Potential of bauxite residue as alternative filler in asphalt concrete

J. Choudhary, B. Kumar & A. Gupta

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, India

ABSTRACT: An investigation has been carried out to explore the potential of bauxite residue commonly
known as red mud, as mineral filler in asphalt mixes. For comparison, control mixes prepared with stone dust
were taken for consideration. Both materials are characterized through specific gravities, plasticity index,
particle size distribution, German filler values, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, X-ray
diffraction, hydrophilic coefficient and PH value tests. Marshall test procedure that has been recommended in
Indian paving specification was used for mix design and evaluation. Other performance characteristics such as
Marshall Quotients, indirect tensile strengths, retained Marshall stability values, active and passive adhesions
was carried out as per relevant test standards. Although, red mud has highly plastic nature and mixes prepared
with it exhibited marginally inferior properties compared to stone dust mixes; they satisfied specified desired
criteria by a higher margin and can be beneficially adopted as filler in places of high availability.

1 INTRODUCTION Kutuk-Sert and Kutuk, 2013; Mistry and Roy, 2015;

India has second largest road network in the world
comprising primarily of flexible pavements, the ones
having asphaltic mixes as their wearing course.
These mixes primarily consist of aggregates (coarse
and fine) along with filler and asphalt binder.
Aggregates form a skeleton to resist traffic load im-
posed upon them and bitumen acts as a binder and
lead to adhesion between these aggregates. As
per current Indian asphalt mix design practices, a
filler is restricted to that material, which is fine
enough as measured by 75-micron sieve. It should
be free from organic impurities and should not
have plasticity index greater than 4 (except for ce-
ment and hydrated lime) (Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways (MORTH), 2013).
Filler plays a dual role in asphalt mixes; not only
coarser filler particles primarily act as inert material
which fill interstices between larger aggregates in
mixes but also interaction of finer filler particles
having size smaller than bitumen film have an active
role in modification of viscosity and consistency of
bitumen-filler mastic. This behavior influences
asphalt mix’s performances against various
pavement distresses such as rutting, fatigue, low
temperature cracking and moisture susceptibility
(Huang et al., 2007). Poor stiffness within the mastic
can also cause draindown during the transportation
of mix whereas highly stiff mixes are poorly
workable and are difficult to compact (Brown et al.,
2009). Hence the selection of optimum quality and
quantity of filler is vital for the design of good hot
mix asphalt. Recently, numerous wastes and recy-
clable materials such as boron wastes, coal fly ash,
glass waste, rice husk ash, marble dust and sewage
sludge ash were satisfactorily used as filler in
various asphalt mixes (Chandra and Choudhary,
2013; Chen et al., 2011; Choudhary et al., 2016;
Tenza-Abril et al., 2014).
Bauxite residue also popularly known as “red mud”
is a major byproduct of aluminum industry which is
generated during Bayer’s process at an estimated
quantity of 4 million tons per annum in India. It is a
mixture composed of minerals originally present in
the parent bauxite and that formed during the Bayer
cycle. It is disposed off in the form of the slurry,
possessing alkaline nature and high ionic strength.
Its disposal in ponds and landfills could cause
contamination of groundwater due to leaching of
heavy metals. This study investigates the utilization
of red mud as mineral filler in asphalt concrete
(Grading II) mix which one of the most frequently
used wearing course in India. There is no proper
study in existence which has attempted to utilize red
mud as mineral filler in the asphalt mix. It may be
due to its plastic nature and heavy metal content.
This study is a beginning for characterizing and
exploring the suitability of red mud produced in
India as mineral filler in asphalt mixes employing
Marshall mix design.
2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Aggregates
The crushed aggregates of dolomite origin were
collected locally and used in this investigation. The
physical properties of aggregates were stated in
Table 2. Aggregates were sieved and washed over
their respective sieve sizes to remove fines attached
to them. Asphalt concrete (Grading II) mix which is
one of the most popular wearing course was
designed as per Indian specifications (MORTH,
2013). The chosen gradation was specified in 2.2 Characterization tests on filler
Table 1.
The fillers are characterized using specific gravity
Table 1. Gradation of asphalt concrete (Grading II). (ASTM D854), plasticity index, particle size
Sieve Size Recommended Gradation distribution parameters (ASTM D-422), German
(mm) Range Selected filler value, scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
(Cumulative % (Cumulative % X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray
passing) passing) (EDX), hydrophilic coefficient and PH value tests.
19 100 100
The test results are collectively stated in Table 4.
13.2 79-100 90
9.5 70-88 79
4.75 53-71 62 2.2.1 Specific gravity
2.36 42-58 51 Specific gravity is a fundamental property of a
1.18 34-48 41 material which is used in making weight-volume
0.6 26-38 32 conversions. It is also employed in the calculation of
0.3 18-28 23 fractional voids of fillers as well as in calculations of
0.15 12-20 14 particle size distribution by hydrometer analysis.
0.075 4-10 7
Stone dust has lower specific gravity (2.717) than
red mud (3.036) which may result in an application
of higher volume of filler in the asphalt mix when
Table 2. Evaluated properties of aggregates weight proportioning scheme is adopted. This will
Property Specification Results affect the optimum bitumen content (OBC) of the
Used mix.
Aggregate Impact IS:2386 11.1%
Value (Part IV)
Los Angeles Abrasion IS:2386 13.4% 2.2.2 Plasticity index
Values (Part IV) Plasticity index of stone dust was found to be 2.9
Water Absorption IS: 2386 0.27% which may be due to the intrusion of local soil in
Value (Part III) stone dust. Plasticity index of red mud was found to
Combined Flakiness IS: 2386 21.3% be 9.1, which is higher than 4 and does not satisfied
and Elongation Index (Part I) India specification for mineral filler (MORTH,
2013). It was stated in previous studied that
plasticity index of filler alone can’t accurately
2.1.2 Bitumen predict the field performance of asphalt mixes (Kan-
VG 30 (Viscosity Grade 30) bitumen was used in dhal and Parker, 1998) and hence further testing
this study and was collected locally. Results of is required.
various properties evaluated as per IS:73 (2013),
were stated in Table 3. 2.2.3 Particle size distribution
Particle size distribution was determined using
Table 3 Evaluated properties of VG 30 bitumen. hydrometer analysis. The grain size distribution
Characteristics Results curves of both materials (Figure 1) were
Kinematic viscosity at 135ºC, (cSt) 384 differentiated by fineness modulus (FM), Coefficient
Penetration at 25ºC, 100g, 5s, 62 of uniformity (Cu) and Coefficient of curvature
(0.1mm) (Cc). Red mud was found to be finer filler as it has
Softening Point,(Ring & Ball 50
lower FM (3.601). Fineness of filler is usually
Apparatus) (ºC)
associated with higher its surface activity which
Ductility at 27°C (pull of 5 cm/ >100
minute),(cm) influences the performance of asphalt mix.
Specific gravity 0.999 The lower value of Cu of red mud (12.37) suggested
a narrow range of particle sizes in the sample which
affects fractional voids and simultaneously affects
2.1.3 Filler cost and performance of asphalt mixes. Materials
Stone dust is utilized as control filler in this study with a higher percentage of uniformly sized particles
and was collected from the local stone crusher. On are also difficult to compact properly in field
the other hand, red mud used in this study was conditions.
collected from dumping ground of local aluminum
plant. In this analysis, oven dried filler with only the
fraction that passes through 75-micron sieve was
used.

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of both fillers
2.2.4 German filler test
German filler test is an indirect method to measure
Rigden voids in a mineral filler. It is a simple test in
which amount of filler required to absorb 15 g of
hydraulic oil is calculated. The total amount of filler
material added to hydraulic oil until mix looses
cohesion is reported as German filler value.
Materials having lower German filler value were
reported to have higher Rigden voids (Kandhal et
al., 1998). Red mud was found to have lower
German filler value (55 g) than stone dust (80 g).
Higher rigden voids in filler resulted in a greater
amount of fixed bitumen and lower value of free
bitumen which may subsequently influence
workability of asphalt mixes.
Figure 2. SEM images of red mud (left) and Stone dust (right)
2.2.5 Particle shape and texture
SEM image of red mud showed small size
conglomerated particles having highly rough texture
(Figure 2). This may result in a higher specific
surface area of filler with a possibility of higher
bitumen absorption. Stone dust waste seemed to
have well graded angular particles with texture lies
between somewhat smooth and rough.
