EE251 Notes0 - Power System Models PDF

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute
University of the Philippines Diliman
EE 251
Fault Studies
Review Notes
Power System Models
Prof. Rowaldo del Mundo

Associate Professor
Power System Models
 Transmission & Distribution Lines

 Transformers
 Generators
 Electric Utility (Power Grid)
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

University of the Philippines Diliman 2
1
Transmission & Distribution Lines
Sequence Impedance

Positive Sequence Impedance

For a transposed three-phase transmission line
Z1  Z2  r1  jx1 /mile/phase
r1 = resistance per unit length of one phase
conductor or bundle
x1 = reactance per unit length of one phase
Dm
x1  2.02 x 103 f ln /mile/phase
Ds
f = power frequency (Hertz)
Dm = Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Ds = Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)

2
Geometric Mean Distance
Typical three-phase line configurations
D12 D23
D31
D12
D12 D23
D31
Dm  3 D12D23D31

Geometric Mean Radius

For a solid conductor with radius r
1

Ds  r 4
 0.78r
Bundle of Two Bundle of Four
d
d
d
Ds  Dscd
Ds  1.09 4 Dscd3
Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor

3
Aluminum Conductors
Aluminum is preferred over copper as a material
for transmission lines due to:
• lower cost
• lighter weight
• larger diameter for the same resistance*
Note: *This results in a lower voltage gradient at

the conductor surface (less tendency for corona)

Stranded Conductors
Alternate layers of wire of a Steel
stranded conductor are
spiraled in opposite directions
to prevent unwinding and
make the outer radius of one
layer coincide with the inner Aluminum
radius of the next.
The number of strands depends on the number
of layers and on whether all the strands are of
the same diameter. The total number of strands
of uniform diameter in a concentrically stranded
cable is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc.

4
Example: Each conductor of the 345 kV bundled
three-phase line shown is 1272 MCM ACSR 54/19
Pheasant. Assuming complete transposition and a
total length of 80 miles, determine the positive-
sequence impedance of the line. Assume d=45 cm
and D=8 meters.
d
From a table of conductor D D

characteristics, we get
r = 0.0821 /mile @ 50oC
Dsc = 0.0466 ft = 0.0142 m

We get
Dm  3 8(8)(16)  10.08 m
Ds  0.0142(0.45)  0.08 m
The total resistance per phase
R1  0.0821(80)(0.5)  3.28 
The total reactance per phase
10.08
X1  2.02 x 10-3(60)(80) ln  46.9 
0.08
The positive (or negative) sequence impedance of
the line
Z1  Z2  3.28  j46.9  / phase
5
Transmission Line Inductance
The total self-inductance of a cylindrical conductor
consists of an internal inductance and an external
inductance.
Internal Inductance:
c
Lint  Henry/meter
8
Note: c is the permeability of the conductor.For
a non-ferrous conductor such as copper or
aluminum,
c  4 x 10-7 Henry/meter

External Inductance:
The external inductance may be approximated by
m 2s
Lext  (ln  1) Henry/meter
2 r
where
m = permeability of the medium surrounding
the conductor
r = radius of the conductor
s = length of the conductor
Note: For air, m  0  4 x 10-7 Henry/meter

6
Self Inductance:
 c m 2s
L  (ln  1) Henry/meter
8 2 r
For a non-ferrous conductor in air, we get
2s
L  2 x 10-7 (ln  1) Henry/meter
Ds
where Ds is the geometric mean radius of the

conductor
Note: For a solid conductor,
1

Ds  r 4
 0.78r
Mutual Inductance:
The mutual inductance between two conductors is
2s
M  2 x 10-7 (ln  1) Henry/meter
Dm
where Dm is the geometric mean distance
between the conductors
Note: For any unit of length,
2s
L  k (ln  1) Henry/unit length
Ds
2s
M  k (ln  1) Henry/unit length
Dm
7
Carson’s Line
Carson examined a single overhead conductor
whose remote end is connected to earth.
za a
a a’
+
 
Local Remote
Earth
Va Ia za d Earth
-
 Fictitious
REF Vd  0 Return
d  d’ Conductor
Id zd d
The current returns through a fictitious earth
conductor whose GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or
1 meter and is located a distance Dad from the
overhead conductor.
The lineis described

 by the following
 equations:
Va a'  Va  Va'  za aIa  za dId
    
Vdd'  Vd  Vd'  za dIa  zddId
    
Note: Ia   Id , Vd  0 and Va'  Vd'  0.
Subtracting the two equations, we get

 
Va  (zaa  zdd  2zad)Ia
or  
Va  za aIa
Note: zaa is the equivalent impedance of the
single overhead conductor.

8
Primitive Impedances:
2s
za a  ra  jL a  ra  jk(ln  1)
Dsa
2s
zdd  rd  jk(ln  1)
Dsd
2s
za d  jM  jk(ln  1)
Da d
ra, rd = resistances of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Dsa, Dsd = GMRs of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Note: Dsd is arbitrarily set to 1 unit length

Earth Resistance:
Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth
resistance.
rd  1.588 x 10-3 f /mile
 9.869 x 10-4 f /km
where f is the power frequency in Hz
Note : At 60 Hz,
rd  0.09528 /mile

9
Equivalent Impedance:
Substitute the primitive impedances into
za a  za a  zdd  2za d
We get 2
D
za a  (ra  rd )  jk ln a d
DsaDsd
Note: 1. Dsd=1 unit length
2
D
2. Define De  a d
Dsd
We get
De
za a  (ra  rd )  jk ln /unit length
Dsa
The quantity De is a function of frequency and

earth resistivity.
De  2160  / f feet
Typical values of De are tabulated below.
Return Earth Resistivity De
Condition (-m) (ft)
Sea water 0.01-1.0 27.9-279
Swampy ground 10-100 882-2790
Average Damp Earth 100 2790
Dry earth 1000 8820
Sandstone 109 8.82x106

10
Three-Phase Line Impedances
Extend Carson’s
 analysis to a three-phase line
Ia za a
a a’

Ib zb b za b zca b’
b
+ 
+ Ic zcc zb c
Va c c’
All wires
- Vb + za d grounded
- Vc zb d here
- zcd

REF
Vd  0
d  d’
Id zd d
1 unit length

The voltage equation describing the line is

   
Va a' Va  Va' za a za b za c za d I
   a
Vbb' V V zba zbb zbc zbd Ib
 =  b  b' = 
Vcc' Vc  Vc' zca zcb zcc zcd I
   c
Vdd' Vd  Vd' zda zdb zdc zdd Id
Since all conductors are grounded at the remote

end, we get from KCL
   
Ia  Ib  Ic  Id  0
or    
Id  (Ia  Ib  Ic )

11
The voltage equation for the fictitious ground
conductor
 is
    
Vd  Vd'  zadIa  zbdIb  zcd Ic  zddId
which can be re-written as
      
 Vd'  zadIa  zbdIb  zcd Ic  zdd(Ia  Ib  Ic )
Combining terms, we get
   
 Vd'  (zad  zdd)Ia  (zbd  zdd)Ib  (zcd  zdd)Ic
Following a similar procedure, the voltage
equation
 for phase a can be shown to be 
Va  Va'  (zaa  zad)Ia  (zab  zad)Ib
 (zac  zad)Ic
Subtracting the the voltage equation of the ground

conductor from the equation of phase a, we get
   
Va  (Va'  Vd' )  (zaa  2zad  zdd)Ia

 (zab  zad  zbd  zdd)Ib

 (zac  zad  zcd  zdd)Ic
 
Since Va'  Vd'  0 , we get
 
Va  (zaa  2zad  zdd)Ia 
 (zab  zad  zbd  zdd)Ib

 (zac  zad  zcd  zdd)Ic
or    
Va  zaaIa  zabIb  zacIc
12
We can also subtract the voltage equation of the
ground conductor from the equations of phases b
and c. The resulting matrix equation is
 
Va za a za b za c I
 a
Vb = za b zbb zbc Ib V/unit length
 
Vc za c zbc zcc Ic
Self Impedances:
za a  za a  2za d  zdd /unit length
zbb  zbb  2zbd  zdd /unit length
zcc  zcc  2zcd  zdd /unit length

Mutual Impedances:
za b  za b  za d  zbd  zdd /unit length
zbc  zbc  zbd  zcd  zdd /unit length
za c  za c  za d  zcd  zdd /unit length
Primitive Impedances:
2s
zx x  rx  jk(ln  1) /unit length
Dsx x=a,b,c,d
2s
zx y  jk(ln  1) /unit length
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd

13
Assumptions:
1. Identical phase conductors
Ds  Dsa  Dsb  Dsc

2. Distances of the overhead conductors to the
fictitious ground conductor are the same
De  Dad  Dbd  Dcd
We get
D
za a  zbb  zcc  (ra  rd )  jk ln e
Ds
De
zx y  rd  jk ln /unit length
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca
Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the

69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0
hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at
25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume an earth
resistivity of 100 -meter.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC 10’ 10’
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz a b c
De
za a  zbb  zcc  (ra  rd )  jk ln
Ds
 (0.278  0.095)  j0.121 ln 0.01668
2790
 0.373  j1.459 /mile

Za a  14.93  j58.38 

14
za b  zbc  0.095  j0.121 ln 2790
10
 0.095  j0.683 /mile
Za b  3.81  j27.33 
za c  0.095  j0.121 ln 2790

20
Za c  3.81  j23.97 
We get
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j23.97

Zabc= 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 
3.81  j23.97 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38

Line Transposition
Line transposition is used to make the mutual
impedances identical.

Ia
 Phase c
Pos.1
Ib
 Phase a
Pos.2
Ic
Phase b
Pos.3
s1 s2 s3
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Note: Each phase conductor is made to occupy

all possible positions.

