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Questionnaire

Refers to any list of question, which can be self- administered by the respondent or read to the
respondent by an interviewer

Types of Questionnaire

Structured wording and order of questions are uniform for all respondents.

Unstructured wording and order of questions can vary for different subjects; usually used for
qualitative studies like FGDs, case studies, etc.

Types of questions

Closed – ended respondent selects one or more of the specific categories provided by the researcher

Example:

Q7. On what parts of the child’s body is baby oil regularly applied?

() Feet () Shoulder
() Neck () Stomach
() Hands () Underarm
() Thighs () Legs
() Belly button () Others (specify)

Open- ended response categories are not specified; the respondents are free to answers as they please

Example:

Q9. We would like to get your opinion regarding (brand) for your children 0-3 years old.

a. What do you particularly like about (brand)? What else?

b. What do you particularly dislike about (brand)? What else?

Advantage of closed- ended questions

 The answers are standard, and can be compared from person to person.
 The answers are much easier to code and analyze, and often can be coded directly from the
questionnaire.
 A respondent who is unsure about the meaning of the question can often tell from the answer
categories what is expected ( for self- administered).
 Irrelevant responses are avoided.

Disadvantage4s of Closed- ended questions (for self- administered)

 Result are biased against any category that was not included in the list of possible responses.
 It is very easy for a respondent who does not know the answer or has no opinion to try to guess
the appropriate answer or even to answer randomly ( for self- administered).
 The respondent may feel frustrated because the appropriate category for his/her answer either
is not provided at all or is not provided in sufficient detail.
 Variations in answers among the different respondents may be eliminated artificially by forced-
choice responses.

Advantage of Open-ended Questions

 They can be used when all of the possible answer categories are not known, or when the
investigator wishes to see what the respondent views as appropriate answer categories.
 They allow the respondent to answer adequately, in all the detail he/sdhe likes, and to qualify
and clarify his/her answer.
 They can be used when there are too many potential answer categories to list on the
questionnaire
 They allow more opportunity for creativity and self- expression by the respondent.

Disadvantage of open-ended questions

 They may lead to collection of worthless and irrelevant information.

 Coding is often very difficult and subjective, leading to low inter-coder reliability.
 Open ended questions require superior writing skills, better ability to express one’s feelings
verbally, and generally a higher educational level than do closed-ended questions.
 Open ended questions require much more of the respondent’s time and effort, and may
engender a high refusal rate.
Example of pitfalls in Question Construction

 Incorrect ordering of questions

Q7. How would you rate the scent of lotion X?
Q8. What do you think of lotion X?
Improvement: _______________________________

 Double-barreled questions
“ does your department have a special recruitment policy for ethnic minorities and women?”
Improvement: _______________________________

 Sensitive or Threatening Questions

“ do you bring home supplies? Yes _ No_
Improvement: _______________________________

 Unrealistic questions
“ what brand of clothes do you think you will be using three years from now?
Improvement: _______________________________

 Incomplete/non-exhaustive listing
“ did you learn about the brand from TV, radio, newspaper, or friends?
Improvement: _______________________________

 Biased Wording
“ do you think that decent, low-cost funerals are sensible?
Improvement: _______________________________

 Leading questions
“ Majority of physicians in the Philippines feel that smoking is harmful; do you agree?”
Improvement: _______________________________

 vague questions
“ How often do you watch a news program?”
 very often
 often
 not often
 never
Improvement: _______________________________
 Hypotheticalquestions
“ if you are the president of this country, what are you going to do to attain economic
recovery?”
Improvement: _______________________________

THE PRETEST
- To detect any possible defects in the questionnaire
- To identify areas in the questionnaire that need improvement
- Pretest may be done to a small group of people: colleagues and friends, people possessing the same
characteristics as the target respondents. People who are used to surveys, people with good
communication skills.

TYPES OF PRETEST

PARTICIPATING PRETEST
-Respondents are told that this is a practice run, and are asked to explain their reactions and
answers.
 UNDECLARED PRETEST
-The respondent is not told that is a questionnaire under construction, and the interviewer plays
it straight.
WORKSHOP

Evaluate the following statements. Indicate the type of pitfall in the questionnaire construction.