2.2.6 Mineralogical and chemical composition
Both cohesion in mastic and interfacial adhesion
between aggregate and bitumen influences the
performance of asphalt mixes against moisture,
which is dependent upon the composition (elemental
and mineralogical) of aggregates and fillers.
Expansive clay minerals such as montmorillonite
and minerals that are marginally or completely
soluble in water are responsible for the poor
stripping performance of filler. Primary elemental
composition of materials as determined from EDX is
shown in Table 4. Iron was found in huge quantity in
red mud sample in the form of hematite. Previous
study has found a positive correlation between iron
content in aggregates and their lower moisture
sensitivity (Bagampadde et al., 2005). The XRD test
results are displayed in Figure 3 and primarily
identified minerals are stated in Table 4.
Figure 3. XRD test results of red mud (upper) and Stone dust
(lower)
Stone dust primarily constituted dolomite in its
mineralogical composition which is a calcium based
insoluble mineral having good bitumen adhesion.
Similarly, red mud also has calcite in their
composition, which also has a positive influence on
bitumen aggregate adhesion. Thus satisfactory
stripping resistance is expected from both. Silica
was found in the form of quartz in stone dust and in
the form of halloysite and sillimanite in combination
with aluminum in red mud. Silica is usually
associated with poor bitumen adhesion, but few
studies do not found any correlation between quartz
and moisture sensitivity (Bagampadde et al., 2005).
No expansive clay mineral was primarily found in
both materials.
2.2.7 Hydrophilic coefficient and PH value
Materials which show a greater affinity towards
bitumen then with water when comes in contact with
water are termed as hydrophobic materials. The 2.3 Tests on asphalt mixes
hydrophilic coefficient is the ratio of the volumes
after the sedimentation of equal volumes of filler in 2.3.1 Design of asphalt concrete mix
water and in kerosene for 72 hours. A hydrophobic Marshall method of asphalt mix design is
filler should have the hydrophilic coefficient value recommended in Indian condition to determine
lower than 1, which signifies its higher affinity optimum bitumen content (OBC) of the mix
towards bitumen than with water. Any good filler (MORTH, 2013). Mix design method as specified in
should have a hydrophilic coefficient value lies in MS-2 (Asphalt Institute, 1997) was used to
the range of 0.7 and 0.85 (Gezencvej, 1985). The determine OBC of the mix. OBC of the mix was
measured hydrophilic coefficients of both fillers taken as bitumen corresponding to 4.0 percent air
were found to be within optimum range, indicating voids. Marshall parameters (Marshall stability and
their superior affinity towards bitumen (Table 4). flow value) and volumetric parameters voids in
Specimen solution for each waste was prepared by mineral aggregates (VMA), voids filled with
mixing waste and de-ionized water at a ratio of 1:9 bitumen (VFB) were checked to be within specified
by weight and then set for two hours before testing. limit at this bitumen content. All parameters men-
Alkaline materials form a stronger bond with tioned above were stated in Table 5.
bitumen due to its acidic nature, hence offering su-
perior resistance to stripping. pH values for both ma- Table 5. Marshall and volumetric parameters of mixes
terials were found to be greater than 7, which dis- Mix type OBC Marshall Flow Bulk VMA VFB
played their alkaline nature (Table 4). Hence strong (%) Stability (mm) specific (%) (%)
aggregate-bitumen bond was expected in the mixes. (kN) Gravity
Stone dust was found to have a higher pH value than
Stone 5.17 13.24 2.90 2.491 14.98 72.43
red mud which may be due to the presence of
dust
calcium based minerals in its composition. Red mud 5.39 11.93 3.06 2.499 15.56 73.17
Require- 5-7 9 (min) 2-4 - 14 65-75
Table 4. Characterization properties of studied quire- (min)
fillers ments
Material Red Mud Stone dust
Characteristics The OBC of stone dust mixes (5.17) was found to be
Specific gravity 3.036 2.717 lower than that of red mud mixes (5.39). Since red
Plasticity index 9.1 2.9 mud is finer filler; it was expected that, it will act as
German filler 55 80 bitumen extender and mixes prepared with it would
value (g) have lower OBC. However, since stone dust has
Fineness modulus 3.60 5.38
Coefficient of 12.37 17.89
lower specific gravity, it occupied a greater volume
Uniformity (Cu) in compacted mix, leaving lesser space for bitumen.
Coefficient of 0.623 1.873 Lower German filler value of red mud also signified
Curvature (Cc) its higher rigden voids, which is also responsible for
Particle shape and Small Angular particles higher OBC. Lower volume application of red mud
texture (SEM) conglomerated with smooth to in mixes may also be held accountable for their
particles with rough texture higher flow value which otherwise should produce
highly rough stiffer mix. Marshall stability values of stone dust
texture
Primary elemental Iron; Sodium; Calcium;
mixes are 10.98% percent higher than red mud
composition Carbon; Magnesium; mixes; this may be due to decrease in adhesion due
(EDX) Aluminum; Silicon; Oxygen; to the influence of red mud in mix. However, both
Silicon; Titanium; Carbon; Sodium; mixes met all design requirements for asphalt
Oxygen; Calcium. Iron; Aluminum. concrete mix as per Indian specifications.
Primary Hematite (Fe2O3); Dolomite
Mineralogical Rutile (TiO2); (CaMg(CO3)2); 2.3.2 Marshall Quotient
Composition Quartz (SiO2); An- Quartz (SiO2);
Marshall quotient (MQ) is defined as the ratio of
(XRD) atase (TiO2); Hal- Ertixite (Na2Si4O9)
loysite Marshall stability (kN) to flow (mm). It is
(Al2Si2O5(OH)4); considered as a potential of the material's resistance
Sillimanite to permanent deformation. MQ values of mixes
(Al2SiO5); Calcite consist of stone dust and red mud was found to be
(CaCO3) 4.56 kN/mm and 3.90 kN/mm respectively. Lesser
Hydrophilic co- 0.85 0.77 MQ of red mud mixes is due to their lower Marshall
efficient stability values and higher flow values attributed to
PH value 9.98 12.57
the loss of adhesion and low volume application of
red mud respectively.
Table 6. Marshall quotient and indirect tensile 2.3.5 Adhesion tests
strength of studied mixes Loss of adhesion between aggregate-bitumen
Mix type Marshall Indirect tensile interface is the primary driving mechanism for
Quotient strength (MPa) moisture damage. It can be distinguished into active
(kN/mm) adhesion and passive adhesion. Active adhesion is
Stone dust 4.565 1.31 defined as the ability of bitumen to completely coat
Red mud 3.899 1.19 the aggregate during mixing operation of asphalt
manufacturing. Passive adhesion is defined as the
ability of bitumen to stick on aggregate surface
2.3.3 Indirect tensile strength test under the influence of external factors such as water
Indirect tensile strength (ITS) of a mix is related to and traffic (Tarrer and Wagh, 1991).
cracking potential of asphalt mix. ITS test was
performed as per ASTM D 6931 specifications at 2.3.5.1 Active adhesion
25ºC, at respective optimum bitumen contents of To measure the influence of filler on the active
both mixes. ITS of red mud was found to be adhesion, mixing times of both mixes were
marginally lower than that of conventional stone measured. Aggregates, fillers, and bitumen of
dust mixes (Table 6). chosen combination were heated at 170ºC and then
manually mixed. The total time (in seconds) elapsed
2.3.4 Retained Marshall stability test between the moment of addition on bitumen and the
Retained Marshall stability test was conducted as per moment at which 100% coating is achieved is
ASTM D 1075 specifications to compare moisture measured (Pasandin and Parez, 2015). Stone dust
susceptibility of both mixes. Marshall specimen has higher active adhesion since mixes prepared
were kept conditioned in a water bath maintained at with it take lesser time to achieve complete coating
60º C for 24 hours and after that tested for stability than that of red mud (Table 8).
value. The results are reported as the percentage of
stability determined after keeping a sample in the Table 8. Active and passive adhesions of studied
water bath for 30 minutes at 60º C. mixes
Mix type Active Adhesion Passive Adhesion
Both mixes satisfied the Indian criteria of the mini- (mixing time in (Bitumen cover-
seconds) age in %)
mum requirement of 75% retained stability
(MORTH, 2013). Stone dust mixes were found to
have higher retained stability than that of red mud Stone dust 42 90
mixes. This may be due to the higher percentage of Red mud 58 80
dolomite in mineral composition of stone dust
(Table 7). However, mixes prepared with red mud
also have shown surprisingly good resistance against 2.3.5.2 Passive adhesion
the moisture despite their high plasticity index. This Passive adhesion analysis was done as per
may be attributable to the higher bitumen content ASTM D 3625 specification. A loose sample of
encapsulating the aggregate particles which provided weighing approximately 250 g is cooled between
good protection against moisture damage. It may 85ºC and the boiling point of water. The sample is
also be due to the presence of calcite in then placed into the container having boiling
mineralogical composition of red mud which influ- distilled water for 10 minutes. The bitumen that
ences its moisture resistant behavior. comes on the water surface was skimmed off, and
the sample was cooled to room temperature. The
Table 7. Retained Marshall stability ratios of sample was then removed from the water and placed
studied mixes on the white paper towel and visual observations of
Mix Bitumen Average Average Retained the degree of bitumen coating were conducted by the
type Content Marshall Marshall Stability team of 3 people. Similar to the active adhesion,
(%) Stability Stability Ratio
(kN)(M1) (kN)(M2) (M2/M1)
stone dust showed higher passive adhesion than red
(Conditioned (Conditioned (%) mud (Table 8).
30 minutes) 24 hours )
Stone 5.17 13.04 12.10 92.78
dust 3 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
Red 5.39 11.79 9.82 83.28
mud This laboratory study investigated the suitability of
red mud as mineral filler in asphalt concrete mixes.
Various physical, mineralogical and chemical
properties of red mud and conventional stone dust
were determined and compared using numerous
characterization tests. After that, asphalt mixes were
prepared using fillers and performance parameters
such as Marshall properties, indirect tensile
strengths, retained Marshall stabilities and active and
passive adhesions were determined and compared.
The following conclusions can be derived.
1. Red mud is a highly plastic material and it
has plasticity index equals to 9.1. According
to Indian paving specifications (MORTH,
2013), red mud is not permitted to be used as
filler in asphalt concrete.
2. Apart from plasticity index, red mud showed
all characterizing traits of good filler. It
doesn’t possess expansive clay minerals such
as montmorillonite in its composition. XRD
results revealed that red mud also have
calcite in its composition which promotes
bitumen aggregate adhesion.
3. Hydrophilic coefficient of red mud was found
to be less than unity which displayed its
hydrophobic nature. It also showed alkaline
characteristics and expected to form a
stronger bond with bitumen due to mutual
affinity resulted by slight acidic nature of
bitumen. However stone dust has lower
hydrophilic coefficient and higher pH value
due to appreciable amount of dolomite in its
composition.
4. Asphalt mixes prepared with red mud has
satisfied all design criteria specified by
Indian paving specification. However it has
lower Marshall stability than stone dust
mixes. This may be attributed to superior
adhesion characteristics displayed by stone
dust in mixes due to dolomite in its
composition.
5. OBC of red mud asphalt mixes (5.39%) was
found to be higher than stone dust mixes
(5.17). This may be attributed to lower
volume application of red mud due to its
higher specific gravity than stone dust. It
may also be attributed to higher bitumen
absorption by red mud due to its higher
rigden voids, finer particles and rougher
surface texture.
6. MQ and ITS values of red mud were found to
be marginally lower than stone dust. This
may be due to lower improvement in
adhesion due to inclusion of red mud.
7. Red mud fulfilled the minimum retained
stability requirements i.e. 75% with a higher
margin. Prepared mixes has also displayed
reasonable active and passive adhesions.
This indicated its satisfactory performance
against moisture permeation.  However stone
dust showed the superior performance in
terms of moisture resistance.
It can be concluded that red mud can effectively be
used as filler in asphalt concrete mixes. Although it
has higher OBC than conventional stone dust and
have marginally inferior properties, it could be
considered economical in places where it can be
obtained in abundance. Another concern with red
mud is its mineralogical composition which
constitute of heavy metals such as iron and titanium
that could leach in ground water. But it is believed
that, protective covering of bitumen around red mud
could easily prevent leaching of these metals. But
future research should be focused on performing
environmental evaluation by performing toxicity
characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP) tests over
asphalt mixes prepared with red mud at varying
compositions. But in can be said that, systematic
utilization of red mud in asphalt mixes not only can
provide solution for its safe disposal but also can
limit the ongoing erroneous quarrying operations for
conventional materials such as stone dust.
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