15
Voltage equation for Section 1
 
Va Z111 Z121 Z131 I
 a
Vb = Z211 Z221 Z231 Ib volts
 
Vc Z311 Z321 Z331 Ic

 
Vc Z112 Z122 Z132 I
 c
Va = Z212 Z222 Z232 I volts
 a
Vb Z312 Z322 Z332 Ib


 
Vb Z113 Z123 Z133 Ib
 
Vc = Z213 Z223 Z233 I volts
 c
Va Z313 Z323 Z333 Ia
The total voltage drop for phase a

   
Va  Z111Ia  Z121Ib  Z131Ic
  
 Z212 Ic  Z222 Ia  Z232 Ib
  
 Z313 Ib  Z323 Ic  Z333 Ia

16
 
Va  (Z111  Z222  Z333 )Ia 
 (Z121  Z232  Z313 )Ib

 (Z131  Z212  Z323 )Ic
By a similar procedure, we get for phases b and c
 
Vb  (Z211  Z322  Z133 )Ia 
 (Z221  Z332  Z113 )Ib

 (Z231  Z312  Z123 )Ic
 
Vc  (Z311  Z122  Z233 )Ia 
 (Z321  Z132  Z213 )Ib

 (Z331  Z112  Z223 )Ic
If the line is not transposed and we only have

Section 1, the equation of the line will be
 
Va Z11 Z12 Z13 I
 a
Vb = Z21 Z22 Z23 Ib Volts
 
Vc Z31 Z32 Z33 Ic
where
De
Z11  Z22  Z33  (ra  rd )s  jks ln 
Ds
De
Zx y  rds  jks ln 
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca
S = length of the line

17
Define f1, f2 and f3 as as the ratios of s1, s2 and s3
to the total length s, respectively. We get
 
Va  (f1Z11  f2Z22  f3Z33)Ia 
 (f1Z12  f2Z23  f3Z31)Ib

 (f1Z13  f2Z21  f3Z32)Ic
 
Vb  (f1Z21  f2Z32  f3Z13)Ia 
 (f1Z22  f2Z33  f3Z11)Ib

 (f1Z23  f2Z31  f3Z12)Ic
 
Vc  (f1Z31  f2Z12  f3Z23)Ia 
 (f1Z32  f2Z13  f3Z21)Ib

 (f1Z33  f2Z11  f3Z22)Ic
Define:
Zk1  f1Z12  f2Z23  f3Z13

Zk2  f1Z13  f2Z12  f3Z23
Zk3  f1Z23  f2Z13  f3Z12
Zs  Z11  Z22  Z33
Substitution gives
 
Va Zs Zk1 Zk 2 I
 a
Vb = Zk1 Zs Zk 3 Ib Volts
 
Vc Zk 2 Zk 3 Zs Ic

18
It can be shown that
De
Zs  (ra  rd )s  jks ln
Ds
 D D D 
Zk1  rds  jks  f1ln e  f2 ln e  f3 ln e 
 D12 D23 D31 
 D D D 
 D31 D12 D23 
 D D D 
 D23 D31 D12 


69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0
hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at
25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume s1=8
miles, s2=12 miles and s3=20 miles.
10’ 10’
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC
a b c
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz
Section 1
Assuming no transposition, we get
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j23.97
Zabc= 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 
3.81  j23.97 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38

19
Solving for the mutual impedances, we get
Zk1  f1Z12  f2Z23  f3Z13
 0.2(3.81  j27.33)  0.3(3.81  j27.33)
 0.5(3.81  j23.97)
 3.81  j25.65 
Similarly, we get
Zk2  f1Z13  f2Z12  f3Z23  3.81  j26.66 
Zk3  f1Z23  f2Z13  f3Z12  3.81  j26.32 

The impedance matrix of the transposed line is
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j25.65 3.81  j26.66

Zabc= 3.81  j25.65 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j26.32 
3.81  j26.66 3.81  j26.32 14.93  j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the

untransposed line is
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j23.97

Zabc= 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 
3.81  j23.97 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38

20
Example: For the same line assume the
following transposition cycle:
s1=16 miles s2=24 miles s3=0
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j25.99

Zabc= 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j25.31 
3.81  j25.99 3.81  j25.31 14.93  j58.38
Note: Even an incomplete transposition has a

significant effect in reducing the unbalance in the
mutual impedances.

Completely Transposed Line

If s1=s2=s3, the line is completely transposed. We
get  
Va Zs Zm Zm I
 a
Vb = Zm Zs Zm Ib Volts
 
Vc Zm Zm Zs Ic
where
De
Zs  (ra  rd )s  jks ln 
Ds
De
Zm  13 (Z12  Z23  Z13)  rds  jks ln 
Dm
Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively

21
Example: For the same line assume a complete
transposition cycle.
10’ 10’
The GMD is
a b c
Dm  3 10(10)(20)  12.6 feet
We get the average of the mutual impedances.
Zm  3.81  j26.21 
The impedance of the transposed line is
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j26.21 3.81  j26.21

Zabc= 3.81  j26.21 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j26.21 
3.81  j26.21 3.81  j26.21 14.93  j58.38

Phase- to Sequence-Impedances
Consider a transmission line that is described by
the following voltage equation:
 
Va Za a Za b Za c I
 a
Vb = Za b Zbb Zbc Ib volts
 
Vc Za c Zbc Zcc Ic
or  
Va bc  Za bcIa bc
From symmetrical components, we have
   
Va bc  AV012 and Ia bc  A I012

22
Substitution gives
 
AV012  Za bcA I012
or  1

V012  A Za bcA I012
which implies that
Z012  A 1ZabcA
Performing the multiplication, we get
Z0 Zs0  2Zm0 Zs2  Zm2 Zs1  Zm1
Z1 = Zs1  Zm1 Zs0  Zm0 Zs2  2Zm2
Z2 Zs2  Zm2 Zs1  2Zm1 Zs0  Zm0
Note: Z012 is not symmetric.

Zs0  1
3
(Za a  Zbb  Zcc )
Zs1  1
3
(Zaa  aZbb  a2Zcc )
Zs2  1
3
(Zaa  a2Zbb  aZcc )
Zm0  1
3
(Za b  Zbc  Zca )
Zm1  1
3
(a2Zab  Zbc  aZca )
Zm2  1
3
(aZab  Zbc  a2Zca )

23
If the line is completely transposed,
Zs0  Zs Zm0  Zm
Zs1  Zs2  0 Zm1  Zm2  0
The sequence impedance matrix reduces to
Z0 Zs  2Zm 0 0
Z1 = 0 Zs  Zm 0
Z2 0 0 Zs  Zm
Note: The sequence impedances are completely

decoupled.

For a completely transposed line, the equation in

the sequence domain is
 
Va0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
 
Va1 = 0 Z1 0 I
 a1
Va2 0 0 Z2 Ia2
where
Dm
Z1  Z2  ras  jks ln 
Ds
3
De
Z0  ras  3rds  jks ln 2

DsDm

24
Example: For the same line and assuming a
complete transposition cycle, find the sequence
impedances of the line.
10’ 10’
In the previous example, a b c

we got
Zs  14.93  j58.38 
Zm  3.81  j26.21 
The sequence impedances are
Z0  Zs  2Zm  22.55  j110.80 

Z1  Z2  Zs  Zm  11.12  j32.17 

Completely Transposed Line

For a three-phase transmission line that is
completely transposed:
1. The sequence impedances are completely

decoupled; that is
   
Va0  Z0 Ia0 V  Z1Ia1
  a1
Va2  Z2 Ia2
2. The application of balanced three-phase
voltages at the sending end results in
balanced three-phase line currents; that is
only positive-sequence components exist.

25
Incomplete Transposition
The resulting circuit unbalance due to incomplete
transposition is measured in terms of the zero-
and negative-sequence line currents that arise
when positive-sequence voltages are applied at
the sending end.
For a partially-transposed transmission line,
 
Va zs zk1 zk 2 I
 a
Vb = zk1 zs zk 3 Ib V/unit length
 
Vc zk 2 zk3 zs Ic
or  
Va bc  za bcIa bc

where
De
zs  (ra  rd )  jk ln
Ds
 D D D 
zk1  rd  jk  f1ln e  f2 ln e  f3 ln e 
 D12 D23 D31 
 D D D 
zk 2  rd  jk  f1ln e  f2 ln e  f3 ln e 
 D31 D12 D23 
 D D D 
zk 3  rd  jk  f1ln e  f2 ln e  f3 ln e 
 D23 D31 D12 

26
Transform the phase impedances into sequence
impedances.
z012  A 1zabcA
which gives
z0 zs  2zm0  zm2  zm1
z1 =  zm1 zs  zm0 2zm2
z2  zm2 2zm1 zs  zm0
where
zm0  1
3
(zk1  zk 2  zk 3 )
zm1  1
3
(a2zk1  azk2  zk3 )
zm2  1
3
(azk1  a2zk2  zk3 )

The elements of z012 can be shown to be

z00  zs  23 (zk1  zk2  zk 3 )
z01   13 (azk1  a2zk2  zk3 )
z02   13 (a2zk1  azk2  zk3 )
z10  z02
z11  zs  13 (zk1  zk 2  zk 3 )
z12  2z01
z20  z01
z21  2z02
z22  z11

27
Assume that balanced voltages are applied at the
sending end;
 that is 
Va0  0 and Va2  0
We can re-write the voltage equation
 
Va0 z00 z01 z02 Ia0
 
Va1 = z10 z11 z12 I
 a1
Va2 z20 z21 z22 Ia2
into   
0  z00Ia0  z01Ia1  z02Ia2
   
Va1  z10Ia0  z11Ia1  z12Ia2
  
0  z20Ia0  z21Ia1  z22Ia2

The unbalanced
 factor are defined as:
I I
m0  a0 and m2  a2
Ia1 Ia1
z02z21  z01z22
m0 
z00z22  z20z02
z20z01  z00z21
m2 
z00z22  z20z02
Note: For the untransposed 40-mile line,
m0  1.05472.68o %
m2  6.624139.14o %

28
Lines with Overhead Ground Wire
Ia za a
a
 a’
Ib zb b za b zca
b
 b’
+ Ic zcc zb c
c
 c’
Va + I zww za d
- Vb + w w w’
-
Vc + zb d All wires
- Vw zcd grounded
- here

REF
Vd  0
d’
d 
Id zd d
1 unit length

The primitive voltage equation is

  
Va  Va' za a za b za c za w za d I
  a
Vb  Vb' zba zbb zbc zbw zbd Ib
   V/unit
Vc  Vc' = zca zcb zcc zcw zcd I
 c length
0  Vw' zwa zwb zwc zww zwd Iw
 
0  Vd' zda zdb zdc zdw zdd Id
From KCL, we get

    
Ia  Ib  Ic  Iw  Id  0
or     
Id  (Ia  Ib  Ic  Iw )

29
The last equation may be written as
    
 Vd'  zdaIa  zdbIb  zdcIc  zdwIw
   
 zdd(Ia  Ib  Ic  Iw )
or   
 Vd'  (zda  zdd)Ia  (zdb  zdd)Ib
 
 (zdc  zdd)Ic  (zdw  zdd)Iw
Following the same procedure, the equation for
phase a can be expressed as
   
Va  Va'  (zaa  zad)Ia  (zab  zad)Ib
 
 (zac  zad)Ic  (zaw  zad)Iw

Subtracting the last equation from the first, we get

   
Va  (Va'  Vd' )  (zaa  zad  zda  zdd)Ia

 (zab  zad  zdb  zdd)Ib

 (zac  zad  zdc  zdd)Ic

 (zaw  zad  zdw  zdd)Iw
 
Since Va'  Vd'  0, the equation can be simplified
to     
Va  zaaIa  zabIb  zacIc  zawIw
Note: The same procedure can be applied to the
equations describing phases b and c, and the
overhead ground wire w.

