence and unity. The concept of
God and God’s attributes are mentioned in many places in the Qur’an.
2. Prophethood – The Qur’an describes the need for prophets, their responsibilities
and struggles in the way of God. It does not tell stories of prophets in great length,
rather, it highlights the essential aspects of their stories that point to the essential
principles of life and humanity. Sometimes, a particular story is examined from more
than one angle to indicate different aspects and principles.
3. Resurrection – The Qur’an proves the existence of resurrection by directing our
attention to the continued resurrection that happens around us in nature. It also
describes details of life after death.
4. Justice – Every commandment of God contained in the Qur’an directs humanity to
find the Sirat-al Mustaqeem (the straight & balanced path) in one’s personal and
social life. Islam also enjoins an endeavour to reach a wholesome balance in one’s
emotions, thought, beliefs and devotional and social conduct.
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Collection of The Qur’an

• The Qur’an was revealed gradually over the 23 years of the mission of the Prophet
Muhammad.
• The manner of revelation was various:
 The revelation would come either in a trance or a dream or the visitation of
the angel Gabriel.
 He described that he would hear sounds similar to the ringing of bells.
 He would have visible signs of trance with his body sweating and getting
heavy.
 He was conscious throughout the revelation.

• There was no standard way the Qur’anic text were revealed.

• Sometimes a single verse would be revealed, sometimes a collection of verses and
sometimes a complete chapter would be revealed.
• Although revelation did not come in the current order of the book, it followed the
trajectory of the evolving Muslim community.
• Revelation usually came either to prepare the Prophet and Muslims for an important
event and milestone or in response to an incident or questions.
• There is consensus among Muslims that the present copy of the Qur’an is the
authentic one that the Prophet Muhammad passed on immediately to his
companion Muslims during his lifetime.
• This position is usually justified in terms of the strategy that the Prophet Muhammad
followed and the deliberate actions taken by the early Caliphs to preserve the Qur’an
as a book.

• The Qur’an was preserved in three different ways during the lifetime of the Prophet
Muhammad.
 Written records – When a new revelation was received, he would recite it to
a scribe, who would write it on a parchment, animal skin or whatever
material they could find.
 Systematic memorisation – The Prophet asked his companions to memorise
passages of the Qur’an that had been revealed to date. As a result, hundreds
of people knew the whole Qur’an by heart and thousands more memorised
large chunks of it.
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 A control mechanism – Every year in the month of Ramadan, Prophet would

recite the whole Qur’an in the audience of Muslims who in turn would check
their written copies and what they knew by heart.
• After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Qur’an was collected into a volume
within two years in the tenure of Caliph Abu Bakr.
• This volume was produced as a public project and was managed by the chief scribe
of the Prophet Zayd Ibn Sabit.
• Zayd was stipulated to get two witnesses for each verse from the companions.
• This volume was kept with Abu Bakr and then with Omar
• After Omar’s death in 644, it was kept with Hafsa, Omar’s daughter and the wife of
the Prophet.
• After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Qur’an was collected into a volume
within two years in the tenure of Caliph Abu Bakr.
• This volume was produced as a public project and was managed by the chief scribe
of the Prophet Zayd Ibn Sabit.
• Zayd was stipulated to get two witnesses for each verse from the companions.
• This volume was kept with Abu Bakr and then with Omar
• After Omar’s death in 644, it was kept with Hafsa, Omar’s daughter and the wife of
the Prophet.

Rules of using the Qur’an

• Cannot eat or drink whilst reading the Qur’an
• Outside noise is kept to an absolute minimum
• Before reading, one must bathe carefully.
• When not being read, it is to be in an elevated position so that nothing is placed on
top of it and covered to prevent dust.

hadith
Hadith (Prophetic Narratives) Overview
• Hadith – collections of sayings and traditions of Muhammad
• 2 types – Prophetic Hadith & Sacred Hadiths
• They portray Muhammad as a man of great wisdom, character, mercy &
compassion.
• Following Muhammad’s death many traditions were gathered together about his life
forming the basis of the hadiths.
• Hadiths must not be confused with the Sunnah (Muslim laws that have been formed
based on Muhammad’s actions or words).
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• Helps Muslims resolve issues not mentioned in the Qur’an.

• Many hadiths – within 3 centuries, 600,000 hadith’s were known. Only a small
number were genuine.
• In order to determine whether a hadith is accurate, one needs to trace its origins
back to someone who has knew the Prophet. This is known as the chain of
transmission
• The Hadith is not considered equal to the Qur’an as it is the words of a Prophet, NOT
the words of Allah.

Hadith & Sunnah

• Hadith, to most people calling themselves Muslim, means the reported sayings and
practices of the Prophet.
• The operative word here is 'reported'.
• The Hadith literature was collected by word of mouth, about 250 years after the
death of the Prophet.
• The Hadiths – as the Hadith literature is commonly called – can be classified roughly
in four categories:
1. What the Prophet said.
2. What the Prophet did.
3. What the Prophet silently approved of, in others.
4. Hadiths which give descriptions of what the Prophet was like
• Sunnah according to the Hadith means the laws that have been derived from the
Hadith literature based on the reported teachings and practices of the Prophet.
• The Qur'an is 'the Word of Allah' which was uttered by the Prophet as it was
conveyed by him to the world under the inspiration of the Revelation.

HISTORY OF THE HADITH

Prophetic Educational Strategy (1)

Prophet Muhammad followed a deliberate educational strategy to propagate Islam and to
preserve it.
• Recording all matters in writing.
• The Qur’an was written on parchment in the Prophet’s lifetime.
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• Administrative matters of the state were put in writing. Census, treaties,

conscription lists, diplomatic letters etc. were all preserved in writing.
• The Prophet (pbuh) had a professional scribe, Abdullah bin-Arkam, who would
respond to diplomatic letters from rulers in the surrounding lands.
Prophetic Educational Strategy
Next to the mosque in Medina, the Prophet established a simple boarding school or
academy called Suffa.
• The Prophet himself looked after the education and the needs of the students. He
also appointed teachers to take care of the newer students. More than 400 people
graduated from this institution in the Prophet’s lifetime.
• In addition to the main mosque in the centre of Medina, the Prophet actively worked
to make sure a mosque was built in every small or large settlement. In his lifetime,
these numbered as many as 40.
• The Prophet also tutored and developed highly intelligent individuals who later
became the leading scholars among the companions of the Prophet. These include
companions like, Ali bin Abu Talib, Abdullah ibn Mes’ud and more.
• Every opportunity to increase literacy among people was utilised to its fullest extent.
For example, the prisoners of war from the battle of Badr would be set free without
any compensation if any of them were to teach ten people how to read and write.
Identification phase
Identific Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As narrates,
“I used to write everything which I heard from the Messenger of God. I intended to
memorise them. The people of Quraysh prevented me saying, ‘Do you write everything
that you hear from him while the Messenger of God is a human being; he may speak in
anger and pleasure?’ So I stopped writing, and mentioned it to the Messenger of God.
He pointed with his finger to his mouth and said, ‘Write, by Him in Whose hand is my
soul, only truth comes out from it.”
(Sunan of Abu Dawud : Book 25, Number 3639)ation Phase)
• Abu Hurayra – 5375. He dedicated his life to collecting and narrating hadith. He
would follow the Prophet (pbuh) everywhere.
• Abdullah ibn Omar – 2630. He was a student in the Suffa academy.
• Anas ibn Malik – 2286. He was a servant and a student of the Prophet (pbuh) for
ten years.
• Aisha – 2210. She was a scholarly wife of the Prophet (pbuh).
• Abdullah ibn Abbas – 1660. He was known as the scholar of Muslims. He
mastered all religious and literary sciences.
•
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Collection Phase
• Caliph Omar bin Abdulaziz (d. 721), 90 years after the Prophet (pbuh), initiated a
state-sponsored collection of hadith from all over the Muslim world into one
centre.
• He feared that unless hadith were recorded firmly in books they could be lost
forever with the death of great hadith masters.
• Hadith scholars in the capital Medina, led by the famous hadith master Zuhri,
collected all available hadith narrations into volumes.
Classification Phase
• With the pool of hadith available in writing, more work were required to make it
easier to utilise the vast pool of narratives in teaching and Islamic law. This was
done in:
• − Authenticating hadith in a critical analysis
• − Categorising hadith under subject matters
• Hadith authentication considered two main aspects of
narratives:
• − Content (matn)
• − Reference (isnad)
• Imam Malik’s Muwatta, was the first hadith collection that included
authenticated hadith categorised in subject matters.

Bukhari’s Criteria
• The narrator has to be a Muslim.
• The narrator has to be a mature and intelligent person.
• Narrations of children or mentally disabled are not accepted.
• The narrator has to be known for his/her absolute truthfulness. If a person is known
to have lied about anything, his/her narrations are not accepted.
• The narrator has to be famous, that is; at least two qualified narrators must have
received narrations from him/her. His/her life and qualifications has to be known.
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• The narrator has to be an honest and objective person and not hide any
shortcomings in narrations.
• The narrator has to practice the religion better than ordinary Muslims.
• The narrator has to have firm faith without having extreme views about essentials of
faith.
• The narrator has to be good in keeping his written records and memorised
narrations.
• There has to be no brake in the chain of narrators. The chain of narrations should
include people who have actually seen one another all the way back to the Prophet.
• The narration (hadith) should not be in conflict with verses from Qur’an and other
proven narrations.

Basic beliefs of Islam

• Tawid = oneness of allah
• Rusel = revolation/ prophethood
• Akhirah = afterlife

Quotes
Tawhid
• "He is Allah, the One, Allah is Eternal and Absolute. None is born of Him, He is
unborn. There is none like unto Him". (surah 112)
• "No vision can grasp Him, but His grasp is over all vision. He is above all
comprehension, yet it acquainted with all things" (surah 6:103)
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• "It was We who created man, and We know even the secret suggestions his soul
makes to him; for We are nearer to him than his jugular vein" (surah 50:16)

Angels
• "The Lord said to the angels. "when I have created Man and breathed My spirit
into him then fall ye down and worship him." So, all he angels bowed down in
worship, all of them together. But not so Iblis the chief jinn: he refused to be
among those who bowed down" (surah 15:28-31)
• "Behold two guardians appointed to learn his doings, one sitting on his right and
one on the left. Not a word does he utter but there is a sentinel by him, ready to
note it." (surah 50:17-18).
• "He sends forth guardians to watch over you and when death overtakes you, the
messengers will carry away your soul." (surah 6:61)

Books of Allah
• "Those who say "Allah does not send down revelations to humans" do not judge
rightly. Who sent down the book which Musa brought - a light and guidance for
humanity? But you have made it into separate books for show, and you conceal
much of its contents" (surah 6:91)
• "believe in what has been sent down to thee Muhammad and what has been sent
down before thee" (Surah 2: 4).

Rusul
• "Allah chooses for Himself whoever He pleases, and guides to Himself those who
turn to Him" (surah 42:13).
• "Who can be better in faith than one who submits his whole self to Allah, does good
and follows the way of Ibrahim, the true in faith? For Allah did take Ibrahim for a
friend." (surah 4:125)
• "We gave Musa the Book and followed him up with a succession of Apostles: We
gave Isa the son of Maryam clear signs and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit."
(surah 2:87)

Akhira
• "One burdened soul shall not bear the burden of another. And even if the heavy-
laden soul should cry out for its burden to be carried not one bit of it shall be
carried, not even by the next of kin" (surah 35:18).
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• "Your good actions will benefit only you, while evil harms only
the person who does it." (surah 41:46)

Fate/predestination
• "Whatever Allah grants to humanity out of His mercy, no one can withhold and what
He withholds no one can grant apart from Him. He is the source of Power, the All-
Knowing" (surah 35:2)
• "If Allah lay the touch of trouble on you, no one can deliver you from it save Allah
alone; and if He wills good for you, no one can prevent His blessing. He confers them
on His servants as He chooses" (surah 10:107)
• "On the Day of Judgment no step of a servant of Allah shall slip until he has answered
concerning four things:
 his body and how he used it
 his life and how he spent it
 his wealth and how he earned
 his knowledge and what he did with it"(Hadith)

Core Ethical Teachings

Ethics in Islam
• Islam ethics is all about one’s relationship with Allah and others
• All actions have a consequence.
• All rules determined by Allah
• Your life will be judged at Yawmuddin
• Aim in Life is to spend eternity with Allah in Heaven
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• Ethics are derived from the..

 Tawhid: One God - Allah / Predestination & Fate
 Rusul: How Allah reveals himself to people / Books of Allah / Angels /
Prophets
 Akhira: Day of Judgement / Life after Death

SOURCES OF ETHICS
• Qur’an – word of Allah
• Hadith / Words and Action of M. Sunna – Laws or Muslim actions that come from
Hadith. Often used together.
• Shari’ah Law, Muslim Scholars,
• Qiyas (Analogies, precedents)
• Ijma (Consenus, agreements) Muhammad said "My community will never agree
upon an error" often cited as support for the validity of Ijma
• Right Action
• SHARI'AH LAW (clear overall framework, so Muslims can follow it)

 Tells A Muslim what is Halal and what is Haraam

THE PRINCIPAL ETHICAL TEACHINGS WITHIN ISLAM

• Submission to Allah (Basis of Islam)
• Tawqa, (awareness or consciousness of God)
• Jihad (Striving to be a better Muslim)
• Sabr (Patience)
• Qadr (destiny)
• All are Equal before Allah
Core ethical teaching of Islam can be summarised in five important virtues. (moral
expectations of Muslims.)
• Love of Allah (sums up all other principle and ideas in Islam)
• Humility (avoid the sense of pride and arrogance)
• Modesty (avoid pride and arrogance, think of others before yourself)
• Naturalness (Right Action)(therefore part of the design or plan of Allah.)
• Selflessness (human interaction provide material support for the poor)

the process of Islamic Jurisprudence

• The process of determining the appropriateness of actions is called jurisprudence
• In the first instance, consult the Qur’an.
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• Where the Qur'an is not sufficiently clear or detailed on a particular issue, Muslims
look to other sources
• The next step is to examine the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad known as the
Hadith and the Sunna (laws from the Hadith)
• If still in doubt, an Islamic religious scholar – through fiqh – will try to find a
precedent – ijma
• If still in doubt, an Islamic religious scholar will study Sharia Law – ijtihad – so as to
determine the correct course of action and make a ruling – a fatwah

Ijtihad
• When an issue is mentioned in the Qur'an or hadith, the correct action to be taken
by a Muslim is relatively easy to deduce.
• However, when there is no direct mention of a major issue, a Muslim scholar must
arrive at a religious judgment through collecting evidence, analysis, interpretation
and conclusions – a process known as ijtihad.
• A major scholar who carries out ijtihad is known as a mujtahid.

Fatwa
• Judgments are regularly made by leading religious authorities, who issue fatwas, or
nonbinding religious opinions.
• A religious scholar who makes a fatwa is called a mufti.
• A mufti interprets whether a behaviour or action falls into one of these five
categories, according to the Islamic shariah:
 obligatory (fard or wajib)
 recommended (mandub or mustahab)
 permitted (halal)
 undesirable but not forbidden (makra)
 forbidden (haram)
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Desirable actions
• The second level of halal actions are known as mandub or mustahab.
• These are actions that are desirable or recommended.
• Additional charitable activities or prayers, gestures of hospitality, forgiving
wrongdoing etc
• Unclear actions
• The third level of halal actions are known as mubah.
• Mubah refers to situations where there is no clear guidance in the Qur'an or in
judgments of authorities in Islam.
• In these situations, an individual must choose the correct action based on the
principles outlined above.
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Hateful actions
• not recommended or are not approved.
• These actions are known as makruh and are officially regarded as hateful, yet are not
absolutely forbidden.
• These actions should be avoided whenever possible.
• Ending a marriage through divorce is an example of makruh.
•
Muhammed as a role model
• The example of Muhammad’s life, his faith, courage and leadership qualities provide
excellent model for Muslim life
• Surrender to Allah = Islam, Muhammad is seen as the perfect example by his total
submission to Allah
• All Muslims encouraged to follow his example in living Islam and perfecting their
character
• Chosen by Allah to convey the message of Islam- acclaimed prophet
• Tradition- reveals his character and leadership qualities
 Hadith: book of his teachings
 Sunna: book of his actions
• Orphaned at an early age- became a ‘child of everyone’, developed an affinity with
those marginalised and alienated
• Honesty & integrity as a trader- ‘Al –Ameen’
• Loyal faithful husband & father
• Man of prayer, spiritual searcher- close to Allah before the revelations began
• Following revelation, complete Faith, Trust in Allah, submitted fully to the will of
Allah-first Muslim and a fearless preacher and warrior for Allah and Islam
• Strong leader & statesman- virtual head of Arabia – yet humble and simple
• Arbitrator and judge, resolving disputes justly, fair wages, no corruption
• Social, political reformer - cared for the poor, abolished slavery, infanticide,
improved conditions for women
• Known as the ‘The Walking Qur’an’- embodiment of all the teachings of the Qur’an
in human form
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Pre-Islamic Arabia

Towns and Trade

• Cities developed as trade centres along the Red Sea.
• The most important trade centres were Mecca and Medina
• Mecca was founded by the Quraysh clan and they became the political and
economic leaders.
• Because Mecca was the site of the Ka’ba, many people flocked to the city and that
provided people to trade with.
• Medina was a smaller trade town compared to Mecca and focused on long-distance
caravan trade.

Yathrib (Medina)
• The two main cities – and hence the centres of trade – were Mecca and Medina
• Medina - formally known as Yathrib – is located in modern day Saudi Arabia.
• Grew date palms which were traded to the Bedouins
• Did not prosper as well as Mecca because of a clash between two Bedouin and three
Jewish clans

The Arabian Peninsula Before Islam

• The Arabian Peninsula is covered by inhospitable desert and intolerable climate.
• Many Bedouin and nomadic cultures develop based on camel and goat herding
• They developed small towns around oases.
• Bedouins lived in smaller clans and were part of larger tribes that only herded
together during times of crisis.
• A great loyalty depended within the clans.

Pre-Islamic Arabia & Bedouins

• Originally, towns like Medina and Mecca were extensions of tribal culture.
• The people who populated Arabia were the nomadic Bedouin herders.
• These clans had social hierarchy with the sheikhs (leaders)at the top and slaves at
the bottom.
• Fights often broke out between different clans, this weakened Bedouins as a people.
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• Bedouin culture mainly focused on poetry.

• Their religion was animism and polytheism. It did not focus on morals.

Clan Life
• There were very prominent social classes in the clan life
 Shaykhs- elected leaders of the clan or tribe.
 Free Warriors- Made up most of the clan.
 Slave Families- people from other clans who were conquered
• Fierce Inter-clan rivalries developed and lots of blood was spilled because of these
brutal rivalries.
• Tribal warfare and violence predominated
• The tribe was ‘the sacred value’ of the culture with the concept of justice being
focused on taking revenge

Social Structure
• Early pre-Islamic civilisations occurred around one and two thousand BC
• At the centre of the Bedouin tribe (Qabilah) was the tent (Khaymah): represents
family. A camp of Khaymah formed a Hayy and one member of each Hayy made a
clan Qawm. It was these clans that grouped together to form tribes and the
members of each individual clan were blood related
• The Bedouin tribe was democratic in the sense that they had a leader; one who was
viewed as the wisest and most experienced of the other members of the clan was
elected and was known as ‘Sheikh’. This position was not hereditary.

• There was no unity or nationalism between the Arab people. Each tribe was a
separate identity with their own dialects and religion.

Religion
• Christianity was active in the region prior to the rise of Islam.
• Some tribes practised Judaism
• The Pagan Arabs made up the majority of Arabia and believed in about 360 Gods and
Goddesses. The existence of Allah was a religious reality for a minority of Arabs.
• Arabia was profoundly polytheistic environment and were superstitious
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• Beliefs in a myriad of demons, djinn/ghouls, demigods, gods and goddesses and

creatures
• Their beliefs are seen through their stories of genies, ghouls, magic lamps, flying
carpets and wishes. A famous example of this is the tale of Arabian Nights.
• The sun was worshiped and viewed as significant however not as much
as the moon – which was a friend and ally providing them with light, coolness
and shade. The moon symbolised a nomadic lifestyle which is what they lived by as
opposed to the agriculture sense that the Sun implies. The sun was actually viewed
as an enemy to the nomads depriving them of pasture, shade and water, in the
scorching heat of the desert.
• The Pagan Arabs did not build temples or significant structures for their Gods and did
not establish mythology in regards to whom they worshiped.
• Most of the 'holy' places of their other divinities were trees, wells, caves or fallen
meteors. The pagan Arabs made sacrifices - both human and animal - to 'Venus'.
• A sacred cube-like-building known as “Ka’ba” was a place of pilgrimage and viewed
as holy long before Islam.
• The Ka’ba - a building in the shape of a cube found in Mecca - is said to date back to
Abraham
• 360 idols are found in the Ka’ba
• The Ka’ba is where all pagans would go when on a pilgrimage. There they would walk
around the Ka’ba seven times.
• Mecca wasn’t only a place of pilgrimage; it was also a trading centre especially of
spices, leather, cloth and camel butter.
• Numerous holy places were natural areas such as trees and caves as well as wells
and fallen meteors. – the Black Stone in the Ka’ba
• Sacrifice was practiced and involved both animal and human sacrifice to the Goddess
Venus and it is said that Muhammad also gave sacrifices to Venus himself.
• Another belief of the Bedouins was that the desert was home to various living
creatures and spirits known as Jinn who were said to fill their lives with mischief and
difficulties/hardships.
• As the Pagan Arabs were nomadic, there was no specific burial ground for the dead
hence no significant reverence was given to those who have died nor did they
believe in an afterlife, resurrection, day of judgment or even heaven and hell as all of
these beliefs came about with the religion of Islam.

Marriage and Family in Pre- Islamic Arabia

 Religion notes

• In Bedouin cultures, women enjoyed a greater freedom and status then did the
women in the cities
• Women played key economic roles and descent was traced through women.
• Women were allowed multiple marriage partners just like men and men had to pay a
pay-bride price.
• Although they enjoyed these rights, women were not equal to men.

Pre-Islamic Arabia – the birth of Muhammad

• Arabian tribal society in transition
• Mecca and Medina prospering and atttracting many from nomadic to a more settled
town life
• Mecca emerging as a major commercial centre with consequent changes to social,
political and economic order.
• Some Changes were: new wealth , Quraysh tribe gaining in economic and political
power, greater divisions between social classes and more inequality and disparity
between rich and poor which led to stresses in traditional Arab tribal; values and
way of life

PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN MOHAMMAD’S LIFE

1. Born in 570 in Mecca
2. Orphaned at age 5 or 6 (575)
3. Went to live with Uncle age 8 (578)
4. Became a trader in his teenage years
5. Acquired a reputation as an honest person nicknamed “Al-Ameen”
6. Khadijah hired him to lead her caravan (594)
7. Khadijah proposed marriage to him
8. Married at age 25 (595)
9. Had 6 children – 2 boys & 4 girls
10. Muhammad began meditating in a cave at Mount Hira
11. The angel Gabriel (Jibril) appeared to him at age 40 (610)
 Religion notes

12. Khadijah took him to see her cousin Waraqa Ibn Mawfal who reassured them that
this was all ok
13. The Qur’an began to be written
14. Makes his message public (613)
15. New Muslims were persecuted in Mecca by the Quraysh because his teachings
threatened their pagan way of life
16. Khadijah dies (circa 620) and Muhammad’s uncle and protector dies.
17. Muhammad ascends to heaven (circa 621) where he speaks to God, who gives him
instructions to take back to the faithful on earth about the number of times to pray
each day
18. Muhammad moves to Medina (622) (Hijira) where he becomes a well-respected
community leader, establishes 1st planned community of Islam
19. There follows a long war when Muhammad’s army finally conquers Mecca (630)
20. Muhammad spares the conquered army, re-dedicates the Ka’ba and Islam is finally
accepted
21. Muhammad dies on June 8, 632 aged 62, buried Mecca

Judaism
Origins
• Abraham and the covenant
• Moses, the exodus and the giving of the torah
• Modern Judaism- Conservative, Orthodox and Progressive Streams ( variants)
• The essential factor that differentiates the three groups is how strictly they
apply the halakhah (Jewish Law)
• Orthodox Judaism – this is the most common stream
• They believe the Torah is literal and is the most traditional of the streams
• Insists on the Kashruth or dietary code to be followed.- Only Kosher (ritually
clean food) can be eaten.
• Strict observance of the Mitzvot – which is the direct will of God.
• There are two groups within Orthodox Judaism – these are:
• Ultra-Orthodox and Modern
 Religion notes

Ultra-orthodox
• Ultra-Orthodox Jews believe that the only way the Jewish religion will survive is to
impose strict separation of Jews from secular society.
• An example are the Hasidic Jews wo rejects all attempts to sacrifice Halakhah to suit
the changing social circumstances.
• There is to be no compromise with modern life- this is seen in their clothing

Modern Judaism
• Modern Judaism is immersed in the surrounding culture while maintaining being
faithful to the Torah.
• Modern Jews become involved in most aspects of life.
• Maintain observance to the Torah and attend to the dietary, ritual and ethical
requirements.

Progressive Judaism
• Liberal branch of Judaism
• Oral and written law is not regarded as the literal word of God.
• They reject the concept of divine revelation as a direct dictation of the Tanakh by
God instead believing that the Torah was written by divinely inspired people rather
than being the literal word of God.
• Synagogue worship tend to be simplified and modernised – men and women
together and women can be rabbis

Conservative Judaism
• Span the gap between Orthodox and Progressive Judaism
• Believed that the commands in the Torah and Talmud should be followed within the
context of the living tradition.
• Ritual law is open to interpretation and up to each generation to make the Halakic
law applicable to the age.
• Interpretation of laws are changing and evolving
• Services held in the vernacular.
 Religion notes

Beliefs in Judaism

Belief in 1 God
• Jews believe in one God who created the world out of love for humanity – this belief
links Judaism to the other monotheistic religious traditions of Christianity and Islam
• Jews believe that this one God has many attributes ( qualities)
• God is eternal and omnipresent
• God is a pure spirit

Belief in Divinely Inspired Moral Law

• Jews believe that God has revealed to us how to behave ethically ( morally) through
the sacred texts of Tenak ( especially Torah) and Talmud

Covenant
• The belief in covenant is the heart of Judaism- it defines the relationship[ between
man and God where if man trusts in God and follows his ways, God will support man
• The first example of covenant in the Torah is the story of God and Noah – Flood,
where, through Noah remaining faithful God saved him and his family and a rainbow
appeared as sign of covenant
• The next most significant covenant was that of Abraham and God. God told him to
move to the promised land and that he would have many descendants, and it was
marked by circumcision – the visible sign of covenant.
• The most famous however of all the covenant between God and the Chosen people
was that of God and Moses.
• God intervened in humanity and saved the Israelites from slavery and In return,
Hebrews had to accept the 10 commandments. which God revealed to Moses
• Today, the belief in covenant is about fidelity - people are chosen to be faithful to
God and in turn God will look after them.
• God’s covenant gives people the freedom to choose their own destiny under his Law
and in return he expects them to be faithful to him.
• Covenant is important also as it stresses the notion of nationhood, land and fidelity.
 Religion notes

Sacred texts and writings

Tenak
• Tenak is made up of the Torah, Nevi’im and Ketuvim and contains not only the
beliefs of Judaism but its rituals and practices with prayers such as the Shema and
important rules about rituals relating to holy days such as Pesach and Yom Kipper.
• It has 3 parts- Torah, Nevi’im and Ketuvium

Torah
• critical significance to the beliefs and practices of Judaism and records the
relationship between God and Hebrews.
• It contains the 613 Mitzvot (positive and negative rules for ethics)
• Provides religious instruction for daily lives and is the ethical, legal, ritual and
spiritual foundation of Judaism.

Nevi’im:
• Writings of the Prophets.
• Remind the Hebrew people of their covenantal obligations and that departing from
these obligations has negative consequences.

Ketuvim:
• Writings/ Wisdom literature.
• Contains the book of psalms and proverbs.
• Contain statements of prudent. Living

Oral Torah
• Consists of two parts – Mishnah and Gemara.
• Oral Torah is supplement to the Written Torah.
• Application and interpretation of the Torah to changing circumstances over
generations.
 Religion notes

• Orthodox Jews believe that God taught the Oral Torah to Moses and he taught it to
others down to the present day. Jewish Scholars passed it down in oral form. This
tradition was maintained in oral form and only compiled and written in the 2 nd
Century CE into the Mishnah.
• The Mishnah and Gemara were collected and became the Talmud.

Mishnah
• Interpretations and applications of the Torah over generations so it could be
meaningful to people.
• Cover events such as festival days, rights of the poor, laws governing
marriage and divorce, civil and criminal law.

Gemara
• Analysis of the Mishnah
• Rabbinical commentaries about the Mishnah were gathered to form the
Gemara.
• It gives practical help to Jews.

Core Ethical Teachings

The Commandments of the Torah:
• Having so many rules guides Jewish people to achieve a right relationship with God,
with oneself and fellowman.
• Halachah: Jewish legal System. It means ‘going with God.’ It describes how a Jewish
person ought to behave.Based on the written Torah

The Prophetic Vision:

• The Prophetic vision is the second core Jewish ethical teaching and comes from the
message of the Prophets in the Nevi-im
• Today we call its message one of Social Justice: - each person has the responsibility
to rectify the inequalities of the world and help the poor, homeless, needy etc
• Jews are taught to be stewards of God
• The Prophetic Vision:
• The Prophetic vision is the second core Jewish ethical teaching and comes from the
message of the Prophets in the Nevi-im
 Religion notes

• Today we call its message one of Social Justice: - each person has the responsibility
to rectify the inequalities of the world and help the poor, homeless, needy etc
• Jews are taught to be stewards of God

The Book of Proverbs

• This is a collection of moral and philosophical sayings or proverbs in poetic form
based on human experience and another source of Jewish ethical teachings
• It can be divided into 4 areas/ teachings- Wisdom, Righteousness , Generosity of
Spirit & Purity.
• Wisdom: Underlying message of the Book of Proverbs is that God is source of
wisdom
• Wisdom is a powerful and effective force than will bring well being to those who
seek it. "A wise man is more powerful than a strong man and a man of knowledge
than a man of might" Proverbs 24.5)

Righteousness ( Integrity)
• Proverbs tells us that true happiness accompanies the person of integrity regardless
of their situation in life.
• "Better a poor man who walks in his integrity than he who is crooked in his ways and
rich" (Proverbs 19:1).
• The reward for righteousness is well being in this and the next life

Generosity of Spirit
• Proverbs stresses that we must look after the poor and oppressed
o “If you remain indifferent in time of adversity your strength will depart from
you" (Proverbs 24:10).
• In addition God's blessing will be upon those who act generously to the poor while
those who do not will suffer the consequences of their selfishness. "He who gives to
the poor suffers no want but he who ignores them gets many a curse" (Proverbs
28:27).
• In the Talmud, Jews are further taught to apply the
• values of Gemitut Chasidim, Tzedakah, Bal Tashkit to their daily lives
 Religion notes

Shabbat
• The Biblical story indicates that God rested on the 7th day after creating the world.-
Jews believe people are called to imitate God and rest on the 7 th day as well.
• Sabbath is the Jewish religious ritual held each Friday night to Saturday, where Jews
must come together as a family to celebrate the goodness of God, to study the Torah
and attend the synagogue.
• Specifically, Jews are called each Shabbat to “remember the Sabbath and keep it
holy….on that day, no one is to work… remember that you were slaves in Egypt and
that I, the Lord your God rescued you. That is why I command you to observe the
Shabbat. “ On Exodus 20>8 that day no one is to work. Exodus 20:8
• These are regarded as 2 miztvots :
• Zachor ( remember) and Shamor ( observe)
• Shabbat begins on Friday evenings with the lighting of the Shabbat candles and a
meal- Jews are carrying out halakhic requirements as a reflection of faith.
• All work is restricted to acknowledge that God is the ultimate creator and humans
are partners with God in creation.

Religion in Australia pre-1945

Religious landscape post first fleet
• Many convicts were Church of England (C of E)
• Some Irish Catholics
• Most officers were C of E
• C of E was the established religion of the colony
• Rev Richard Johnson was the 1st (C of E) Chaplin
• There was serious division (rivalry) between the English and the Irish. This was
known as sectarianism and had been raging from the time of the Reformation
• Gov. Philip decreed that everyone must attend a C of E service every Sunday
• This caused resentment between the English and the Irish

Issues of sectarianism
• Ministers of the C of E were also the magistrates and such sat in judgement of the
crimes and decided the punishment to be applied – much of which was severe
• The Rev. Samuel Marsden was known as the Flogging parson
• The C of E was the largest and most influential religion
• Catholics felt like an underprivileged and disadvantaged group in the colony because
of the sectarian issue
 Religion notes

• Catholicism was not allowed to operate formally until 1820

• Some other minor denominations established themselves; viz. Methodists and
Presbyterians

Arrival of judasim
• The establishment of the Jewish faith was slow to get underway
• A few arrived on the 1st Fleet – but it was not until 1817 that the first minyan (a
group of 10) was formed
• The establishment of the Jewish Burial Society (Chevra Kaddisha) marked the
beginning of a functioning Jewish community
• Aaron Levy was the first rabbi in 1830in 1837, the first synagogue was opened in
Bridge St.
• In 1844, a large and more permanent synagogue was opened in George St
• The Great Synagogue was built in Elizabeth St in 1878
• By 1880, there were synagogues in most major cities – but over 40% of Jews lived in
rural areas

Arrival of Islam
• The first Muslims actually came to Australia before white settlement via the
Macassan fisherman from Indonesia beginning in the 1750s.
• They worked in the pearling industry and later on the sugar plantations
• But the Immigration Act (1901) and the establishment of territorial waters meant
that many had to leave Australia and return home
• The use of camels as a mode of transport in the Australian outback and desserts in
the 1860s saw the first Muslim camel drivers arrive from Pakistan and Afghanistan
• This came to an end in the 1920s with the demise of the camel transport industry

The impact of Sectarianism

• Sectarianism - being rivalry and division along religious grounds - leads to
discrimination, persecution and violence
• That the issue emerged in the new colony was due in the most part to the conflict in
Northern Ireland between the Catholics and the Protestants
• Social, Political and Religious issues
• These factors blur the division because of the rivalry and bitterness between the C of
E and the Catholics in England and Ireland
• The Reformation (also called the Protestant Reformation) of 1517 created a long
lasting bitterness between the C of E (the Protestants) and the Catholics in England
 Religion notes

• This was evident on all aspects of life

• The occupation of Ireland by the English and the oppression of the Irish people was
more a political issue than a religious one
• The sectarian problems accompanied the new settlers to Australia and continued to
divide the new society
• One result was the enforced attendance for all at the C of E Divine Service on
Sundays – which was resisted by both groups
• The Catholics were forbidden from taking part in any form of collective worship

Fr James Dixon and the Castle Hill Rebellion

• Fr Dixon was born 1758 and died 1840
• He was transported to Australia as a convict arriving on 16 January, 1800 – thus
becoming the 1st Catholic priest of the colony
• Governor King granted him permission to perform his priestly duties on 19 April,
1803
• He celebrated the first public Mass on 15 May, 1803 in Sydney
• On Sunday night, March 4, 1804, about 250 convicts overpowered the guards at the
Government farm at Castle Hill (west of Parramatta) and were joined by other
convicts who had walked off the private farms to which they had been assigned
• The Castle Hill Rebellion was quashed by the Army with devastating results for the
Catholics of New South Wales, both convict and free.
• The Castle Hill Rebellion was an attempt by predominantly Irish Catholic convicts to
escape from “slavery”
• No sooner had the Castle Hill rebellion been quashed than Governor King revoked Fr
Dixon’s permission to officiate as a priest and cancelled the salary (£60 ) he had
granted him.
• happened 11 months after Governor King had conditionally pardoned the Fr Dixon
and allowed him to ‘exercise his clerical functions as a Roman Catholic priest’; i.e. say
Mass and perform the sacraments.
• Nothing was gained by those who took part in the Castle Hill Rebellion. What did
result, was the setting back of the Catholic cause in the colony for another 16 years
before the British Government appointed Frs Conolly and Therry as official Catholic
chaplains to the colony in 1820
• Dixon was allowed to practise privately after the Castle Hill Rebellion
• 1808 saw him return to Ireland where he died on 4th January, 1840

Employment issues
• Most businesses were owned and operated by people of Protestant background
 Religion notes

• Because they had deep seated hostility to – and resentment and mistrust of –
Catholics, they would not employ them
• Accordingly, it was common to see the words “Catholics need not apply” in job
adverts
• Employment issues
• Most businesses were owned and operated by people of Protestant background
• Because they had deep seated hostility to – and resentment and mistrust of –
Catholics, they would not employ them
• Accordingly, it was common to see the words “Catholics need not apply” in job
adverts

The contribution of Christianity to Social Welfare

Caroline Chisholm and Immigration
• It has always been a part of the Christian ethos to help the needy and disadvantaged
• Migrants have always been among the most at risk group
• In 1838, Caroline Chisholm (who had converted to Catholicism) arrived in Australia
with her husband and began to champion their needs – particularly the young girls
dumped at the docks without any means of supporting themselves
• She hassled the clergy and Governor Gipps on behalf of the migrants so successfully
that in 1842 the Female Immigrants Home was able to be opened at the Immigration
Barracks
• It was entirely dependant on public subscription and sheltered up to 96 women
• This enabled young women recently arrived in Australia to find accommodation and
jobs
• The Home was able to be closed in 1842 because her work in finding employment
for the girls was so successful
• She also worked at settling immigrants in the interior
• She designed a scheme for settling families on the land with long leases
• At her own expense, she arranged for the settlement of 23 families on land at
Shellharbour
• In 1846, she and her husband returned to England where she continued to work with
those emigrating to Australia
• It estimated that she helped over 10,000 to settle in Australia
 Religion notes

THE GREAT DEPRESSION

• With the advent of the Great Depression of the 1930s, it became apparent that
something had to be done to provide assistance for the poor
• The churches lobbied the government and were successful in having the government
introduce unemployment benefits (the dole)

The contribution of Christianity to Rural Communities

• Christian denominations worked at providing support for the families in the bush
• C of E Bishop Nathaniel Dawes established the Bush Brotherhoods in 1997
• They were groups of preachers who rode horses and visited the remote outback
communities providing ministry
• In the 1920s, Rev John Flynn – of the Australian Inland Mission of the Presbyterian
Church – developed the Flying Doctor Service and the School of the Air

The contribution of Christianity to Education

• Catholics felt like an underprivileged and disadvantaged group (class) in the colony
because of the sectarian issue
• They felt that it was important to have their own education system to preserve their
moral and religious values
• Thus, came the development of religiously affiliated schools
• In 1866, Fr Julian Tennyson Woods and Mother Mary MacKillop founded the Order
of St Joseph to provide schooling for the poor
• After the Public Instruction Act (1880), the Catholic education system was staffed
almost entirely by members of religious orders; i.e. nuns, brothers and priests
• three relevant pieces of legislation
o The Schools Estates Corporation Charter of 1825
o The Church Act of 1836
o The Public Instruction Act of 1880

The Schools Estates Corporation Charter of 1825

• The intent was to provide resources exclusively for the use by the C of E schools – to
reinforce that the C of E was the established (official?) church of the colony
• 1/7 of all land grants were to be used for the C of E schools and churches
• This did not please the other churches as it was interpreted as excluding their
children from education
 Religion notes

The Church Act of 1836

• Gov. Burke’s Church Act of 1836 provided for a “pound for pound” subsidy for all
religious groups
• This meant that the government would match (by grant) all funds raised by the
religious denomination
• On the surface, this appeared to be to the advantage of the other churches
• But in reality, it was set up to advantage only the C of E as they had much better
capacity in fund-raising.
• But the Catholics rallied and through a great deal of organization and sacrifice
managed to improve their fund-raising and accordingly take advantage of the Act
• The Presbyterian Church opposed the Act on the grounds that
• they felt that religion should be separate from government
• because religion should not be funded from government
• as this might allow the government to put too much influence of the way the
churches operated
• The Methodists were pleased with the Act – but because of sectarian feelings – did
not want the Catholics to benefit from the government funding
• The Act also had the unintended result of increasing the rural v urban class divide
because the churches in the outback could not raise any where near the amount of
money the city churches could.
• Thus they received less funding

The Public Instruction Act of 1880

• This was supposed to bring to an end the issue of government funding for
denominational schools
• This Act provided an education that was free, compulsory and secular
• This heralded the start of Public Education
• But it brought great hardship to the denominational schools – particularly the
Catholics
• If the Catholics wanted to continue to provide “religious” education for their
children, they would struggle as the entire church-based system relied on funds
raised by the church
• That the Catholic education survived was a tribute to the dedication of the nuns,
brothers and priests
• Government funding of church schools is known as State Aid
• It has continued to be an issue – and still is!
• The C of E continued to operate some schools where the parents were able to meet
the costs – but generally, the C of E supported the public school system
• The Presbyterians also continued to support the Act because they believed in the
separation of government and church
 Religion notes

The contribution of Christianity to public morality

What is public morality?
• it is the behaviour of the public in regard to moral issues such as Sabbatarianism,
sexual activity, consumption of alcohol and gambling
• Conservative elements within the various Christian churches felt that it was their
responsibility to decree what was - and what was not - acceptable behaviour
• Their attempts at social control are referred to as wowserism and fuelled the
religious tensions between the various churches
• The general public steadfastly resisted the attempts of the churches to moderate
their behaviour
• This led to a more secular society

Sabbatarianism
• This is the term coined to mean observance of – and attendance at – church services
on the Sabbath
• The C of E was instrumental in trying to make it compulsory for all convicts – both
English and Irish
• The rationale was to improve the “moral character” of the convicts
• This was met with strong resistance from each group
• However, legislation was enacted which effectively banned recreational and labour
(i.e. commercial) activities on Sundays
• But in fact, both the C of E and the Catholics had more liberal views on this
prohibition and it was ineffective

Sexual morality
• Christian views on extramarital relationships, homosexuality and divorce were quite
strong and inflexible
• Accordingly, laws governing these issues were quite strict
• It was particularly difficult to gain a divorce in these times

The Temperance movement

• This was the activity of the – mostly Protestant – churches to reduce alcohol
consumption in the colony
• Some conservatives actually believed that total abstinence was necessary and called
on men to take a pledge to refrain from drinking
• They also co-opted the women folk to convince their men to stop drinking
 Religion notes

• It was felt that this was a strong option because it was the women who were often
the victims of alcohol abuse
• Some effect was seen but legislation to ban drinking was never enacted mainly
because the C of E and the Catholics saw no harm in having a drink in moderation

Gambling
• Christianity was influential in attempting to ban gambling in the early days of the
colony on the basis that it was dishonest to “earn” money by ways other than work
• But the Catholics saw no harm in gambling so long as it was not excessive