1. According to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the court should be free of bribery and
corruption.
2. Do you think that the Department of Energy, as an institution, is definitely free from external
controls, influence or pressure?
3. Do the employees of the University of the Philippines have administrative and civil cases?
4. What is the nature of the complaint against the Human Resource Manager?
5. Have you ever filed an administrative complaint against the Human Resource Manager?
6. Do you accept money for purpose of promotion? If yes, how often?
7. Approximately how many administrative cases did you handle in this human resource division
from 2005 to 2008?
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

SUMMARY STATISTICS

-numerical measures that are used to describe certain characteristics of the data.

SUMMARY MEASURES

CENTRAL TENDENCY LOCATION VARIABILTY

MEAN MODE
RANGE
MEDIAN COEFFICIENT
VARIANCE OF VARIATION
QUARTILE, DECILES,
PERCENTILES
STANDARD DEVIATION

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 Any single value which is used to identify the “center” of the data or the typical value;
 It is oftentimes referred to as the average

THE MEAN
 Sum of all values of the observations divided by the number of observations in the data set

POPULATION MEAN (for a finite population):

sum of the observations

µ=
size of the population (N)

Sample Mean:
 sum of the observations
X=
size of sample (n)

Example:
The test scores in math of all 50 applicants from a certain company are as follows:

43 51 53 55 57 58 58 59 61 61
61 68 63 64 65 65 66 66 67 68
68 69 69 69 69 70 70 70 71 71
72 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 78
79 79 81 82 82 85 87 89 91 96

The mean of this population is :

43 + 45 + . . .+ 91 + 96 398
µ= = = 69.96
50 50

Suppose that a ample of seven applicants from a company yielded the following observations:

70 , 82 , 77 , 96 , 55 , 85 , 64

The corresponding sample mean is

70 + 82 + 77 + 96 + 55 + 85 + 64
X= = 75.57
7

Suppose another sample of applicants of the same size was taken and resulted to the following
scores:

58, 72 , 77 , 89 , 63, 85, 51

The sample mean is given by

58 + 72 + 77 + 89 + 63 + 85 + 51
X= = 70.714
7
For the data are presented I a frequency distribution, the mean can be approximated as follows:
I. Multiply the class marks by their corresponding class frequency.
II. Sum the obtained products
III. Divide the sum by the number of observations

Frequency Distribution for Ozone Concentration

(in parts per ten million)

Concentration of Ozone Number of Areas (f) Class Mark (X) fiX1

in the atmosphere

10-19 6 14.5 87.0

20-29 5 24.5 122.5
30-39 14 34.5 483.0
40-49 11 44.5 489.5
50-59 17 54.5 926.5
60-69 15 64.5 967.5
70-79 4 74.5 298.0
80-89 2 84.5 169.0
90-99 3 94.5 283.5

The approximated sample mean is

87 + 122.5 + . . . + 283.5
X= = 49.70
77

Verify that the actual sample mean is 49.8052.

Characteristics of the Mean

 It is the most familiar measure of central tendency used, and it employs all available information.
 It is strongly influenced by extreme values.
 Since the mean is a calculated number, it may not be an actual number in the data set.
 It can be applied to data that are measured in at least interval level.
The mean of the data set is the location of the fulcrum where the see-saw will attain its balance.
The loads that we place on the
seesaw are the observations,
X: 8,9,9,9,10

7 8 9 10 11 12

To balanced the seesaw, the

fulcrum must be at µ = 9.

The Median

It divides an ordered observation into two equal parts so that at least half of the observations are below or
equal to its value and at least half of the observations are above or equal to its value.

It is the positional middle of the array.

Example: if the median annual family income of 500 families is P185,000, then this implies that at least half
of the 500 families (250 families) have annual family incomes that are lower or equal to P185,000.

Computation of the Median

The first step in finding the median is to arrange the observation in an array.

Case 1: if the number of observations n is odd, the median is the middle observed value in the array.

Case 2: if the number of observation n is even, the median is the average of the two middle observed values
in array.

Examples:

a. The following are the total receipts of 7 companies (in million pesos)
1.2 , 7.2 , 12.5 , 6.5 , 50.6 , 4.5 , 10.4

Array: 1.2 , 4.5 , 6.5 , 7.2 , 10.4 , 12.5 , 50.6

Thus, the median is 7.2

b. The following are the numbers of years of operation of 8 manufacturing companies:

8, 10, 17, 18, 11, 16 , 17, 10
Array: 8,10,10,11,16,17,17,18

The median is

11 + 16
Md = = 13.5
2

Characteristics of the Median

 It is a positional measure.
 It is not influenced by extreme values.
 It can be applied to data that are measured in at least ordinal level.