30
We get
 
Va za a za b za c za w I
 a
Vb zba zbb zbc zbw Ib
 = 
Vc zca zcb zcc zcw I
 c
Vw zwa zwb zwc zww Iw

where Vw  0 and
De
zx x  (rx  rd )  jk ln x=a,b,c,w
Dsx
De
zx y  rd  jk ln xy=ab,ac,aw,
Dx y bc,bw,cw

Kron’s Reduction
Consider the matrix equation
V1 Z1 Z2 I1
=
0 Z3 Z4 I2
where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are also matrices. Suppose

we want to eliminate the current vector I2.
Expanding, we get
V1  Z1I1  Z2I2 (1)
0  Z3I1  Z4I2 (2)

31
From eq. 2, we get
1
I2  Z4 Z3I1
which is substituted in eq. 1 to get
1
V1  Z1I1  Z2 (Z4 Z3I1 )
or
1
V1  (Z1  Z2Z4 Z3 )I1
Go back to the voltage equation of the line.
 
Va za a za b za c za w I
 a
Vb zba zbb zbc zbw Ib
 = 
Vc zca zcb zcc zcw I
c
0 zwa zwb zwc zww Iw


We wish to eliminate Iw , where
za a za b za c za w
T
Z1 = zba zbb zbc Z2 = zbw = Z3
zca zcb zcc zcw
Z4  zww
We get
za wzwa za wzwb za wzwc
za a  za b  za c 
zww zww zww
z z z z z z
z a b c = zba  bw wa
zww
zbb  bw wb
zww
zbc  bw wc
zww
z z z z z z
zca  cw wa zcb  cw wb zcc  cw wc
zww zww zww

32
69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are the
same as in the previous examples. The overhead
ground wires have the following characteristics:
rw=4.0 /mile @ 25oC w
Dsw=0.001 ft @ 60 Hz
For the ground wire, we get 15’
D
zww  (rw  rd )  jk ln e 10’ 10’
Dsw a b c
 (4.0  0.095)  j0.121 ln 2790
0.001
 4.095  j1.8 /mile

Zww  163.8  j72 

De
za w  zcw  rd  jk ln
Da w
 0.095  j0.121 ln 18.03
2790
/mile
Za w  Zcw  3.81  j24.47 
zbw  0.095  j0.121 ln 2790
15 /mile
Zbw  3.81  j25.36 
From a previous example, we got
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j23.97

Z1= 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 
3.81  j23.97 3.81  j27.33 14.93  j58.38

33
Using the ground wire impedances, we also get
3.81  j24.47
T
Z2 = 3.81  j25.36 = Z3
3.81  j24.47 Z4  163.8  j72 
Performing the Kron reduction, we get
17.5  j56.11 6.48  j25.0 6.38  j21.7

Zabc = 6.48  j25.0 17.71  j55.97 6.48  j25.0 
6.38  j21.7 6.48  j25.0 17.5  j56.1
Note: The self impedances are no longer equal.

Current Division
How much current is flowing in the overhead
ground wire? Under zero-sequence condition,
   
Ia  Ib  Ic  Ia0
The primitive voltage equation reduces to
  
Va  Va' za a za b za c za w za d Ia0
  
Vb  Vb' zba zbb zbc zbw zbd Ia0
   V/unit
Vc  Vc' = zca zcb zcc zcw zcd Ia0
  length
0  Vw' zwa zwb zwc zww zwd Iw
 
0  Vd' zda zdb zdc zdw zdd Id

34
From KCL, we get
  
Id  Iw  3Ia0
The last equation may be written as
   
 Vd'  (zda  zdb  zdc)Ia0  zdwIw  zddId
Similarly, for the overhead ground wire
   
 Vw'  (zwa  zwb  zwc )Ia0  zww Iw  zwd Id
Subtracting the two equations, we get

0  [(zwa  zwb  zwc )  (zda  zdb  zdc)]Ia0
 
 (zww  zdw)Iw  (zwd  zdd)Id

  
Since Id  (3Ia0  Iw ) , we get

0  [(zwa  zwb  zwc )  (zda  zdb  zdc)]Ia0
  
 (zww  zdw)Iw  (zwd  zdd)(3Ia0  Iw )

Combine
 common terms and get the ratio of Iw to
3Ia0 . We get

 Iw (zwa  zwb  zwc )  (zda  zdb  zdc )  3(zdd  zwd )
 
3Ia0 3(zww  zwd  zdw  zdd)
Recall that
zwx  zwx  zwd  zdx  zdd x=a,b,c,w

35
Substitution gives

 Iw zwa  zwb  zwc
(a)  
3Ia0 3zww
  
From Id  Iw  3Ia0 , we get
 
 Id I
  1  w
3Ia0 3Ia0
Substitute eq. (a) to get

 Id z  zwb  zwc
(b)   1  wa
3Ia0 3zww

Take the ratio of eq. (a) to eq. (b). We get

Iw zwa  zwb  zwc
 
Id 3zww  (zwa  zwb  zwc )
Define:
zag  13 (zwa  zwb  zwc )
Dag  3 DwaDwbDwc
We get 
Iw za g
 
Id zww  za g
where
De
zag  rd  jk ln
Dag
36
Line Transposition
Consider a transmission line with one overhead
ground wire. Assume that the line is transposed.
Ground wire

Ia
 Phase c
Pos. 
Ib
Phase a
Pos.  
Ic
Phase b
Pos. 
s1 s2 s3
The impedance matrix for each section can be
found using Kron’s reduction.

For Sections 1 and 2, we get

z z z z z wzw
z   w w z   w w z  
zww zww zww
zwzw z z zwzw
z f 1 = z   z   w w z  
z ww z ww zww
z wzw z wzw z wzw
z   z   z  
zww zww zww
zwzw zwzw zwzw
z   z   z  
zww zww zww
z wzw z wzw z wzw
zf 2 = z   z   z  
zww zww zww
z wzw z wzw z z
z   z   z   w w
zww zww zww
37
Similarly, for Sections 3, we get
z wzw z wzw z wzw
z   z   z  
zww zww zww
z wzw z z z wzw
z f 3 = z  z   w w z  
zww zww zww
zwzw zwzw zwzw
z   z   z  
zww zww zww
 
Va I
 a
Vb  s(f1Zf1  f2Zf 2  f3Zf 3 ) Ib
 
Vc Ic
If the line is completely transposed, the impedance

matrix becomes symmetric.
z s zm z m
z a b c = zm z s z m /unit length
z m zm z s
where the diagonal elements are
zs  13 (z  z  z )

z z z z z z 
 13  w w  w w  w w 
 zww zww zww 

38
The off-diagonal elements are
zm  13 (z  z  z )
z z z z z z 
 13  w w  w w  w w 
 zww zww zww 
The sequence impedance matrix will be diagonal.
z00 0 0
z012 = 0 z11 0 /unit length
0 0 z22
where
z00  zs  2zm and z11  z22  zs  zm

Solving for the positive-sequence impedance,

z11  13 (z  z  z )  13 (z  z  z )
z z z z z z 
 13  w w  w w  w w 
 zww zww zww 
z z z z z z 
 13  w w  w w  w w 
 zww zww zww 
Simplifying the first two terms, we get
D
1
3
(z  z  z  )  (ra  rd )  jk ln e
Ds
De
1
3
(z  z  z  )  rd  jk ln
Dm
39
The last two terms can be shown to be equal to
(k)2 M
 1
3
z ww
where
De 2 D D
M  (ln )  (ln e )2  (ln e )2
Dw Dw Dw
D D D D
 (ln e )(ln e )  (ln e )(ln e )
Dw Dw Dw Dw
De D
 (ln )(ln e )
Dw Dw

Likewise,
De
zww  (rw  rd )  jk ln
Dww
For most transmission line configurations,
De  Dw , Dw or Dw

This means M  0. Under this assumption,
Dm
z11  ra  jk ln /unit length
Ds
Note: This is the formula for the positive sequence
impedance of a transposed line without ground
wires.

40
The zero-sequence impedance can be shown to be
2
z0(m)
z00  z0(a)  /unit length
z0(g)
where
3
De
z0(a)  (ra  3rd )  jk ln 2
DsDm
De
z0(m)  3rd  j3k ln
3 DwDwDw
z0(g)  3zww

Example: For the previous example, assume that

the line is completely transposed. Find the phase
and sequence impedances.
From the previous example, we got
17.5  j56.11 6.48  j25.0 6.38  j21.7

Zf1 = 6.48  j25.0 17.71  j55.97 6.48  j25.0 
6.38  j21.7 6.48  j25.0 17.5  j56.1
Assuming a complete transposition cycle, we get

Zs  13 [2(17.5  j56.11)  17.71  j55.97]
 17.57  j56.06 

41
Zm  13 [2(6.48  j25.0)  6.38  j21.7]
 6.45  j23.9 
17.57  j56.06 6.45  j23.9 6.45  j23.9
Zabc= 6.45  j23.9 17.57  j56.06 6.45  j23.9 
6.45  j23.9 6.45  j23.9 17.57  j56.06
For comparison, Zabc below is for a completely
transposed line without the overhead ground wire.
14.93  j58.38 3.81  j26.21 3.81  j26.21

Zabc= 3.81  j26.21 14.93  j58.38 3.81  j26.21 
3.81  j26.21 3.81  j26.21 14.93  j58.38
The sequence impedances are
Z00  Zs  2Zm
 30.47  j103.86 
Z11  Z22  Zs  Zm
 11.12  j32.17 
Note: When the effect of the ground wire was not
taken into account, we got
Z0  22.55  j110.8 
Z1  11.12  j32.17 

42
Steel Ground Wires
The overhead Grade E.B.B. 7 Strands
3/8 inch Diameter
ground wires are 10-3 15
Geometric Mean Radius (ft)

usually high- 13
10-5
strength steel or
Resistance (/mile)
10-7 11
some alloy of GMR
steel. This poses a 10-9 9
problem since the 10-11 7
resistance and 5
10-13
GMR of these Resistance
conductors vary 10-15 3
with current. 10-17 1
10-19
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Amperes per Cable
Example: For the previous example, assume that

the line is completely transposed. Find the phase
and sequence impedances. The overhead ground
wire is 3/8 inch E.B.B.
The zero-sequence impedance of the phase wire
3
De
z0(a)  (ra  3rd )  jk ln 2
DsDm
27903
 0.278  3(0.095)  j0.121 ln
(0.017)(12.6)2
 0.564  j2.77 /mile
or
Z0(a)  22.55  j110.8 

43
The zero-sequence impedance of the ground wire
De
z0(g)  3zww  3(rw  rd )  j3k ln
Dww
The resistance and GMR of the ground wire is a
function of the current. For 1A, 30A and 60A, we
get for E.B.B.
rw= 3.5 /mile at 1A
= 7.8 /mile at 30A
= 6.0 /mile at 60A
Dsw= 10-3 ft at 1A
= 5 x 10-12 ft at 30A
= 1.5 x 10-10 ft at 60A

For 1A, we get

2790
z0(g)  3(3.5  0.095)  j3(0.121) ln
103
 10.79  j5.4 /mile at 1A
or
Z0(g)  431.4  j216  at 1A
For 30A and 60A, we get
Z0(g)  947.4  j494  at 30A
Z0(g)  731.4  j410.8  at 60A
The GMD between the phase wires and the ground
wire is
Dag  3 (18.03)2 (15)  16.96 ft

44
The zero-sequence mutual impedance is
De
z0(m)  3rd  j3k ln
Dag
2790
 3(0.095)  j3(0.121) ln
16.96
 0.29  j1.86 /mile
Z0(m)  11.43  j74.28 
The zero-sequence impedance is found from

2
Z0(m)
Z00  Z0(a) 
Z0(g)

Substitution gives
Z00  31.0  j102.65  at 1A
Z00  18.86  j107.06  at 30A
Z00  27.21  j105.89  at 60A
Note: For comparison, we got the following zero-
sequence impedances from previous examples:
No overhead ground wire:
Z00  22.55  j110.8 

Non-ferrous overhead ground wire:
Z00  30.47  j103.86 

45
Parallel Multicircuit Lines
Consider the double-circuit transmission line
shown. One circuit is designated abc and the
other a’b’c’. Each circuit may be untransposed or
partially transposed.

m Ia bc n
Za b c

Ia'b'c'
Za'b'c'
Let us determine the unbalance factors for this

transmission line configuration.

The voltage equation that describes the line is

 
Va Zaa Zab Zac Zaa' Zab' Zac' I
 a
Vb Zba Zbb Zbc Zba' Zbb' Zbc' Ib
 
Vc Z Zcb Zcc Zca' Zcb' Zcc' I
 = ca c
Va' Za'a Za'b Za'c Za'a' Za'b' Za'c' I
 a'
Vb' Zb'a Zb'b Zb'c Zb'a' Zb'b' Zb'c' Ib'
 
Vc' Zc ' a Zc'b Zc'c Zc'a' Zc'b' Zc'c' Ic'
Note: The effect of earth and any overhead
ground wire has already been incorporated in the
equation.

46
Using matrix notation, we get
 
Va b c Zaa Zaa' Ia b c
 = 
Va'b'c' Za'a Za'a' Ia'b'c'
The unbalance factors are expressed in terms of

the ratio of sequence currents. Thus, the above
equation must be inverted. Doing so, we get
 
I Ya a Ya a' Va b c
 abc = 
Ia'b'c' Ya'a Ya'a' Va'b'c'


1
Ya a  Za a  KL1 K t Yaa'  KL1
t
Ya'a  Ya a' Ya'a'  L1
where
1 1
K  Za a Za a' K t  Za'a Za a
1
L  Za'a'  Za'a Za a Za a'
From symmetrical components, we get
 
I A 0 I
 abc =  012
Ia'b'c' 0 A I0'1'2'

47
Performing the transformation, we get
 
I A 1Ya aA A 1Ya a'A V012
 012 = 
I0'1'2' A 1Ya'aA A 1Ya'a'A V0'1'2'
Assume that the voltages at both ends of the line
contain positive sequence components only. We
get
0 0

 Va1 1
V012 0 0 
 = = Va1
V0'1'2' 0 0

Va'1 1
0 0
 
Note that Va1  Va'1 since the lines are bused at
both
 ends. Substitution gives
Ia0 Y00 Y01 Y02 Y00' Y01' Y02' 0

I Y10 Y11 Y12 Y10' Y11' Y12' 1
a1
I Y Y21 Y22 Y20' Y21' Y22' 0 
a2 = 20 Va1
Ia'0 Y0'0 Y0'1 Y0'2 Y0'0' Y0'1' Y0'2' 0

I Y1'0 Y1'1 Y1'2 Y1'0' Y1'1' Y1'2' 1
a'1
Ia'2 Y2'0 Y2'1 Y2'2 Y2'0' Y2'1' Z2'2' 0
Solving for the sequence currents, we get
 
Ia0  (Y01  Y01' )(Va1 )  
  Ia2  (Y21  Y21' )(Va1 )
Ia1  (Y11  Y11' )(Va1 )
48
 
Ia'0  (Y0'1  Y0'1' )(Va1 )  
  Ia'2  (Y2'1  Y2'1' )(Va1 )
Ia'1  (Y1'1  Y1'1' )(Va1 )
Define the net through unbalance factors as
 
I  Ia'0
m0t  a0  per unit
Ia1  Ia'1
 
I  Ia'2
m2t  a2  per unit
Ia1  Ia'1
Define the net circulating current unbalance factors
 
as Ia0  Ia'0
m0c    per unit
Ia1  Ia'1
 
Ia2  Ia'2
m2c    per unit
Ia1  Ia'1
Solving for the unbalance factors, we get
m0t  (Y01  Y01'  Y0'1  Y0'1' ) / Y1
m2t  (Y21  Y21'  Y2'1  Y2'1' ) / Y1
m0c  (Y01  Y01'  Y0'1  Y0'1' ) / Y1
m2c  (Y21  Y21'  Y2'1  Y2'1' ) / Y1
where
Y1  Y11  Y11'  Y1'1  Y1'1'

49
Electric Field of a Long Conductor
Consider a long, isolated cylindrical conductor with
a uniform positive charge density q and located in
a homogeneous medium.
The flux density at a distance x from the center is
 q q
D âr Coul/m2 +
2x x
âr
The electric field intensity is

 D q
E  âr Volt/m
 2x

Transmission & Distribution Lines
Sequence Capacitance

50
Voltage Due to Charged Conductor
Consider two points P1 and P2 which are located at
distances D1 and D2 from the center of the
conductor.
D1 P1
The voltage drop from
P1 to P2 is P2
D2   D2
v12   D1
E  dx
q
D2
  D1 2x dx
q D
 ln 2 Volts
2 D1

Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line

The capacitance between two conductors is defined
as the charge on the conductors per unit of
potential difference between them.
Consider the two cylindrical conductors shown.
qa qb
Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.

qa D
va b  ln
2 ra

51
Due to charge qb, we also get the voltage drop vba.
qb D
vba  ln
2 rb
or q D q r
va b   b ln  b ln b
2 rb 2 D
Applying superposition, we get the total voltage
drop from charge qa to charge qb.
qa D q r
va b  ln  b ln b
2 ra 2 D
Since qa+qb=0, we get
qa D2
vab  ln Volts
2 rarb
In general, ra=rb. We get

qa D
va b  ln Volts
 r
The capacitance between conductors is
qa 
Ca b   Farad/meter
Va b D
ln
r
The capacitance to neutral is
2
Ca n  Cbn  2Ca b  Farad/meter
D
ln
r
52
Three-Phase Line
Consider a three-phase trans- qb
mission line with equilateral
spacing. Assume identical
phase conductors and neglect D D
the effect of ground. Assume
qa  qb  qc  0 qa D qc
The voltage drop from a to b is

1  D r D
vab  q ln  q ln  q ln
2  D 
a b c
r D

Likewise, the voltage drop from a to c is
1  D D r
vac  qa ln  qb ln  qc ln 
2  r D D
Adding the two equations, we get
1  D r
vab  vac  2q ln  (q  q ) ln
2  D 
a b c
r
Since qa=-(qb+qc), we get
3qa D
vab  vac  ln Volts
2 r

53
Phasor Diagram:   
  Vca Vcn Va b
Va b  Va n( 330o )
  
Va c  Va n( 3  30o ) Va n
  
Vab  Vac  3Van  
Vbn Va c
We get
qa D
van  ln 
2 r Vbc
The capacitance to neutral is
qa 2 Farad/meter,
Ca n  Cbn  Ccn  
va n D to neutral
ln
r
Capacitance of a Transposed Line

Consider a three-phase transmission line with
unsymmetrical spacing. Assume that the line is
completely transposed.
qa Phase c
Pos.1
qb Phase a
Pos.2
qc Phase b
Pos.3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s

54
For section 1, we get b
D12 D23
a D31 c
1  D12 r D 
v a b1  qa ln  qb ln  qc ln 23 
2  r D12 D31 
1  D31 D r 
vac1  qa ln  qb ln 23  qc ln 
2  r D12 D31 

For section 2, we get a
D12 D23
c D31 b
1  D23 r D31 
v ab2  q
 a ln  qb ln  qc ln 
2  r D23 D12 
1  D12 D r 
v a c2  qa ln  qb ln 31  qc ln 
2  r D23 D12 

55
For section 3, we get c
D12 D23
b D31 a
1  D31 r D 
v a b3  qa ln  qb ln  qc ln 12 
2  r D31 D23 
1  D23 D r 
v a c3  qa ln  qb ln 12  qc ln 
2  r D31 D23 

The average voltage from phase a to phase b

vab  13 (vab1  vab2  vab3 )
Substitution gives
1 D12D23D31 r3
vab  (qa ln  qb ln
6 r3 D12D23D31
D D D
 qc ln 12 23 31 )
D12D23D31
which simplifies to
1  Dm r 
va b  qa ln  qb ln 
2  r Dm 

56
Similarly, we get
1  Dm r 
va c  q
 a ln  qc ln 
2  r Dm 
Taking summation, we get
1  Dm r 
va b  va c  2qa ln  (qb  qc ) ln 
2  r Dm 
Since vab+vac=3van and qa=-(qb+qc), we get
3 D
3van  qa ln m Volts
2 r

or
1 D
van  qa ln m Volts
2 r
The capacitance of phase a to neutral is
qa 2 Farad/meter,
Ca n  
va n D to neutral
ln m
r
Since the line is completely transposed,
Ca n  Cbn  Ccn

57
Capacitive Reactance
1
xc 
2fC
2.862 D -meter,
 x 109 ln m
f r to neutral
1.779 D -mile, to
 x 106 ln m neutral
f r
Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide
xc by the total length of the line.

Equivalent Circuit
A lumped-parameter representation is used for
short and medium-length lines. For long lines, a
distributed-parameter model is used.
Short Line: Up to 80 kilometers (50 miles)
Z=R+jL
+
  +
Vs Is VR
- -
  
Vs  Z Is  VR

58
Medium-Length Line: From 80 km (50 mi) to
240 km (150 mi)
Z=R+jL
+   +
 I IR 
Vs s 1
2
YC  jC
1
2
1
2
YC VR
- -

  
Vs  ( 12 ZYc  1)VR  Z IR
  
Is  Yc ( 14 ZYc  1)VR  ( 12 ZYC  1)IR

Example: A single-circuit 60-Hz 3-phase line is

100 miles long. The phase conductors are Drake
with flat horizontal configuration and 23.8 feet
between conductors. Determine the positive-
sequence equivalent circuit of the line.
Drake: 795 MCM ACSR 26/7
ra=0.1284 /mi @50oC
GMR=0.0373 ft.
diameter=1.108 in.
Dm  3
2(23.8)3  30 ft
30
x1  0.121 ln  0.812 /mi
0.0373
59
Z1  0.1284  j0.812 /mi
Z1  12.84  j0.81.16 
1.779 D -mile, to
xC  x 106 ln m neutral
f r
1.779 30
 x 106 ln 1
60 24
(1.108)
 192,034 -mile, to neutral
XC  1,920.34 , to neutral
1
YC  j  j520.74 x 10-6 -1
XC

Mutual Capacitance
In capacitance calculations, the earth is assumed
as a perfectly conducting plane. The electric field
that results is the same if an image conductor is
used for every conductor above ground.
+qb
Dab +qc
Dac
Dan +qn
+qa
Haa
Hab Hac Han
-qa
-qn
-qc
-qb
60
The voltage drop from conductor a to ground is
va  v a a'
1
2
1 H H H
 (qa ln a a  qb ln a b  ...  qn ln a n
4 ra Da b Da n
ra D D
 qa ln  qb ln a b  ...  qn ln a n )
Ha a Ha b Ha n
Combining common terms, we get
1 H H H
va  (qa ln a a  qb ln a b  ...  qn ln a n )
2 ra Da b Da n

In general, for the kth overhead conductor

1 H H H
vk  (qa ln a k  qb ln bk  ...  qk ln k k
2 Da k Dbk rk
Hnk
 ...  qn ln )
Dnk
Using matrix notation, we get
va Pa a Pa b Pa c ... Pa n qa
vb Pba Pbb Pbc ... Pbn qb
=
…
…
…
vn Pna Pnb Pnc ... Pnn qn

61
where
1 H
Pk k  ln k k
2 rk
1 H
Pk j  ln k j
2 Dk j
Inversion of matrix P gives
 Ca a  Ca b  Ca c ...  Ca n
 Cba  Cbb  Cbc ...  Cbn
C =
…
 Cna  Cnb  Cnc ...  Cnn

Recall the definition of the admittance of a

capacitor.
Yc  jC
The bus admittance matrix is defined as
Ya a Ya b Ya c ... Ya n
Yba Ybb Ybc ... Ybn
Ybus =
…
Yna Ynb Ync ... Ynn

Ykk=sum of admittances connected to bus k
Ykj=negative of admittance connected from node
k to node j

62
For a purely capacitive system, we get
 jCa a  jCa b  jCa c ...  jCa n

 jCba  jCbb  jCbc ...  jCbn
Ybus =
…
 jCna  jCnb  jCnc ...  jCnn
Thus, we can conclude that for the C matrix
Ckk=sum of capacitances connected to node k
Ckj=negative of the capacitance connected from

node k to node j

The difference between the magnitude of a

diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal
elements is the capacitance to ground. For
example, the capacitance from a to ground is
Cag  Caa  Cab  Cac  ...  Can
Can
Equivalent n
Circuit
Cab b Cbn
Cbc
a Cac Ccn
c Cng
Cag Cbg
Ccg

63
Transposed Three-Phase Line
qa Phase c
Pos.1
qb Phase a
Pos.2
qc Phase b
Pos.3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s
The voltage equation for section 1 is
va Pa a Pa b Pa c qa
vb = Pba Pbb Pbc qb Volts
vc Pca Pcb Pcc qc

Using matrix inversion, we get the capacitance.

 Ca a  Ca b  Ca c
Cabc = P-1 =  Cba  Cbb  Cbc
 Cca  Ccb  Ccc
The equivalent circuit is shown below.
b
Cab
Cbc
a Cac
c
Cag Cbg
Ccg

64
Since the line is completely transposed, the mutual
and ground capacitances are averaged values.
Average Mutual Capacitance
Cm0  13 (Ca b  Cbc  Ca c) Farad/meter

Average Capacitance to Ground
Cg0  13 (Cag  Cbg  Ccg ) Farad/meter

or
Cg0  13 [(Ca a  Ca b  Ca c)  (Cbb  Ca b  Cbc)
 (Ccc - Ca c - Cbc)]
 13 (Caa  Cbb  Ccc )  23 (Cab  Cbc  Cac)

The average capacitance to ground can be

expressed as
Cg0  Cs0  2Cm0
where
Cs0  13 (Caa  Cbb  Ccc )
Cm0  13 (Ca b  Cbc  Ca c) b
Cm0
Cm0
The equivalent circuit Cm0
a
is shown. c
Cg0 Cg0
Cg0

65
Sequence Capacitance
Using matrix notation, we have
 
Iabc  YabcVabc
 
Iabc  jCabcVabc
   
From Vabc  AV012 and Ia bc  A I012, we get
 
A I012  jCabcAV012
or  1

I012  jA CabcAV012
Thus, we have
C012  A 1CabcA
If the line is completely transposed,
Cs0  Ca a  Cbb  Ccc

Cm0  Ca b  Cbc  Ca c
Substitution gives
(Cs0  2Cm0 ) 0 0
C012 = 0 (Cs0  Cm0 ) 0
0 0 (Cs0  Cm0 )
or
C0  Cs0  2Cm0
C1  C2  Cs0  Cm0

66
Example: Determine the phase and sequence
capacitances of the transmission line shown. The
phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose
radius is 0.0357 ft. The line is 50 miles long and is
14’ 14’
Calculate distances
a b c
Haa=Hbb=Hcc=80 ft
Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft 40’
Hac=84.8 ft
Find the P matrix
1 H
Pa a  Pbb  Pcc  ln a a
20 ra

For air,
1
0  x 10-9 Farad/meter
36
Substitution gives
80
Paa  18 x 109 ln
0.0357
 138.86 x 109 Meter/Farad
 86.29 x 106 Mile/Farad
Similarly, we get
1 H
Pa b  Pbc  ln a b
20 Da b

67
The P matrix can be shown to be
86.29 19.66 12.39

P= 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F
12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.
12.34  2.54  1.19

C =  2.54 12.75  2.54 x 10-9 F/mi
 1.19  2.54 12.34

For 50 miles, we get

6.17  1.27  0.60
C =  1.27 6.38  1.27 x 10-7 F
 0.60  1.27 6.17
The capacitances to ground are
Cag  Caa  Cab  Cac  0.43 F
Cbg  Cbb  Cab  Cbc  0.38 F
Ccg  Ccc  Cbc  Cac  0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,
Cg0  13 (Cag  Cbg  Ccg )  0.41 F

68
The self- and mutual capacitances are
Cs0  13 (Ca a  Cbb  Ccc )  0.62 F
Cm0  13 (Ca b  Cbc  Cca )  0.105 F
The sequence capacitances are b
Cm0
C0  Cs0  2Cm0 Cm0
a Cm0
 0.41 F c
Cg0 Cg0
C1  C2  Cs0  Cm0 Cg0
 0.725 F

Transposed Line with Ground Wires

Consider a three-phase transmission line with one
overhead ground wire. Assume that the line is
qw Ground wire
qa Phase c
Pos. 1
qb Phase a
Pos. 2
qc Phase b
Pos. 3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s

69
The voltage equation for section 1 is
va Pa a Pa b Pa c Pa w qa
vb Pba Pbb Pbc Pbw qb
=
vc Pca Pcb Pcc Pcw qc
vw Pwa Pwb Pwc Pww qw
where vw=0 and the elements of P are
1 H
Pk k  ln k k k=a,b,c,w
2 rk
1 H kj=ab,ac,aw,
Pk j  ln k j
2 Dk j bc,bw,cw

Using Kron’s reduction, we get

Pa wPwa Pa wPwb Pa wPwc
Pa a  Pa b  Pa c 
Pww Pww Pww
PbwPwa P P P P
P’ = Pba  Pbb  bw wb Pbc  bw wc
Pww Pww Pww
P P P P P P
Pca  cw wa Pcb  cw wb Pcc  cw wc
Pww Pww Pww
Since the P matrix is real, the elements of the P’
matrix are smaller compared to the P matrix.
Since the C matrix is the inverse of P’, the
resulting capacitances are bigger compared to the
case where there is no ground wire.

70
Example: Determine the phase and sequence
capacitances of the transmission line shown. The
phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose
radius is 0.0357 ft. The overhead ground wires
are 3/8 inch E.B.B. steel. The line is 50 miles long
and is completely transposed. w u
In a previous example, we 14’

got the P matrix without 15’
14’ 14’
the ground wires.
86.29 19.66 12.39 a b c
P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F 40’

12.39 19.66 86.29

With the ground wires, we get
86.29 19.66 12.39 Pa w Pa u

19.66 86.29 19.66 Pbw Pbu
P = 12.39 19.66 86.29 P Pcu
cw
Pwa Pwb Pwc Pww Pwu

Pua Pub Puc Puw Puu
where rw  ru  0.5( 38 )(12

1
)  0.016 ft
1 110
Pww  Puu  ln
20 0.016

71
It can be shown that the P matrix is
86.3 19.7 12.4 14.8 19.6

19.7 86.3 19.7 19.6 19.6
P=
14.8 x 10 Mi/F
6
12.4 19.7 86.3 19.6
14.8 19.6 19.6 99.1 23.1
19.6 19.6 14.8 23.1 99.1
The P matrix can be expressed as
P1 P2
P=
P3 P4

where
86.3 19.7 12.4
P1 = 19.7 86.3 19.7 x 106 mi/F
12.4 19.7 86.3
14.8 19.6
P2 = P3 = 19.6 19.6
T x 106 mi/F
19.6 14.8
99.1 23.1
P4 = x 106 mi/F
23.1 99.1

72
Using Kron’s reduction,
1
Pa bc  P1  P2P4 P3
or
81.30 14.15 7.69
Pabc = 14.15 80.02 14.15 x 106 mi/F
7.69 14.15 81.30
Inverting the P matrix, we get
12.75  2.11  0.84

Cabc =  2.11 13.24  2.11 x 10-9 F/mi
 0.84  2.11 12.75

For 50 miles, we get
0.64  0.11  0.04

Cabc =  0.11 0.66  0.11 x 10-6 F
 0.04  0.11 0.64
Capacitances to ground
Cag  Caa  Cab  Cac  0.49 F

Cbg  Cbb  Cab  Cbc  0.45 F
Ccg  Ccc  Cbc  Cac  0.49 F

73
Assuming a complete transposition cycle,
Cg0  13 (Cag  Cbg  Ccg )  0.48 F

Cs0  13 (Ca a  Cbb  Ccc )  0.65 F
Cm0  13 (Cab  Cbc  Cca )  0.084 F
The sequence capacitances are
C0  Cs0  2Cm0  0.48 F

C1  C2  Cs0  Cm0  0.73 F

Electrostatic Unbalance
  
In the system shown, assume Va n , Vbn and Vcn
are positive-sequence voltages. The line is not
transposed. 
a
Ia
a’
+ 
 Va n Ib Ca b
 b
Vcn - -
Vbn b’
+ +  Cbc C ca
c
Ic
c’
+
 + + +
Vn Va Vb Vc Ccg Cbg Cag
- - -
-

74
The charging
 current
 at no-load
 condition
Iabc  jCabcVabc  jBabcVabc
Transforming to sequence components, we get
  
I012  jA 1CabcAV012  jB012V012
From KVL, we get
     
Van  Va  Vn Vbn  Vb  Vn
  
Vcn  Vc  Vn
or 
 V 1
an 
Va bc = Vbn + 1 Vn

Vcn 1

Pre-multiply by A-1. We get

 
V
 n Note: Vn is a zero-sequence
V012 Va n
= voltage.
0 There is no negative-
sequence voltage.
 
From I012  jB012V012, we get the sequence
charging currents.
 
Ia0 B00 B01 B012 Vn
 
Ia1 = j B10 B11 B12 Va n

Ia2 B20 B21 B22 0

75
Expanding, we get
  
Ia0  jB00Vn  jB01Van
  
  
Case 1: Neutral Ungrounded

If the neutral is ungrounded, Ia0  0. Electrostatic
unbalance is defined in terms of the sequence
voltages. It can be shown that
 
V V C
d0   a0   n  00
Va1 Va n C01


C00  Cs0  2Cm0
C01  Cs2  Cm2
where
Cs0  13 (Caa  Cbb  Ccc )
Cs2  13 (Caa  a2Cbb  aCcc )
Cm0  13 (Cab  Cbc  Cca )
Cm2  13 (aCab  Cbc  a2Cca )
Substitution gives
Ca g  a2Cbg  aCcg
d0 
3Cg0
76
Case 2: Neutral Grounded

If the neutral is grounded, Vn  0. Electrostatic
unbalance is defined in terms of the sequence
currents. It can be shown that
 2
Ia0 Ca g  a Cbg  aCcg
d0   
Ia1 3(Cg0  3Cm0 )
Note: Electrostatic unbalance may be reduced by
1. addition of ground wires

2. increase spacing between wires
3. Phase conductor arrangement

Transformers
Sequence Impedance

77
Ideal Two-Winding Transformer
NH NX
+   +
 I IX 
VH H VX
_ _

VH N
Voltage Equation:   H
VX NX
The voltage drop from the polarity-marked
terminal to the non-polarity-marked terminal of
the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop
from the polarity-marked terminal to the non-
polarity-marked terminal of the X winding.
Ideal Two-Winding Transformer

NH NX
+   +
 I IX 
VH H VX
_ _
 
Current Equation: NHIH  NX IX
The current that enters the H winding through the
polarity-marked terminal is in phase with the
current that leaves the X winding through the
polarity-marked terminal.
Note: Balancing ampere-turns must be satisfied at
all times.

78
Ideal Autotransformer

 IH nS
VH nC   
IC IX VX
NH=nS+nC=number of turns of the H side

NX=nC=number of turns of the X side
From voltage division, we get

VH n  nC N
  S  H
VX nC NX

In order for ampere-turns to be balanced

 
nS IH  nC IC
But from KCL, we get
  
IC  IX - IH
Substitution gives
  
nS IH  nC (IX - IH )
which simplifies to
 
(nS  nC )IH  nC IX
 
or NHIH  NX IX

79
Transformer Polarity
H1 H2 H1 H2
Subtractive Additive
X1 X2 X2 X1
“Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and

below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and
below (winding voltage) shall have additive
polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall
have subtractive polarity.” (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-
1993)

Practical Transformer
1. The H and X coils have a small resistance.
2. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils.
3. There is resistance loss in the iron core.
4. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH  iX
+ +
vH eH eX vX
- NH NX -
iron
core

80
Equivalent Circuit

RH  jXH Ie x NH NX R X  jXX
+  + +  +
 IH R   IX 
VH c jXm EH EX VX
- - - -
H winding Ideal X winding
RH, XH=resistance and leakage reactance of H coil

RX, XX=resistance and leakage reactance of X coil
Rc, Xm=core resistance and magnetizing
reactance

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

RH  jXH NH N R X  jXX
X
+  + +  +
 IH   IX 
VH EH EX VX
- - - -
Referred to the H side, we get

R eq  jXeq NH
a
+   + NX
 I  1I 
VH H a X aVX R e q  R H  a2R X
- - Xeq  XH  a2XX

81
Three-Winding Transformer
NX
NH  +

+  IX VX
 IH _
VH +
_
 
NY IY VY
_
  
VH N VH N VX N
  H   H   X
VX NX VY NY VY NY
  
NHIH  NX IX  NY IY

Three-Winding Autotransformer
 +
 I
NY Y V
 IH _Y
VH NH  
NX IX V
X
  
VH N VH N VX N
  H   H   X
VX NX VY NY VY NY
  
NHIH  NX IX  NY IY

82
Equivalent Circuit
From 3 short-circuit tests, get
ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the
X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding
is open-circuited
ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding
is open-circuited
ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding
is open-circuited
Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances
must be referred to the same side.

ZX
ZH +
+

 ZY +
VX
VH 
- VY -
-
ZHX  ZH  ZX
ZXY  ZX  ZY
ZHY  ZH  ZY
or
ZH  1
2
(ZHX  ZHY  ZXY )
ZX  1
2
(ZHX  ZHY  ZXY )
ZY  1
2
(ZHX  ZHY  ZXY )

83
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating:
H: 30 MVA 140 kV
X: 30 MVA 48 kV Y:
10.5 MVA 4.8 kV
Short circuit tests yield the following impedances:
ZHX = 63.37  @ the H side
ZHY = 106.21  @ the H side
ZXY = 4.41  @ the X side
Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the
H side.
ZXY  (140
48
)2(4.41)  37.52 

With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
ZH  12 (63.37  106.21  37.52)  66.03 

ZX  12 (63.37  106.21  37.52)  2.66. 
ZY  12 (63.37  106.21  37.52)  40.18 
 2.66 
66.03  +
+

 + VX
VH 40.18  
- VY -
-

84
Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular displace-
ment of a three-phase transformer is the time
angle (expressed in degrees) between the line-to-
neutral voltage of the high-voltage terminal
marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral voltage of
the low-voltage terminal marked X1.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-

former with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o,
with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.

Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2
X2
X1
X1 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3 X3
- Connection Y- Connection
H2 X2 H2 X2
X1
X1 X3 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3
Y-Y Connection -Y Connection

85
Wye-Wye Connection
HV side LV side
H2 X2
N n
H1 H3 X1 X3

VH2N 
VX 2n
 
  VX1n VX3n
VH1N VH3N
The choice of phases A, B and C is arbitrary. Let

H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=a, X2=b, X3=c.
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
 
VX 2n Vbn  
Va n and VAN
are in phase.
   
VX1n VX3n Va n Vcn

86
Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a
and X3=b.
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
 
VX 2n Va n  
Va n lags VAN
by 120o.
   
VX1n VX3n Vcn Vbn

Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c

and X3=a.
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
 
VX 2n Vcn  
Va n lags VAN
by 240o.
   
VX1n VX3n Vbn Va n

87
Wye-Wye Connection
HV side LV side
H2 X2
N n
H1 H3 X1 X3

VH2N  
VX3n VX1n
  
VH1N VH3N VX 2n

 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
   
VX3n VX1n Vcn Va n  
Va n lags VAN
by 180o.
 
VX 2n Vbn
88
Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a
and X3=b.
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
   
VX3n VX1n Vbn Vcn  
Va n lags VAN
by 300o.
 
VX 2n Va n
Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c

and X3=a.
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
   
VX3n VX1n Va n Vbn  
Va n lags VAN
by 60o.
 
VX 2n Vcn
89
IEC Designation
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) uses the face of a clock in identifying the
phase shift. 0
IEC Designation for -
10 2
Dd0 Dd2 Dd4
Dd6 Dd6 Dd10
8 4
IEC Designation for Y-Y
Yy0 Yy6 6
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the

H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.

Phase and Line Voltages

Consider a set of balanced 3-phase line-to-neutral
voltages with asequence a-b-c. From 
 Vbn
Vab  Van  Vnb
we get    
Vab  Van  Vbn V an
   
Similarly, we get Vbc  Vbn  Vcn V
    cn
Vca  Vcn  Van Vb c
  
Va n lags Va b by 30o Vbn
  
Vbn lags Vb c by 30o Va n
   
Vcn lags Vca by 30o Va b  V
Vcn ca
90
Consider a set of balanced 3-phase line-to-neutral
voltages with asequence
 a-c-b. From

Vab  Van  Vnb Vcn
we get   
Vab  Van  Vbn 
Va n
Similarly, weget   
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn Vbn
  
Vca  Vcn  Van   
Va b Vcn Vca
 
Va n leads Va b by 30o 
  Va n
Vbn leads Vb c by 30o 
  Vbn
Vcn leads Vca by 30o 
Vb c
When the sequence is a-b-c, we define the line-to-

line voltages as Vab, Vbc and Vca. When the
sequence is a-c-b, we must define the line-to-line
voltages as Vac, Vcb and Vba. V cb
   
Va b Vcn Vca Vcn
 
Va n Va n
  
Va c  V
Vbn Vbn b a
  
Vb c Va n lags Va c by 30o
 
Vbn lags Vb a by 30o
 
Vcn lags Vcb by 30o

91
Y- and -Y Transformers
H2 H2
X2 X2
X1 X1
H1 H3 X3 X3
H1 H3
HV Y – LV 
H2 X2
H2 X2
X1
X1
X3
H1 H3
H1 H3
X3
HV  - LV Y
HV Wye – LV Delta
H1 X1
H2 X2
N
H3 X3

VH2N  
VX1X2 VX 2n
Sequence 
1-2-3 VX1n 
 VX 2X 3
  VX3X1
VH1N VH3N 
VX3n
92
 
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
  
VX 2n  Vbn
VX1X2 Va b 
  
VX1n   Va n lags VAN
 VX 2X 3 Va n Vb c by 30o

VX3X1  Vca 
VX3n Vcn
Let H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c,

X3=a.  
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
  
VX 2n  Vcn
VX1X2 Vb c 
  
VX1n 
V  Va n lags VAN
 VX 2X 3 bn Vca by 270o

VX3X1  Va b 
VX3n Va n
93
Let H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a,
X3=b.  
VH2N VBN
   
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
  
VX 2n  Va n
VX1X2 Vca 
 
VX1n    Va n lags VAN
 VX 2X 3 Vcn Va b by 150o
VX3X1 
 Vb c 
VX3n Vbn
HV Wye – LV Delta
H1 X1
H2 X2
N
H3 X3
 
VH3N VX3n 
Sequence VX 3X2
 
3-2-1 VX1X3 VX 2n
  
VH1N VH2N  VX2X1
VX1n
94
H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=c, X2=b, X3=a.
VH3N VAN
   
 VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
VX3n  
Va n 
VX 3X2  
 Va b
VX1X3
   Va n leads VAN
VX 2n Vca Vbn by 30o
 
 VX2X1 
VX1n Vb c
Vcn
Let H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=a, X2=c,

X3=b.
 
V H3N VAN
   
VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
 
VX3n  Vbn 
VX 3X2  Vb c
    
VX1X3 VX 2n Va b Vcn Va n leads VAN
  by 150o
 VX2X1  Vca
VX1n Va n
95
Let H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=b, X2=a,
X3=c.
 
V H3N VAN
   
VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
 
VX3n  Vcn 
VX 3X2  Vca  
   Va n lags VAN
VX1X3 VX 2n Vb c Va n by 90o
 
 VX2X1  Va b
VX1n Vbn
Phase Shift for Y- or -Y

C H3 X3 c A H3 X3 a
B H2 X2 b B H2 X2 b
A H1 X1 a C H1 X1 c
Van lags VAN by 30o Van lags VAN by 330o
C H3 X3 b A H3 X3 b
B H2 X2 a B H2 X2 c
A H1 X1 c C H1 X1 a
A H3 X3 c C H3 X3 a
B H2 X2 a B H2 X2 c
C H1 X1 b A H1 X1 b
96
IEC Designation
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) uses the face of a clock in identifying the
phase shift.
11 1
IEC Designation for Y-
Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 9 3

IEC Designation for -Y
Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11 7 5
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the

H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.

HV Delta– LV Wye
H3 X3
H2 X2
n
H1 X1
 
VH2N VX 2n
Sequence  
VH1H2 
1-2-3 VH2H3 VX n
1
  
VH1N V 
H3H1
VH3N VX3n
97
HV Delta– LV Wye
H3 X3
C c
H2 X2
B b
n
H1 X1
A a
 
VBN Vbn
    
VAB VBC Va n Va n lags VAN
by 30o
   
VAN VC A VC N Vcn
Positive–Sequence Voltages
Consider a Y- transformer with a 30o phase shift.
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C  a

VBN1  Vbn1
(A-B-C) Va b1  
  Va n1 lags VAN1
Va n1 Vbc1
 by 30o
  Vca1 
VAN1 VC N1
Vcn1
98
Negative–Sequence Voltages
Consider a Y- transformer with a 30o phase shift.
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C   a
VC N2 Vcn2  
 Va n2 leads VAN2
(A-C-B) Vcb2 
 by 30o
Va c2 Vbn2


  Vba2
VAN2 VBN2 Va n2
Positive–Sequence Currents
Consider a Y- transformer
 with a 30o phase shift.
B  H2
Iba1  b
X2
IB1 X1
 Ib1
 Icb1 
IA1  Ic1
A  H3 Ia c1 X3
 c
IC1 H1 Ia1
C a
 
 Icb1 Ib1
IB1 (A-B-C)  
 Ia1 lags IA1
  Ia1   by 30o
IA1 IC1 Iba1 Ia c1

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute
Ic1 EE 251 – Fault Studies
99
Negative–Sequence Currents
Consider a Y- transformer
 with a 30o phase shift.
B  H2
Iba2  b
X2
 Ib2
IB2 X1
 Icb2 
IA2  Ic2
A  H3 Iac2 X3
 c
IC2 H1 Ia2
C   a
 Ic2 Ia c2
IC2  
(A-C-B)  Ia2 leads IA2
  Ib2 by 30o
  Iba2 Icb2
IA2 IB2 
Ia2
Example: Consider a 100 MVA 230YG-20 kV

transformer. A single line-to-ground fault at the
230-kV side results in the following line currents:
  
IA  753 A IB  IC  0
Find the line currents in the 20-kV side. Use 100
MVA and 230 kV as bases in the HV side.

Ib B
b X2 H2 
 IB
Ia

a  X IC
Ic 1 C
c H1 H3
X3  A
IA
100
The Base Currents
Base MVA3 x 1000
Base I 
3 Base kVL
100,000
  251 A at the 230 kV side
3 (230)
100,000
  2,887 A at the 20 kV side
3 (20)
The Per-Unit Phase Fault Currents

IA  3.0 p.u.
 
IB  IC  0

The Per-Unit Sequence Fault Currents

   
IA0  3 (IA  IB  IC )  1.0 p.u.
1
   
IA1  13 (IA  a IB  a2 IC )  1.0 p.u.
   
IA2  13 (IA  a2 IB  a IC )  1.0 p.u.
The Sequence Fault Currents at the 20-kV side


Ia0  0
 
Ia1  IA1  30o  1.0  - 30o p.u.
 
Ia2  IA230o  1.030o p.u.

101
The Line Currents at the 20-kV side
   
Ia  Ia0  Ia1  Ia2  1.732 p.u.
   
Ib  Ia0  a2 Ia1  a Ia2  1.732 p.u.
   2

Ic  Ia0  a Ia1  a Ia2  0
The Line Currents in Amperes
  
Ia   Ib  5,000 A I 0
  c N  
Check ampere turns: NHIH  NX IX or H IH  IX
NX
230 / 3
(753)  5,000 (Check)
20

Three-Phase Transformer Core
3-Legged Core Type
Shell Type
Note: Only the X

4-Legged Core Type windings are shown.

102
Three-Legged Transformer Core
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
uses the minimum amount of core material. For
balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the
fluxes is zero.
Note: For positive- or

negative-sequence flux,
a b c
a  b  c  0

Zero Sequence Flux

The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On
the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the
4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase
transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
30
Note: The zero-sequence
flux leaks out of the core
and returns through the
0 0 0
transformer tank.
3-Legged Core Type

103
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a three-
phase transformer unit (core type or shell type),
the equivalent impedance is the same.
Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence
equivalent circuit is
Z1  R1  jX1
+   + Note: The negative-
 I I  sequence impedance is
VH H X VX equal to the positive-
- - sequence impedance.

Zero Sequence Impedance*

Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -
Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.

104
Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -
Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -


Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -
Z0  Z1
+
 +

VH VX
- -

105
XH XX
+
 +

VH Xm VX
- -
XH
+
 +

VH Xm VX
- -
*Three-phase unit with a 3-legged core.


XH
+
 +

VH XX Xm VX
- -
XH XX
+
 +

VH Xm VX
- -

106
XH XX
+
 +

VH Xm VX
- -
XH XX
+
 +

VH Xm VX
- -

Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase

transformer with the following nameplate rating:
25 MVA 69 -13.8 YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the
positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use
the transformer rating as bases.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence

Sequence impedance impedance
Z0=j0.07 Z0=j0.07
+ +
 +
 +


VH VX VH VX
- - - -

107
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45
MVA 138YG-69YG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1).
H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8%
H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0%
X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9%
Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent
circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage
ratings as bases.
At the chosen MVA base,
ZHX  0.148(100 / 150)  0.10 p.u.
ZHY  0.21(100 / 45)  0.47 p.u.
ZXY  0.369(100 / 45)  0.82 p.u.

We get
ZH  12 (0.10  0.47  0.82)  0.125 p.u.
ZX  12 (0.10  0.47  0.82)  0.225 p.u.
ZY  12 (0.10  0.47  0.82)  0.595 p.u.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence Network Network
ZX ZX
ZH + ZH +
+  + 
 ZY + VX  ZY + VX
VH  VH 
-
VY - -
VY -
- -

108
Generators
Sequence Impedance

Generator Sequence Impedances

Positive-Sequence Impedance:
Xd”=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance
Xd’=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance
Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance
Negative-Sequence Impedance:
X2  12 (Xd"Xq" ) for a salient-pole machine

X2  X d " for a cylindrical-rotor machine
Zero-Sequence Impedance:
0.15Xd "  X0  0.6Xd "

109
Negative Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the negative-
sequence reactance (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. Symmetrical
sinusoidal three-phase currents of negative phase
sequence are applied to the stator. Two or more
tests should be made with current values above
and below rated current, to permit interpolation.
The line-to-line voltages, line currents and electric
power input are measured and expressed in per-
unit.

Let E = average of applied line-to-line voltages, p.u.

I = average of line currents, p.u.
P = three phase electric power input, p.u.
E
Z2  =Negative Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
P
R 2  2 =Negative Sequence Resistance, p.u.
I
2 2
X2  Z2  R 2
=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u.
Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the
rotor and should be concluded promptly.

110
Zero Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the zero-
sequence reactance (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. A single-phase voltage
is applied between the line terminals and the
neutral point.
Measure the applied
voltage, current and V
electric power.
E A W
Field

Let E = applied voltage, in p.u. of base line-to-

neutral voltage
I = test current, p.u.
P = wattmeter reading, in p.u. single-phase
base volt-ampere
3E
Z0  =Zero Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
2
P
X0  Z0 1 
 EI 
=Zero Sequence Reactance, p.u.

111
The AC RMS component of the current following a
three-phase short circuit at no-load condition with
constant exciter voltage and neglecting the
armature resistance is given by
E  E E   t
I(t)      exp 
X ds  X d ' X ds   '
 d 
 E E   t
    exp 
X
 d " X '
d   "
 d 
where E = AC RMS voltage before the short circuit.

The AC RMS component of the short-circuit current

is composed of a constant term and two decaying
exponential terms where the third term decays
very much faster than the second term.
If the first term is subtracted and the remainder is

plotted on a semi-logarithmic paper versus time,
the curve would appear as a straight line after the
rapidly decaying term decreases to zero.
The rapidly decaying portion of the curve is the

subtransient portion, while the straight line is the
transient portion.

112
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the transient
and subtransient direct axis reactances (Method 1)
The direct-axis transient reactance is determined
from the current waves of a three-phase short
circuit suddenly applied to the machine operating
open-circuited at rated speed. For each test run,
oscillograms should be taken showing the short
circuit current in each phase.
The direct-axis transient reactance is equal to the
ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the value of the
armature current obtained by the extrapolation of
the envelope of the AC component of the armature
current wave, neglecting the rapid variation during
the first few cycles.
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the transient

and subtransient direct axis reactances (Method 1)
The direct-axis subtransient reactance is deter-
mined from the same three-phase suddenly applied
short circuit. For each phase, the values of the
difference between the ordinates of Curve B and
the transient component (Line C) are plotted as
Curve A to give the subtransient component of the
short-circuit current.
The sum of the initial subtransient component, the
initial transient component and the sustained
component for each phase gives the corresponding
value of I”.

113
Example: Calculation of transient and subtransient
reactances for a synchronous machine
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave
(1) Initial voltage 1.0
(2) Steady-state Current 1.4 1.4 1.4
(3) Initial Transient Current 8.3 9.1 8.6
(4) I’ = (2)+(3) 9.7 10.5 10.0 10.07
(5) Xd’ = (1)(4) 0.0993
(6) Init. Subtransient Current 3.8 5.6 4.4
(7) I” = (4)+(6) 13.5 16.1 14.4 14.67
(8) Xd” = (1)(7) 0.0682

14
12 +
10 +++ Curve B
Current in phase 1 (per unit)
+
8 ++
+ ++
++
6 + ++
Line C
++
5 ++
++
+ +
4 ++
+ +
+ + ++
3
+
2.0
+ Line A
1.5
+
+
1.0
+
0.8
0.6 +
+ Curve A
0.4 +
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time in half-cycles
114
Average Generator Reactances
Reactance Turbo Water-Wheel Synchronous
Generators Generators Motors
Xd 1.10 1.15 1.20
Xq 1.08 0.75 0.90
X d‘ 0.23 0.37 0.35
X q‘ 0.23 0.75 0.90
X d” 0.12 0.24 0.30
X q” 0.15 0.34 0.40
X2 0.12 0.24 0.35

Ungrounded Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-wye or
delta, no zero-sequence current can flow. The
sequence networks for the generator are shown
below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1
 + jX2 jX0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence

115
Grounded-Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-wye
generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1
 + jX2 jX0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0


If the generator neutral is grounded through an

impedance Zg, the zero-sequence impedance is
modified as shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1 jX0
 + jX2
Eg 3Zg
-
N1 N2 N0


116
Electric Utility (Power Grid)
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin’s Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can
be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with
a single impedance Zth
A A
Linear + Zth
Active Vth
Network -
B B
The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage

measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Z th is the
driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when
all sources are set equal to zero.

117
Utility Fault MVA
Electric Utilities conduct
Electric short circuit analysis at the
Utility Connection Point of their
Grid customers
IF
Fault Customers obtain the Fault
Data at the Connection Point
to represent the Utility Grid
for their power system
analysis
Customer
Facilities

Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility provides the Fault MVA and X/R ratio at
nominal system Voltage for the following types of fault:
• Three Phase Fault
Fault MVA3 X/R3

• Single Line-to-Ground Fault
Fault MVALG X/RLG
System Nominal Voltage in kV

118
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance

From Three-Phase Fault Analysis
I TPF 
Vf
S TPF  V f I TPF 
V 
f
2
Z1 Z1
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the
equivalent positive-
Z1 
kV
2
  sequence and
 Z 2 negative-sequence
Fault MVA3 impedances of the
utility
Zero Sequence Impedance

From Single Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis
I SLGF 
3V f
S SLGF  V f I SLGF 
 
3Vf
2
Z1  Z 2  Z0 2Z 1  Z 0
Z1  Z 2
2Z 1  Z 0 
 
3Vf
2
Resolve to real and imaginary

S SLGF components then solve for Zo

119
Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV

Fault MVA3 = 3500 MVA, X/R3 = 22
Fault MVALG = 3000 MVA, X/RLG = 20
The Base Power is 100 MVA


Base Power: 100 MVA
Base Voltage: 69 kV
Base Impedance: [69]2/100 = 47.61 ohms
Z1  Z 2 
kV  2

69
2
 1.3603 
Fault MVA3 3500
In Per Unit,
Z actual 1.3603
Z1  Z 2    0.0286 p.u.
Z base 47.61
or
100MVABASE
Z1  Z 2   0.0286 p.u.
3500MVAFAULT
120
Solving for the Resistance and Reactance,
[(1 + (X/R)2]   tan1 X / R

Z X X/R R  Z cos 
 
X  Z sin
R 1
R1  0.0286 costan 22  -1
+
0.0013+j0.028571
 0.0013 p.u.  R2 +
X 1  0.0286 sintan -1 22

V f 10
-
-
 0.028571 p.u.  X 2

For the Zero Sequence Impedance,
3000MVASLGF ( actual )
SLGFP .U .   30 p.u .
100MVABASE
69kV
VoltageP .U .   1.0 p.u .
69kV
2Z 1  Z 0 
 
3Vf
2

31.0 
2
 0.1
S SLGF 30

Re al2 Z 1  Z 0   0.1cos tan-1 20  0.004994 p.u.
Im ag2 Z 1  Z 0   0.1sintan -1
20  0.099875 p.u.
121
2 Z 1  Z 0  0.004994  j0.099875
Z 0  0.004994  j0.099875  20.0013  j0.028571
 0.003694  j0.042733 p.u.
+ + +
0.0013+j0.028571
+ 0.0013+j0.028571 0.003694 j0.042733
V f 10
-
- - -


Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., X/R1 = 22

Zero Seq. Impedance = 0.07 p.u., X/R0 = 22
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV
Base Power = 100 MVA

122
The equivalent sequence networks of the Electric
Utility Grid are:
+ + +
R1 +jX1
 + R2 +jX2 R0 +jX0
Eg
-
- - -
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits


123

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Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute

University of the Philippines Diliman

Prof. Rowaldo del Mundo

Power System Models

 Transmission & Distribution Lines

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Positive Sequence Impedance

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Geometric Mean Radius

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Note: *This results in a lower voltage gradient at

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

From a table of conductor D D

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

s = length of the conductor

Note: For air, m  0  4 x 10-7 Henry/meter

where Ds is the geometric mean radius of the

The lineis described

Subtracting the two equations, we get

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

rd  1.588 x 10-3 f /mile

 9.869 x 10-4 f /km

where f is the power frequency in Hz

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

The quantity De is a function of frequency and

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

The voltage equation describing the line is

Since all conductors are grounded at the remote

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Subtracting the the voltage equation of the ground

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Ds  Dsa  Dsb  Dsc

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the

 0.373  j1.459 /mile

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

za c  0.095  j0.121 ln 2790

14.93  j58.38 3.81  j27.33 3.81  j23.97

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Note: Each phase conductor is made to occupy

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Voltage equation for Section 2

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Voltage equation for Section 3

The total voltage drop for phase a

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

If the line is not transposed and we only have

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Zk1  f1Z12  f2Z23  f3Z13

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies

Zk2  f1Z13  f2Z12  f3Z23  3.81  j26.66 

Zk3  f1Z23  f2Z13  f3Z12  3.81  j26.32 

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies