 Sulphur:

Sulphur is an essential element. The sulphur is made available

to the body by the proteins containing methionine, cystine or
cysteine. These amino acids contain sulphur. Also available
from S-containing Bvitamins, viz. Thiamine (TPP), coenzyme
A, Lipoic acid and biotin. Certain sulpholipids and
glycoproteins (mucoitin and chondroitin sulphuric acid) also
provide sulphur (Sulphur as free element cannot be utilised).

 Sources:

Sulphur is available in meat, fish, legumes, egg, liver, cereals.

Adequate protein in diet fulfills sulphur requirement.

 Absorption:

Sulphur is ingested as organic sulphates as in proteins or as inorganic sulphate. Inorganic

sulphate is absorbed as such from the intestines, while sulphur containing amino acids are
absorbed by active transport

 Uses of Sulpur:

Sulpur is so widely used in industrial processes that its consumption often is regarded as a
reliable indicator of industrial activity and the state of the national economy. Approximately six-
sevenths of all the sulpur produced is converted into sulpuric acid, for which the largest single
use is in the manufacture of fertilizers (phosphates and ammonium sulfate). Other important uses
include the production of pigments, detergents, fibres, petroleum products, sheet metal,
explosives, and storage batteries; hundreds of other applications are known. Sulpur not converted
to sulpuric acid is used in making paper, insecticides, fungicides, dyestuffs, and numerous other
products.

 Distribution:
About 0.25 per cent (150-200 g) of the total body wt. is sulphur. It is mainly found as organic
compounds such as Met, Cys, heparin, glutathione, thiamine, biotin, CoA, lipoic acid,
taurocholic acid, etc. Many proteins, hormones, keratin of hair contain sulphur. Small amounts of
inorganic sulphates occur in tissues and body fluids. 100 ml of blood contains 0.1 to 1.0 mg
sulphur as organic compounds. Fate: Catabolism of S-containing amino acids yields inorganic
sulphates. Liver converts inorganic sulphate to ethereal sulphate by conjugation.

 Metabolic Functions:

Formations of ‘active sulphate’ (PAPS): Active sulphate participates in several transulfuration

reactions. Sulphur is involved in the formation of proteins such as keratin, chondroproteins, and
sulpholipids. It is also involved in the formation of –SH groups which act as active centers of
enzymes such as Acyl carrier protein (ACP) and multienzyme complex of fatty acid synthesis. It
forms –S–S–linkages between two –SH groups of cysteine to form a secondary and tertiary
structure of proteins. Iron-sulphur proteins are found in electron transport chain. S-
adenosylmethionine is a co-substrate for
methylferases (Tran’s methylation). S-
adenosylmethionine also acts as the
initiator in initiation process of protein
synthesis. Sulphur containing vitamin such
as biotin, pantothenic acid, thiamine, lipoic
acid are involved as coenzymes. Sulphates
hexosamines and hexuronic acids are important constituents of mucopolysaccharides, sulphated
galactose occurs in sulpholipids. Phenol, skatole, indole and steroids may be detoxicated in the
liver with sulphate ions. Acyl complexes of CoA, S-adenosyl methionine, ‘active’ sulphate are
high energy sulphur compounds.

 Sulphur Compounds:
One of the most familiar sulfur compounds is hydrogen sulfide, also known as sulfureted
hydrogen, or stinkdamp, H2S, the colorless, extremely poisonous gas responsible for the
characteristic odour of rotten eggs. It is produced naturally
by the decay of organic substances containing sulfur and is
often present in vapours from volcanoes
and mineral waters. Large amounts of hydrogen sulfide are
obtained in the removal of sulfur from petroleum.

 Magnesium:
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant and important cation
in humans. It is extremely essential for life and is present as
intracellular ion in all living cells and tissues.
Sources:
Magnesium is widely distributed in vegetables, found in
porphyrin group of chlorophyll of vegetable cells and also
found in almost all animal tissues. Other im portant sources
are cereals, beans, green vegetables, potatoes, almonds and
dairy products, e.g. cheese.
 Distribution:
Total body magnesium is approximately 2400 mEq. Approximately 2/3 occurs in bones, 1
percent in EC fluid and remainder in soft tissues.
 Plasma level:
1.5 To 1.8 mEq/L, which is rigorously maintained within normal limits. 15 per cent of total body
Magnesium is exchangeable with tissues but there are wide variations. Muscles contain 20 per
cent of exchangeable Mg and bones only 2 per cent. Hyperthyroidism markedly increases the
amount of exchangeable Mg, whereas it is reverse in hypothyroidism.
 Blood:
Magnesium exists in blood partly bound to proteins. Under conditions of physiological pH
roughly 1/3 is ‘protein-bound’; the remainder 2/3 is ionic.
 CS Fluid:
Concentration of Mg in CS fluid is ½ as high as in plasma.
  Absorption:
Average daily intake in humans is 250–300 mg, much of which is obtained from green
vegetables where Mg is found in porphyrin group of chlorophyll. Roughly 1/3 of dietary Mg is
absorbed; the remainder is passively excreted in faeces. Absorption takes place primarily in
Small bowl, beginning within hour after ingestion and continues at a steady rate for 2 to 8 hours,
by that time 80 per cent of total absorption has taken place.
Factor Effecting Absorption:
• Size of Mg load: Absorption is doubled when normal dietary Mg requirement is doubled and
vice versa.
• Dietary calcium: Increased absorption in calcium deficient diets. Decreased absorption occurs
in presence of excess of Ca. A common transport mechanism from intestinal tract for both Ca
and Mg suggested.
• Motility and mucosal state: This also affects absorption. In hurried bowel, absorption is
decreased. Absorption decreases in damaged mucosal state.
• Vitamin. D: Helps in increased absorption.
• Parathormone: Increases absorption.
• Growth hormone: Increases absorption.
• Other factors high protein intake and neomycin therapy increases absorption. Fatty acids,
phytates and phosphates decrease absorption.
 Excretion:
Magnesium is lost from the body in faeces, sweat and urine. 60 to 80 per cent of orally taken Mg
is lost in faeces.
Sweat loss:
Currently it is drawing attention; 0.75 mEq of Mg is lost daily in perspiration in normal health
with normal diet. Loss is much increased with visible frank sweating.
Urine:
Regulation of Mg balance is principally dependent on renal handling of the ion. In a normal
healthy adult with normal diet 3 to 17 mEq are excreted daily.
 Factors Affecting Renal Excretion
• Calcium intake: Increased dietary calcium produced increased excretion of Mg.
• Parathormone (PTH): Diminishes excretion.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Increases Mg excretion
• Growth hormone (GH): Also increases excretion of Mg.
• Aldosterone: Increases excretion
• Thyroid hormones: 80 per cent greater excretion in hyperthyroidism.
• Alcohol ingestion: Oral ingestion of as little as 1.0 ml of 95 per cent alcohol per kg, increases
urinary excretion 2 to 3-fold. The increased excretion partially accounts for Mg-deficiency in
chronic alcoholics with Delirium tremens. Administration of acidifying substances (NH4Cl) is
followed by increased urinary elimination of Mg.
 FUNCTIONS
1. Role in Enzyme Action: Mg is involved as a cofactor and as an activator to wide spectrum of
enzyme actions. It is essential for peptidases, ribonucleases, glycolytic enzymes and co-
carboxylation reactions.
2. Neuromuscular Irritability: Mg exerts an effect on neuromuscular irritability similar to that
of Ca++, high levels depress nerve conduction and low levels may produce tetany
(hypomagnesaemic tetany).
3. As Constituent of Bones and Teeth: About 70 percent of body magnesium is present as
apatites in bones, dental enamel and dentin.
 CLINICAL ASPECT
Plasma Mg in Diseases
Hypermagnesaemia: Raised values have been reported in Uncontrolled Diabetes mellitus
Adrenocortical insufficiency
Hypothyroidism
Advanced renal failure and
Acute renal failure.
Hypomagnesaemia:
Low values are observed in:
Malabsorption syndrome and Kwashiorkor
Prolonged gastric suction
Hyperthyroidism
Portal cirrhosis
Prolonged use of diuretics
Chronic alcoholism
Delirium tremens
Renal diseases
Primary aldosteronism.
Magnesium Deficiency:
In man, ‘overt’ magnesium deficiency rarely occurs.
In Animals: In cattles, two types:
Unsupplemented:
Whole milk (in calves)
Endemic disease:
It is called as Grass staggers (or Grass Tetany). Cattles grazing in fields fertilised with Nitrates.
Condition occurs due to high NH3 content of diet.
 Clinical features:
In both similar: Restlessness and convulsions followed by death.
In Humans:
Experimentally induced prolonged Mgdepletion reported in two patients (reported by Shills).
Both were fed Mg-deficient synthetic diets: One for 274 days and another for 414 days. In both,
plasma Mg fell slowly over several months.
 Clinical features:
Personality changes, GI disturbances, gross tremors, hyporeflexia, abnormal electromyograph,
+ve Chvostek’s sign, epileptiform convulsions. Both cases, despite adequate Ca and K intake,
developed hypocalcaemia and hypokalaemia.