The Mode
 The value in the data set that occurs with the greatest frequency

Example:

A psychologist has developed a new technique intended to improve rote memory. To test the method
against other standard methods, 30 high school students representing three sections are selected at
random, and each is taught the new technique. The students are the asked to memorize a list of 100
word phrases using the technique. The following are the number of word phrases memorized correctly
by the students from each section:

Section 1: 83 64 98 66 83 87 83

93 86 80 93 83 75

Section 2: 87 76 96 77 94 92 88

85 66 89

Section 3 : 68 84 79 79 64 75 80

Define the mode for each set in the context of this problem

Characteristics of the Mode

 it is the easiest to interpret among measures of central tendency.

 It is not affected by extreme values.
 It does not always exist; if it does, it may not be unique. If a data set has a two modes, we call it
bimodal, if there are three modes, we call it trimodal and so on.
 One advantage of the mode is that it can be applied to observations that are measured in the
nominal level.

Measures of Location
Numbers below which a specified amount or percentage of data must le and are oftentimes used to find
the position of a specific piece of data in relation to entire set of data.
Percentile
 Values that divide an ordered set of data into 100 equal parts
 The ith percentile (i=1,2,…,99), denoted by Pi, is a value below which i% of the data must lie.

To determine Pi we have the following steps:

I.arrange the data from lowet to highest.
II.If ni/100 is a whole number, Pi I the mean of the mean of the (ni/100) and (ni/100 + 1)th ordered values.
III.If ni/100 is not a whole number, Pi is the kth ordered value where k is the closest whole number greater
then ni/100.

Deciles

 Value that divide an ordered set of data into 10 equal parts

 The ith decile (i=1,2…,9), denoted by D, is a value below which 10i% of the date must lie

Quartiles

 Values that divide an ordered set of data into 4 equal parts

 The ith quartile (i=1,2,3), denoted by Qi, is a value below which 25i% of data must lie.

Example:
The data from 50 measurements of the traffic noise level at an intersection are already ordered from
smallest to largest I the tale given below. Locate the quartiles.

Measure of Traffic Noise level (in decibels)

52.0 55.9 56.7 59.4 60.2 61.0 62.1 63.8 65.7 67.9
54.4 55.9 56.8 59.4 60.3 61.4 62.6 64.0 66.2 68.2
54.5 56.2 57.2 59.5 60.5 61.7 62.7 64.6 66.8 68.9
55.7 564 57.6 59.8 60.6 61.8 63.1 64.8 67.0 69.4
55.8 56.4 58.9 60.0 60.8 62.0 63.6 64.9 67.1 77.1

The quartiles are as follows;

Q1 = P25 = 13th observation in the array

= 57.2

Q2= D5 = P50 = 60.8 + 61

2
= 60.9

Q1= P75 = 38th observation in the array

= 64.6

Measures of Dispersion
Numerical descriptive measures which indicate the extent to which individual observations in a set of
data are scattered about an average.
Some uses of Measuring Dispersion
  To determine the extent of scatter so that steps may be taken to control the existing variation.
 Used as a measure of reliability of an average.

Classification of Measure of Dispersion

 Measure of Absolute Dispersion

 Measures of Relative Dispersion

Measure of Absolute Dispersion

 Measures of dispersion that are expressed in the units of the original observations.
 Cannot be used to compare variation of two or more data sets when the observations differ in
the units of measurement owe hen the values of the averages differ in magnitude.

The Range

 The difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set.
Example:
The data from 5 measurements of the traffic noise level at an intersection give below.

52.0 56.4 60.6 61.0 67.9

54.4 61.7 77.1 56.8 67.1
60.5 57.2 59.8 54.0 64.8

The range is given by

Range (R) = 7.1 - 52.0 = 25.1

Characteristic of the Range

 It is the simplest measure of dispersion.
 It is sensitive to extreme value.
 It fails to communicate any information about the clustering or the lack of lustering of the values
between the extremes.

The Standard Deviation

 Measure of dispersion which indicate the extent of scattering of the observations from the mean.
 The square root of the average squared deviation of the observations from the mean.

Population standard deviation:

sum of squared observations − Nµ

Ơ=√
N

Sample standard Deviation :

s = √sum of squared observations − nX² ²
n−1

The Variance
The square of the standard deviation is called the variance.

The population variance is commonly denoted by Ơ2 whereas the sample variance is denoted by s2.

Comparing Standard Deviations

Example: Team A- Heights of five marathon players I inches.

65” 65” 65” 65” 65”

Mean = 65
S = 0
Example: Team B- Heights of five marathon players in inches.

62” 67” 66” 70” 60”

Comparing Standard Deviation

Data A

Mean = 15
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 S = 2.878

Data B

Mean = 15
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 S = 1.414

Data C

Mean = 15
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 S = 4.036

Example:
 Refer to the data on Math scores of 50 applicants.

The population standard deviation is given by

(432 + 512 + 532 + ⋯ + 892 + 912 + 962 ) − 50(69.962 )

Ơ=√
50

250226 − 244720.08
Ơ=√ = 13.7794
50

For the sample of seven applicants, the standard deviation is computed as

(702 + 822 + 772 + 96² + 552 + 852 + 642 ) − 7(75.57²)

s=√
6

41115 − 399975.77
s=√ = 13.7794
6

If the data are presented in a frequency distribution table, the sample standard deviation can be
approximated as follows.

I. Compute for the mean

II. Subtract the mean from each of the class marks in the FDT and square these deviations.
III. Multiply the squared deviations by the corresponding class frequency.
IV. Sum the products obtained in (iii) and divide the resulting value by (n-1).
V. Take the square root of the obtained quotient.

Frequency distribution table for Ozone Concentration

(in parts per million)
concentration of ozone in the athmosphere Number of Areas (fi) class mark (Xi) Xi- 49.25 (Xi- 49.25)² fi(Xi- 49.25)²
19-Oct 6 14.5 -34.75 1207.5625 7245.375
20-29 5 24.5 -24.75 612.5625 3062.8125
30-39 14 34.5 -15.25 232.5625 3023.3125
4.-49 17 44.5 -5.25 27.5625 468.5625
50-59 11 54.5 5.25 27.5625 303.1875
60-69 15 64.5 15.25 232.5625 3488.4375
70-79 4 74.5 25.25 637.5625 2550.25
80-89 2 84.5 35.25 1242.5625 2485.125
90-99 3 94.5 45.25 2047.5625 6142.6875
28769.75

The approximated sample standard deviation is given by

288769
s=√ = 19.456
76

verify that the actual sample standard deviation is 19.60266

MEASURES OF RELATIVE DISPERSION

  Measures of dispersion that are independent of the units of the observation;
 Used to compare the variability of two or more sets of data.

The Coefficient of Variation

 The ratio of the standards deviation to the mean, oftentimes expressed as a percentage value

It is computed as;

S
CV = x 100 %
x

Example;

The foreign exchange rate is an indicator of the stability of the peso and is also an indicator of the
economic performance.

The peso adjust with inflation, growth and balance of payments.

Government intervenes through the BSP, only when there are speculative elements in the market.

Give are the means and the standard deviations of the quarterly P-$ exchange rate for the years of 2006
and 2007, Which of the two periods is more variable?

Data

Mean Standard Deviation

2006 51.314 0.041091

2007 46.148 4.1158

0.041091
CV2006 = x 100 % = 0.08%
51.314
4.1158
CV2007 = x 100 % = 8.92%
46.148

MEASURES OF SKEWNESS

 Refer to the degree of a asymmetry, or departure from symmetry of a distribution.

 It indicates not only the amount of skewness but also the direction.

Examples of Symmetric Distribution

Two Types of Skewness

1. Positive Skewness or Skewness to the right

 Distribution tapers more to the right that to the left
 Longer tail to the right
 More concentration of values below that above the mean

Figure 1: frequency distribution of a positively skewed data set.

2. Negative Skewness or Skewness to the left

  Distribution tapers more to the left than right
 Longer tail to the left
 More concentration of vlues above that below the mean

Figure 2: frequency distribution of negatively skewed data set.

Some common measures of skewness

1. Pearson’s First coefficient of skewness

𝐗 − 𝐌𝐨
Sk =
𝐬

Where X = sample mean

Mo = mode
S = sample standard deviation

1. Pearson’s Scond coefficient of skewness

𝟑( 𝐗 − 𝐌𝐝)
Sk =
𝐬

Where X = sample mean

Md = median
S = sample standard deviation

Interpretation sk < 0 Negatively skewed

sk = 0 symmetric
sk > 0 positively skewed

example:
Refering to the Ozone concentration data, we find that

X = 19.8085
Md = 53
S = 19.60266
The Pearson’s coefficient of skewness is

𝟑( 𝟒𝟗. 𝟖𝟎𝟓𝟐 − 𝟓𝟑)

Sk = = -0.4889
𝐬𝟏𝟗. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟔