Running head: TIME MANAGEMENT 1

Differences in Student Employment and Time Management Skills

Daniel O’Donnell

Bridgewater State University

TIME MANAGEMENT 2

Abstract

Rising college costs have led more students to become employed while still enrolled in college

(U.S. Department of Education, 2018; Murphy & Eddlem, 2018). There are conflicting views

about the benefits of working while enrolled as a college student. Time management is a skill

that could be potentially affected by student employment. Time management has been linked

with a number of positive outcomes, including academic achievement, reduced stress, and lower

levels of anxiety (Britton & Tesser, 1991; Hynes & O’Halloran, 2015; Chan, 2012). However,

there has been a lack of research between the effects of student employment on time

management skills. To fill this gap in research, this study will explore the relationship between

student employment and time management skills. A 20 question survey that assesses time

management skills will be given to students enrolled full time at a local four-year university. It is

predicted that students who are employed full-time will have more time management skills than

students who are employed part-time, students who are employed minimally, and students who

are not employed.

TIME MANAGEMENT 3

Student Employment and GPA at Community College

Research Question

The research question for this paper is, what is the significance of student employment on

self-reported time management skills. No employment, minimum employment, part-time

employment, and full-time employment will be evaluated for time management skill level.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis for this study is student employment influences self-reported time

management skills with full-time employment (μft) having a larger influence in time management

skills than part-time employment (μpt), minimum employment (μme), and no employment (μne).

H1 = μft> μpt

H2 = μft > μme

H3 = μft > μne

The null hypothesis for this study is that student employment will not influence time

management skills and all employment types (full-time, part-time, minimum employment, and

no employment) will be equivalent in time management skills.

H0 = μft = μpt = μme = μne

Project Abstract

Literature Review

College costs have vastly increased over the past 30 years. In 1985-1986, the average cost

of a four-year institution was $10,696 and the average cost of a two-year institution was $7,373.

In 2015-2016, the average cost of a four-year institution was $22,432 and the average cost of a

two-year institution was $10,432 (U.S. Department of Education, 2018). As a result of increased

college costs, students are being pressured to take on outside jobs on top of their academic
TIME MANAGEMENT 4

studies. In the past 10 years, student employment rates have increased by 16% (Murphy &

Eddlem, 2018).

There are conflicting views about the benefits of working while being enrolled as a

college student. Due to work commitments, students may experience more time restraints and a

lack of energy. These time restraints and lack of energy could potentially result in reduced

academic performance (DeSimone, 2008; Wenz & Yu, 2010). However, employment during

school could also potentially improve grades if that employment fosters attributes that are

aligned with academic success, including industriousness or time management skills (DeSimone,

2008).

Research on this topic has shown mixed results on academic outcomes as well. A study

that looked at student data from a traditional four-year university between 2004-2008 found that

employment had a modest negative effect on student grades, with GPA falling by 0.007 points

per work hour (Wenz & Yu, 2010) Another study that looked at the effects of paid employment

on full-time four year students from a study administered in 1993-2001 found that each

additional work hour reduces current year GPA by 0.011 points (DeSimone, 2008). However, a

recent study conducted at a large four-year university in Pennsylvania found that student

employment had a positive effect on GPA up to 30 hours worked per week; over thirty hours

worked seemed to provide a negative relationship with GPA (Campbell, Freeburg, 2017).

Most of the research on student employment has explored the relationship between

student employment and student achievement in terms of grade point average. However, grade

point average only provides a quick overview of academic achievement. The previous conflicting

data based on grade point average does not offer much insight alone. It would be beneficial to

have more specific knowledge regarding the skills that students are using to achieve their grade
TIME MANAGEMENT 5

point averages. There are many academic skills that factor into student achievement, a major one

being time management. Time management can be defined as a cluster of behavioral skills that

are key in the organization of studying and course load (Adams & Blair, 2019).

Time management skills have been linked to academic performance in a number of

studies. A regression analysis in a study of 90 college students showed that components of time

management were significant predictors of cumulative GPA (Britton & Tesser, 1991). Another

study conducted with 165 college students found that students who had control over their use of

time also reported significant higher evaluations of their performance and greater work

satisfaction (Macan et. al. 1990). In a study of male engineering students in the United Arab

Emirates, it was found that time management is related to academic performance and that

successful students have higher time management skills (Miqdadi et. al., 2014).

In addition to academic performance, time management has also been linked to a number

of other positive outcomes. Specifically, time management has been linked to stress reduction. A

study of 249 university undergraduates found that time management behaviors had a significant

buffering effect on academic stress (Misra & McKean, 2000) Another study of 158

undergraduate students found that students with more time management skills had overall lower

self-reported levels of stress (Hynes & O’Halloran, 2015). Time management skills have also

been linked to lower levels of anxiety. In a study of undergraduate students at a four-year

university, it was found that increased time management skills had a positive correlation with

lower levels of anxiety (Chan, 2012).

Time management is a skill that could be potentially affected by student employment.

Hypothetically, the more experience a student has balancing school commitments and work
TIME MANAGEMENT 6

commitments, the better time management skills they will have. However, there has been a lack

of research between the effects of time management skills and student employment.

To fill this gap in research, this study will explore the relationship between student

employment and time management skills. Researchers will solely look at the effect of

employment on time management skills of full-time students. Full-time students will be defined

as students who are currently enrolled in twelve or more credits. Based on prior research, no

employment will be defined as not currently employed, minimum employment will be defined as

working an average of less than 10 hours of employment (but greater than 0), part time

employment will be defined as working an average of between 10 and 30 hours per week, and

full time employment will be defined as working an average of more than thirty hours per week

(Campbell & Duquette, 2017) (Stinebricker & Stinebricker, 2003). It is predicted that students

who are employed full-time will have more time management skills than students who are

employed part-time, students who are employed minimally, and students who are not employed.

Data Collection

Participants will be recruited from Fictitious State University, a local public four-year

university. Fictitious State University was chosen as the site of the study for its diverse student

population. A donation of $100,000 dollars to the school will be used as an incentive. A list of

current active full time students and their school email addresses will be obtained from the

Admissions Office. A simple random sample will be used to select 1,500 students from that list.

Participants will be sent an email that briefly explains the purpose of the study, how long the

survey will take, confidentiality, the ability to withdraw at any time, and contact information for

further questions if needed (Appendix A). The email will also contain a link to the survey. Each
TIME MANAGEMENT 7

email will receive a different password that will allow them to sign in to participate in the study.

These passwords will only work once to ensure that no duplicate responses are recorded.

The survey link sent out to students will contain several steps. First, participants will give

their informed consent (Appendix B). Second, participants will then answer six demographic

questions (Appendix C). The topics of the demographic questions included age, gender, ethnicity,

class year designation, employment status, and involvement in extra-curricular activity. Third,

participants will fill out a self-report time management survey (Appendix D). The self-report

time management survey asks the participant to respond to twenty questions using a 5-point

Likert scale with the responses of always, frequently, sometimes, infrequently, and never. Fourth,

participants will be thanked for their participation, debriefed, and sent a code that can be used to

redeem a twenty-five dollar store credit at the online campus bookstore (Appendix E).

Our intended sample size is 300 participants; however, we expected responses from

roughly 500 individuals to maximize usable data. Data will be stored in an encrypted hard drive.

Incomplete surveys will be removed from the study. To avoid confounding variables, data from

individuals who indicate an average of five or more hours of participation in extracurricular

activities a week will also be removed from the study. Extracurricular participation will be

defined as any participation in clubs, activities, sports teams, fraternities, sororities, or volunteer

opportunities. Analysis tests will be performed and surveys that are not proven to be valid will be

removed. If more than 300 surveys are usable, then solely 300 surveys will be selected in a

computer generated simple random sample. Survey results will be analyzed using an ANOVA

that will describe the statistical significance of the findings. The results will be compiled into a

report and presented to school administration and emailed to participants who indicated they

were interested in receiving the results of the study.

TIME MANAGEMENT 8

Personnel Directly Involved with Participants

Email addresses with be obtained through the Dean of Admissions, who possesses a

master’s degree in communication. Researchers will be in primary contact with the participants

through e-mail and will handle the data collection and analysis. All researchers involved in this

study possess a doctor’s degree in psychology.

Potential Harm and Efforts to Mitigate

There is very little potential harm that can be caused by inquiring about an individual’s

demographics, employment status, and time management skills. Informed consent will provide

information about participant rights before they begin the survey. Participants will be allowed to

withdraw from the study at any point. Incomplete surveys will be removed from the study.

There is a chance there will be a number of participants involved who may feel

overwhelmed because of a large course load and work commitments. A link to counseling

resources available on campus will be provided to all students at the end of the study. On-campus

counseling resources are free for all full-time students.

Direct Participants Benefits

The only direct benefit the participants will receive from this study is a twenty-five dollar

store credit that can be used in the online campus bookstore. Also, the results of the study will be

provided to school administrators, who then can potentially use the information to make positive

changes on campus. However, this outcome is not guaranteed.

Benefits to Society & Scientific Community

The goal of this study is to investigate student employment and its direct benefit on time

management skills. Prior studies have indicated conflicting results about the effect of student

employment on academic achievement in terms of grade point average. There is little evidence
TIME MANAGEMENT 9

about what specific academic skills student employment can increase. The study will provide

evidence whether student employment will specifically increase time management skills.

Students can use the knowledge gained from this study to make educated employment decisions

while enrolled as college students, which is becoming increasingly important due to rises in

college costs. Moreover, this study will provide campuses with information about the benefits of

student employment, allowing this to factor into administrative decisions regarding student

employment.

Participants in this study will be allowed to know its general purpose and will be sent the

results via email if requested after data is analyzed and collected. The data method of data

collection used in this study is minimally disruptive and respects the participant’s time and

investment in this study. Any positive benefits to the community will outweigh any negatives the

study may cause.

Study Timeline

Researchers will reach out to school administration before the end of the school year in

April. This will allow for plenty of time to set up the study before data collection the following

fall. Researchers will plan logistics with school administration and the Dean of Admissions. The

list of full time enrolled students will be collected shortly after the add/drop period in Mid-

October ends to ensure consistency in classes. Once the list is collected, a random simple sample

of 1,500 participants will be generated via computer. The selected participants will receive an

email that has a link to the informed consent, demographic question, survey, and debriefing no

later than the beginning of November. Students will be given up to mid-way through December

to answer the survey. Mid-way through December the data that was collected will be analyzed

and the results will be compiled into a report. The results will be sent out to school
TIME MANAGEMENT 10

administration and the participants who requested the results in mid-January when classes

resume after winter break.

Funding Status

Funding was applied for externally through the National College Employment

Association, who has vested interests in the impact of college employment on time management

skills. Previously, researchers had no contact with the National College Employment

Association. If this study is successful, it could lead to a partnership and more opportunities for

research in the future. They have provided researchers with a $130,000 donation. $100,000 of

that is being used as a donation to the school as an incentive to host the study on their campus.

The remaining money is being used to cover the costs of the study. Up to $25,000 will be offered

to participants as incentive for completing the study. Other additional costs including technology,

email systems, and data software will roughly equally $5,000.

Participants

A list of undergraduate students who are enrolled full-time (in at least twelve credits) and

their school email addresses will be obtained through the Office of Admissions. According to the

Federal Educational Rights and Privacy Act, enrollment status and school email addresses are

considered directory information and not private record. From this list, a simple random sample

will be computer generated and will include 1,500 participants. Participants will then receive an

email that explains the study and contains the link to the survey (Appendix A). There participants

will begin a step by step process that includes informed consent, demographic questions, the

survey, and a debriefing process (Appendix B,C,D,E). The debriefing process will include the

compensation. Once participants finish these steps, their data will be stored electronically in an

encrypted hard drive. The expected return rate for surveys is projected to be around 30 percent,
TIME MANAGEMENT 11

leaving the study with an estimated 500 participants. Our intended sample size is 300

participants; however, we expected responses from roughly 500 individuals to maximize usable

data.

Incomplete surveys will be removed from the study. To avoid confounding variables, data

from individuals who participate in an average of five or more hours of extracurricular activity

will also be screened out and their data will not be selected for final use in the survey.

Extracurricular activity could increase time management skills in the absence of student

employment. Extracurricular activity will be defined as any participation in clubs, activities,

sports teams, fraternities, sororities, or volunteer opportunities. Validity tests will be performed

and surveys that are not proven to be valid will be removed. If more than 300, surveys are usable

then solely 300 surveys will be selected in a computer generated simple random sample.

Participation in this study will be voluntary. The email sent out to all students will clearly

indicate that the research being conducted is not affiliated with the institution they are attending

and that participation is optional and not required. Moreover, the compensation given out after

participation does not have enough monetary value that students will feel obligated to participate.

The sample population will allow for equal representation of women and minorities. The

male to female student population is 48 male and 52 percent female. Students of color account

for 47 percent of the student population. Participants will not be limited by gender, age, or

another other criteria than extracurricular involvement. The study does not place burdens on

those who are already burdened or involve subjects who are particularly vulnerable.

Confidentiality

Data collected from participants will be anonymous. No part of the demographic or the

survey will ask for data that could make the participant identifiable. Data will be stored on an
TIME MANAGEMENT 12

encrypted hard drive. After the completion of the study, data will remain on the encrypted hard

drive to allow for its use in future research if needed.

Compensation

After participants complete the survey they will be provided with a code that can be

redeemed for twenty-five dollars credit in the online campus bookstore. The compensation is to

provide incentive for participating in the study. The twenty-five dollar amount will provide

enough incentive to participate in the survey, but not enough to the point where individuals will

feel compelled to participate because of the value of the compensation. Due to the very brief

survey process and lack of harm in the study, it is not unethical to provide the compensation after

the survey has been completed.

Consent Process

Informed consent will be collected from all participants before they partake in the study

through use of an informed consent document. The informed consent document will be the first

item participants see on the survey. After participants read the documents, there will be a box on

the bottom of the page that they can check to indicate that it is not possible to identify all

potential risks in an experimental procedure and that they believe that reasonable safeguards

have been taken to minimize both the known and potential but unknown risks. Participants will

not be allowed to continue to the other items unless they check off the box on the informed

consent document. Researchers will address all questions about informed consent either via

email or via phone.

TIME MANAGEMENT 13

Appendix A

Hello Fictitious State University Student!

You have been selected to participate in a study that explores student employment and time
management skills. Please note this study is completely optional and in no way required by
Fictitious State University. The study contains a quick survey that will take no longer than fifteen
minutes to complete. Once you complete the survey, you will receive a code that is redeemable
for twenty-five dollars credit on the online campus bookstore.

You are eligible to participate in this study if you are 18 years or older and enrolled at Fictitious
State University full time (more than 12 credits). Surveys will be completed anonymously and
you will not be asked to provide any identifying data. Participants can withdraw from the study
at any time.

If you have questions or concerns feel free to contact me via email at

randomemailaddress@mass.edu or through phone at XXX-XXX-XXXX.

Here is the link to the survey: www.surveylink.com

Please use this 5 digit code to log into the survey: #####

Thanks in advance for you participation!

Sincerely,

Daniel O’Donnell, Ph.D.

TIME MANAGEMENT 14

Appendix B

Significant Differences in Student Employment and Time Management Skills

Researchers: Dr. Daniel O’Donnell, Counseling Education, XXX-XXX-XXXX

You are being asked to participate in a project conducted through Fictitious State
University. This University requires that you give your signed agreement to participate in this
project.

Below you will find an explanation of the study. Please read this explanation and contact
Dr. O’Donnell either by email at randomemailaddres@mass.edu or by phone at XXX-XXX-
XXXX if you have any questions.

This study is being conducted to explore the relationship between student employment
and time management skills. You will be asked to fill out some brief demographic information
and then complete a quick survey. You should not participate in this study if you are not 18 years
or older and enrolled at Fictitious State University full time (more than 12 credits). Your
participation in this study should not last for more than fifteen minutes. Discomfort and risks in
this study are extremely minimal and unlikely. This study hopes to provide information about the
benefits of student employment. Aside from the twenty-five dollar online campus bookstore
credit, you may not benefit personally by participating in this study. This survey is anonymous
and every attempt will be made to keep your information confidential; however, there may be
circumstance where this non-identifiable information must be shared with:

o Federal agencies, for example the Office of Human Research Protections, whose
responsibility is to protect human subjects in research;
o Representatives of Fictitious State University, including the Institutional Review Board, a
committee that oversees the research at BSU;
o The National College Employment Association, who will have access to non-identifiable
data.

Refusal to participate in this study will have no effect on any future services you may be
entitled to from Fictitious State University. Anyone who agrees to participate in this study is free
to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

By checking the box below I am indicating that it is not possible to identify all potential
risks in an experimental procedure, and I believe that reasonable safeguards have been taken to
minimize both the known and potential but unknown risks.

□ I agree that all known risk to me have been explained to my satisfaction.

Any questions about the conduct of the project or questions pertaining to your rights as a
research subject should be brought to the attention of the IRB Administrator at XXX-XXX-
XXXX
TIME MANAGEMENT 15

Appendix C

1. Age

2. Gender

a. Male

b. Female

c. Non-binary

3. Ethnicity

a. American Indian or Alaska Native

b. Asian

c. Black or African-American

d. Hispanic or Latino

e. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

f. White

4. Class Year

a. Freshman (0-23 credits)

b. Sophomore (24-53 credits)

c. Junior (54-83 credits)

d. Senior (84+ credits)

5. How many hours do you work per week on average?

a. Not currently employed

b. Less than 10 hours

c. 10-30 hours (Part-Time)

d. 30 hours or more (Full-Time)

TIME MANAGEMENT 16

6. Do you spend five or more hours a week on average on extracurricular activities? (This

includes participation in clubs, activities, sports teams, fraternities, sororities, or

volunteer opportunities)

a. Yes

b. No

□ Submit answers and continue onto next page

TIME MANAGEMENT 17

Appendix D

Please answer the following questions with one of the following response below:

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

1. Do you plan your day before you start it?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

2. Do you have a set of goals for each week ready at the beginning of the week?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

3. Do you spend time each day planning?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

4. Do you make a list of the things you have to do each day?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

5. Do you make a schedule of the tasks you have to accomplish on workdays?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

6. Do you have a clear idea of what you want to accomplish during the next week?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

7. Do you set deadlines for yourself for completing work?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

8. Do you try to schedule your best hours for your most demanding work?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

9. Do you keep your most important dates on a single calendar?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

10. Do you have a set of goals for the semester?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

TIME MANAGEMENT 18

11. Do you review your class notes, even when you do not have a test in the future?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

12. Do you set and honor priorities?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

13. Do you make constructive use of your time?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

14. Do you believe there is room for improvement in the way you manage your time? *

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

15. Do you feel you are in charge of your own time, by and large?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

16. Are you able to make minor decisions quickly?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

17. Generally, do you think you can usually accomplish all your goals for a given week?

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

18. Do you find yourself frequently waiting without anything to do? *

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

19. Do you continue unproductive routines or activities? *

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

20. Are you usually still working on a major assignment the night before it is due? *

Always – Frequently – Sometimes – Infrequently – Never

□ Submit answers and continue onto next page

TIME MANAGEMENT 19

Items marked with a * are scored negatively

Adapted from:

Tanriogen, A. & Iscan, A. (2009) Time management of Pammukkale University students and

their effects on academic achievement. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 35,

93-108.
TIME MANAGEMENT 20

Appendix E

Thank you for participating in our study! The survey you just completed will help us assess the
effects of student employment on time management skills. Our results will help students make
better informed decisions about student employment and its potential benefits to time
management skills. Please check the box below if you are interested in receiving the results of
the study once they are published. Below you will find your code for the twenty-five dollar credit
at the bookstore.

Code: XXXXXX

□ I would like for the results of the study to be sent to me via my student email account.
If you have questions or concerns feel free to contact me via email at
randomemailaddress@mass.edu or through phone at XXX-XXX-XXXX.

If you or someone you know is experiencing stress, anxiety, depression, or other psychological
difficulties, please set up an appointment to meet with a mental health counselor at the Counselor
Center. All services provided by the Counseling Center are paid for by student fees and free for
all full-time students. Their contact information has been included below:

Counseling Center
157 Barden Hall
XXX-XXX-XXXX
www.fsucounselingcenter.edu
Hours of Operation:
Monday – Friday
9 AM – 5 PM
TIME MANAGEMENT 21

References

Adams, R. V., & Blair, E. (2019). Impact of Time Management Behaviors on Undergraduate

Engineering Students’ Performance. SAGE Open.

Britton, B.K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on college grades.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 405-410.

Campbell, T.J., & Duquette, K.E. (2017) Student employment and academic achievement.

Fictitious Academic Journal, 52(7), 82-92.

Chan, T.J. (2012). Effects of time management on anxiety. Fictitious Academic Journal, 14(2),

15-20.

DeSimone, J.S. (2008). The impact of employment during school on college student academic

performance. National Bureau of Economic Research.

Hynes, R.J., & O’Halloran, K.T. (2015). The relation between time management and levels of

stress. Fictitious Academic Journal, 22(4), 220-215.

Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Phillips, A. P. (1990). College students' time

management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 82(4), 760-768.

Miqdadi, F.Z., Almomani, A.F., Shadid Masharaq, M.T., & Elmousel, N.M. (2014). Effects of

Time Management Practices on College Grades (Britton & Tesser). The relationship

between time management and the academic performance of students from the Petroleum

Institute in Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates. ASEE 2014 Zone I Conference, 3(5), 1-

5.
TIME MANAGEMENT 22

Misra, R., & McKean, M. (1999). College students’ academic stress and its relation to their

anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction. American Journal of Health Studies,

16(1), 41-51.

Murphy, J.T. & Eddlem, M.E. (2018). Student employment rate trends. Fictitious Academic

Journal, 74(3), 562-570.

Stinebrickner, R., & Stinebrickner, T.R. (2003). Working during school and academic

performance. Journal of Labor Economics, 21(2), 473-491.

Tanriogen, A. & Iscan, A. (2009) Time management of Pammukkale University students and

their effects on academic achievement. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 35,

93-108.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). Digest of

Education Statistics, 2016.

Velez, E.D., Bentz, A., & Arbeit, C.A. (2018). Working before, during, and after beginning at a

public 2-year institution: Labor market experiences of community college students.

National Center for Education Statistics.

Wenz, M., & Yu, W. (2010). Term-time employment and the academic performance of

undergraduates. (2010). Journal of Education Finance, 35(4), 359-374.