Landfill gas and biogas are typical LCV fuels.

The application
Extension of Fuel Flexibility in the for these types of gases as a renewable energy source, instead of
Siemens Dry Low Emissions releasing or flaring to the atmosphere, offers environmental bene-
fits. The reduction in methane as a greenhouse gas is important
SGT-300-1S to Cover a Wobbe Index since this is approximately 21 times more harmful to the atmos-
phere than CO2. The combustion of these LCV fuels using the
Rangeofl5to49MJ/Sm^ SITL DLE combustion system produces significantly lower emis-
sions and reduces the usage of fossil fuels.
Kexin The LCV fuels typically have a lower WI, which is an indicator
of the interchangeability of fuel gases and is defined as the ratio of
e-mail: kexin.liu@siemens.com the lower heating value (LHV) to the square root of the specific
gravity (SG) of the fuel (WI = UW/y/SG). The WI is used for
Varkey Alexander the comparison of the energy release from gaseous fuels with dif-
ferent compositions; for example, if two fuels have identical WIs
Victoria Sanderson then the energy release will also be identical, given the same volu-
metric flow rate. This is used as the primary factor in the evalua-
Ghenadie Bulat tion of the gas fuel flexibility on a gas turbine.
The SGT-300-IS SITL DLE combustion system was extended
Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery Limited, to allow a weak wellhead gas to be used, followed by the use of
Lincoln, LN5 7FD, United Kingdom PLG, the latter with a WI of 30 MJ/Sm^. Significant operational
experience has been achieved with the SITL DLE system across
the product range, including more than 3 x 10^ operating hours on
The extension of gas fuel flexibility in the Siemens SGT-300 single the SGT-300-IS. Maturity in the technology has enabled a lead
shaft (SGT-300-1S) is reported. A successful development program site to operate with an extended variable fuel range with high reli-
has increased the capability of the Siemens Industrial Turbomachi- ability and meets customer's emission guarantee requirements.
nery, Lincoln (STTL) diy low emissions (DLE) burner configuration This experience provided the justification to investigate a further
to a fuel range covering a Wobbe index (Wl)from 15 to 49MJISm^. extension of the range of fuels for the SGT-300-IS.
The WI reported in this paper is at a 15 °C fuel temperature. The The development work has successfully targeted extending
standard SGT-300-1S SITL DLE combustion hardware allows for the range of fuels for the SGT-300-IS to a WI between 15 and
gas and liquid fuels within a specified range typically associated 49 MJ/Sm^. The high pressure air facility (HPAE) used to demon-
with natural gas and diesel, respectively. The range of the WI associ- strate the capability of the combustion system is linked to a plant
ated with natural gas is 37^9 MJ/Sm^. Eietd operation of the stand- capable of mixing the representative gases. Euels with a defined
ard production SGT-300-1S has confinned the reliable operation WI were tested at actual engine conditions in a single SITL DLE
with an extension to the fuels range to include processed landfill gas combustion system. The standard engine hardware was capable of
(PLG) from 30 to 49MJISm^. The further extension of the fuel range covering the range to 23 MJ/Sm^ and the additional extension to
for the SGT-300-1S SITL DLE combustion system was achieved 15MJ/Sm^ was achieved by small modifications to the standard
through high pressure testing of a single combustion system at bumer. These were related to the internal bumer fuel supply since
engine operating conditions and representative fuels. The variations the reduction in the WI results in an increase in fuel mass flow.
in the fuel heating value were achieved by blending natural gas with The modifications were required to maintain a target pressure loss
diluent CO2 and/or N2. Various diagnostics were used to assess the through the bumer and to maintain a consistent level of mixing.
performance of the combustion system, including the measurement This paper provides the background for the fuel extension de-
of combustion dynamics, temperature, fuel supply pressure, and the velopment for the SGT-300-IS by presenting field experience on
emissions of N0„ CO, and unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs). The the reliability of the system in transient loading with standard gas
results of the testing showed that the standard production burner fuel, extended gas fuel ranges, and liquid fuel. This is achieved
can operate for a fuel with a WI as low as 23 MJISm^, which corre- with the SITL DLE combustion system consistently providing
sponds to 35% CO2 (by volume) in the fuel. This range can be low emissions. The results of an extensive test campaign in the
extended to l5MJISm^ (54.5% CO2 in the fuel) with only minor HPAE are then presented to prove the capabilities of the SITL
modification to control losses through the burner and to maintain DLE combustion system to operate with a range of fuels with a
similar fuel injection characteristics. The SITL DLE combustion sys- Wlof 15to49MJ/Sml
tem is able to cover a WI range of 15 to 49MJISm^ in two configura-
tions. The results of testing showed a lowering in the WI, by diluting
with CO2 and/or N2, so that a benefit in the NO,, reduction is The SITL DLE Combustion System
observed. This decrease in the WI may lead to an increased require- The SITL DLE combustion technology is applied across the
ment of the fuel supply pressure. [DOÍ: 10.1115/1.4007730] range of small-scale industrial gas turbines from 4MW to 15MW
(SGT-100 to SGT-400). The operational experience on these DLE
Introduction engines has accumulated more than 20 x 10* hr. The combustion
system consists of three main sections: the pilot bumer, the main
In order to tackle the issues associated with fuel security and bumer, and the combustor; for details refer to Refs. [1-3]. The main
environment, fuel flexibility must be considered for power genera- bumer is a radial swirler with fuel injection in the vane passage.
tion. This presents a design challenge for industrial gas turbines to The swirler number is sufficiently high to create a vortex breakdown
ensure reliability with varying fuels across an operational range. reverse flow feature along the axis of the combustor [1,3]. This flow
In this paper, the extension to the standard gas fuel range is con- feature is called an intemal reverse flow zone or central recircula-
sidered, with lower calorific values (LCVs) than natural gas, and tion zone. In the DLE concept, this reverse flow zone remains
the fuels primarily consist of natural gas diluted with CO2 and/or attached to the pilot surface of the combustor, thereby establishing a
N2. firm aerodynamic base for flame stabilization. Due to the sudden
expansion of the combustor, an extemal reverse flow zone is estab-
'Corresponding author. lished. The flame is stabilized in the aerodynamically generated
Contributed by the Combustion and Fuels Committee for publication in the shear layers around the intemal and extemal reverse flow regions.
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received June 18,
2012; final manuscript received August 16, 2012; published online January 8, 2013. Euel is introduced in two stages with gas and liquid. Eirst, with
Editor; Dilip R. Ballal. the main injection, which has a high degree of premixing and.

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power FEBRUARY2013, Vol. 135 / 024502-1
Copyright © 2013 by ASME
hence, low NOx emissions and second, with the pilot, which is
steadily increased as the load demand decreases, in order to ensure
flame stability [1,3].

The SGT-300-1S Standard Engine Performance for WI

From30to49MJ/Sm^
A standard SGT-300-1S engine has been operating at the Uni-
versity of New Hampshire (UNH, USA) since 2006 and has tri-
fuel capability: diesel, natural gas, and PLG. This site is a com-
bined heat power plant with a 10 ppmv (at 15% O2) NO^ guaran-
tee at full load and 25 ppmv down to 49% load; for details refer to
Refs. [1,4].
The raw landfill gas is extracted from more than 300 wells and
compressed miles away from the power plant. The untreated land-
fill gas is further processed, i.e., the removal of the noncombustible
compounds, particularly the volatile organic compounds and silox-
anes. After processing, the landfill gas has 70 to 83% methane by
volume and the rest is balanced by N2, O2, and CO2. The corre-
sponding fuel heating value has a WI between 26 and 34MJ/Sm^.
In the power plant the cleaned landfill gas can be blended with nat-
ural gas to boost its WI value to above 30 MJ/Sm'' prior to combus-
tor entry. The 30MI/Sm'' limit is not the restriction of the
combustion system capability limit, as one can see that the standard
combustion system can operate for a WI as low as 23MI/Sm\ as
tested in the HPAF. This limit is because of the gas compression
limit in the power plant. Hence, either 100% cleaned landfill gas or
the blend with natural gas is used to power the gas turbine, depend-
ing on the landfill gas availability, its calorific value, and engine
power requirements. The WI of the gas is monitored by a gas Chro-
matograph just before entry into the gas turbine skid. 7:00 9:t)0 21:00 23.-00

An intelligent control algorithm has been commissioned in the

power plant [1] and the stable operation of the engine achieving Fig. 1 Standard SGT-300-1S engine continuous operation with
values below 9 ppmv NOx has been achieved at full load for a fuel trifuel flexibility at UNH, showing smooth and stable transient
supply varying between a Wobbe index of 29.7 and 49 MJ/Sm' [1]. operation with fuel change over
Figure 1 shows the standard engine continuous operation with
trifuel flexibility at this site: diesel, natural gas, and PLG on 21 Table 1 Fuel with different WIs and their compositions used in
Oct 2009 over a period of 16hr. The WI, NOx, combustion the rig testing
dynamic pressure, and corresponding engine load are shown. The
NOx emission guarantee has been achieved since the NOx values WI UKNG CO2
are below 10 ppmv at full power for both the natural gas and PLG (MJ/Sm^) (% VO].) (% vol.) (% vol.)
and are below 50 ppmv for liquid fuel. The amplitude of the com-
bustion dynamic pressure is well within the acceptable level for 45 100 0 0
gas turbine operation. Figure 1 also provides a snapshot of the 40 93.2 6.8 0
testing: during this period, the gas turbine experienced both slow 32 78 6 16
and fast transient responses from accepting and rejecting of the 30 77.3 22.7 0
load during changes in fuel composition. The results showed that 30 72.1 0 27.9
27 68.93 22.83 8.24
the transient operation is smooth and stable over the fuel change 25 67.9 32.1 0
over a range of gaseous fuels for a WI from 30 to 49 MJ/Sm^. 23 65 35 0

High Pressure Rig Testing on Standard Burner for WI

From23to49MJ/Sm^
The HPAF includes a mixing plant, which allows the blending
of various fuel components to achieve a WI with a target fuel
composition. The fuels tested had a range of WIs varying from 23
to 45 MJ/Sm"* with natural gas blended with CO2 and/or Ni; the
details of the fuel compositions are listed in Table I. Fuel supply
pressure limitations precluded testing below 23 MJ/Sm"\ The WI
was measured by a gas Chromatograph and the fuel temperature
was kept at a constant level.
Emissions recorded along with other information such as com-
bustion dynamics, fuel pressure, and burner and combustor metal
temperature enabled the combustor design to be evaluated. The
technique for the emissions measurement was described in Ref.
[2] and the equipment used is compliant with ISO-11042.
The predicted performance of the engine at various load and
ambient conditions was used to define the test condition parame-
ters such as air pressure, temperature, mass flow rate, and turbine
entry temperature (TET). An interesting consideration in the
engine performance when the WI is decreased for the same TET
is the increase in the power achieved due to the increased mass
flow of the fuel.
The impact of the WI on the emissions of NOx, CO, and the
main fuel supply pressure is shown in Fig. 2. The pilot split (the
fuel mass flow ratio through the pilot burner to the total fuel con-
sumed) was the same as the engine standard for a WI range
between 27 MJ/Sm"* and natural gas. The lower WI range of 23
and 25 MJ/Sm"^ required a higher pilot split to maintain the same
low level of combustion dynamics pressure amplitude (the root
mean square pressure pulsation). The NOx reduces as the WI
decreases over the load range and the gradient for the NO^ reduc-
tion, at a lower WI, is higher at part load than that at full load.
The higher level of the NOx at low load is associated with the
higher pilot being used in order to enhance the transient reliability
of the engine.
There are a number of factors that can contribute to the reduc-
tion in NOx with a decrease in the WI by adding diluents in the

024502-2 / Vol. 135, FEBRUARY 2013 Transactions of the ASiVIE

 50
ig
2S--
1 0 0 « load K)%toad
-t-
)^25% & 5% loacfe
s
75% load
* • • • « > . . - ,
%lc
• 00
1.4
Fig. 2 Standard burner test results: emissions and main fuel
supply pressure
reactants: (a) the reduction in the flame temperature slows the
chemical reaction rate and leads to the reduction in the laminar
flame speed [5-10]; (b) the change in the chemical reaction
reduces the size of the O/H/OH radical pool and suppresses the
formation of NO^ [11-13]; (c) the increase in the fuel jet penetra-
tion reduces the level of unmixedness for industrial application
[14]; (d) the reduction in the burnt gas residence time reduces the
thermal NOx from the Zeldovich mechanism. The details of the
analysis can be found in Ref. [15].
At full load, CO is unmeasurable, however, it rapidly increases
as the load is reduced. In general, the CO is seen to increase with
a reduction in the WI at part loads. The increased production of
CO may be due to the dissociation of the CO2 in fuel lean flames
and a reduced oxygen content to complete the oxidation of CO
[16]. The shorter resident time of burnt gas due to the higher mass
flow could also prevent the CO converting to CO2. The UHC is
less than 10 ppmv at 50% load for all WIs tested [15] and this low
level of the UHC indicates that the combustion efflciency is not
adversely affected by the lower calorific value fuel.
The main burner fuel supply pressure was normalized by the
fuel supply pressure for natural gas. At a low load (5%), the
impact of the WI variation is insignificant, due to the fact that
much of the fuel is in the pilot stream rather than the main stream.
At loads of 25% and higher, a reduction in the WI value results in
a higher main fuel supply pressure. The main burner pressure
requirement increased by more than 30% for a WI of 23 MJ/Sm"*,
compared to natural gas for loads between 50% and 100%.
Figure 3 shows the influence of the WI on the burner metal tem-
perature and the combustion dynamic pressure. The burner metal
temperature was normalized at full load natural gas condition.
The decrease in the burner metal temperature with the WI could
indicate changes in the flame position and/or a reduction in the
flame temperature. The combustion dynamic pressure amplitude
measured over the range of loads is well within the acceptable
level for gas turbine operation. As aforementioned, only at a WI
of 23 and 25 MJ/Sm^, a higher pilot split was required to maintain
the combustion dynamic amplitude at a level similar for natural
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
Wl 27, standmd plot
Wl 23, higher pilot
0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110
Load (%)
Fig. 3 Standard burner test results: burner temperature and
combustion dynamics
gas. The frequencies associated with this amplitude are in the
lower range, which is typical of the lean blow out (LBO) frequency.
Periodic detachment of the flame front from its flame holder near
the LBO limit was observed [17] and the low frequency flame pul-
sation was found to be dependent on the pilot split.
Bulat et al. [1] showed that the frequency of the pressure pulsa-
tion in engine operation of the SGT-300-1S was in the same
range. The frequency was found to reduce with a decreasing WI
and an increased amplitude. The engine test and the single com-
bustor test showed that the combustion dynamics behaved differ-
ently according to the initial amplitudes and the percentage of N2
dilution in the fuel [18]. The lOMW engine test results showed
that when the CO2 content was higher than 20%, a higher pilot
split was used [19] and the combustion dynamic pressure ampli-
tude, for a frequency between 40 to 45 Hz, increased with the
increasing CO2 concentration. It was also noticed that the fre-
quency shifts towards the lower value at this particular band,
although the author did not mention this finding. Outside of this
frequency band, the CO2 had little effect on the pressure
pulsation.
Lafay et al. [6] identified the fact that flame instabilities, result-
ing from low frequency pressure oscillation, can appear below a
critical equivalence ratio value when diluting premixed flames
with CO2. One of the mechanisms which induced instabilities is
linked to the laminar flame speed and flame thickness. An increase
of flame thickness can be seen in the CO2 diluted flames: for a
given equivalence ratio, the higher the dilution rate, the thicker
the flame [6,7]. A flame diluted with CO2 also shows a weaker an-
chorage than for the methane-air flame [20], a reduction in the
extinction strain rate [8,16] and a change in the flame position [9].
The NOx emissions from the standard combustion system tested
in the HPAF were compared with those from a standard engine
operating at site at a WI of 32 MJ/Sm"* and are reported in Ref.
[15]. An excellent agreement in the NO^ emissions between the
HPAF and the engine is achieved. Some effect of the change in
the composition is also observed in the engine test points. The
higher content of N2 in the mixture results in higher NOx emis-
sions [21,22]. The good agreement between the rig test and engine
performance provides confidence in the translation of the rig
results presented in this paper to the engine scale.
The SGT-300-1S standard combustion system can operate on
fuels with a WI as low as 23 MJ/Sm"^. The use of fuels with these
lower WIs can provide an environmental benefit through the use of
waste gases and by providing power with reduced NOx emissions.
The increased mass flow of the fuel with increasing dilution leads
FEBRUARY2013, Vol. 135 / 024502-3
to a requirement for higher supply pressures. This could have costly
plant implications if large gas compressors were required to supply
the fuel. A further extension to the fuels capability has therefore
been achieved with minor modifications to the burner in order to
maintain the burner supply pressure at an acceptable level.
Development of Burner for WI 15 to 45
The increase in the pressure as the WI is reduced is required
due to the constant geometry of the burner with the increasing
fuel mass flow. An analysis of the losses in the burner allowed a
minimum of modifications of the burner to be made in order to
maintain lower supply pressures. The modifications were primar-
ily made to the fuel injection holes with the effective area
increased based on maintaining a pressure drop comparable to nat-
ural gas. A secondary consideration was to maintain a similar
level of mixing in the burner, indicating fuel jet penetration is to
be considered as a design parameter.
A further test campaign with a modified burner was performed
in the HPAF and the range of fuels considered varied between a
WI of 15 MJ/Sm^^ (54.5% CO2 with 45.5% natural gas by volume)
and UK natural gas at 45 Ml/Sm"*. In common with the standard
burner, it was found that the normal engine pilot split schedule
could be used for a WI of 27 MJ/Sm' and above. Below this value,
the pilot split had to be increased in order to maintain the combus-
tion dynamics at the same low level observed with natural gas.
The HPAF testing results for the modified burner are shown in
Fig. 4. At full load, the NOx is low and is consistently less than 10
ppmv for all WIs considered. A gradient is not observed in the
NOx with a WI at full load due to the effect of the pilot split: the
O 75% load
A S0% load
O 25% toad
X 5% toad
10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 4 Modified burner test resuits
024502-4 / Vol. 135, FEBRUARY 2013
higher pilot split required at a low Wl disguises the expected
reduction in emissions. However, at part loads of 50% and 75%, a
significant reduction in NOx can be seen as the WI decreases. This
gradient of NOx is also observed at 25% load although the gradi-
ent is not so steep.
. The CO emissions for part loads greater than 50% are pre-
sented. Full load CO emissions are not included since they were
insignificant across the range of WIs. The trend observed in the
standard burner is replicated with higher CO emissions as the WI
is reduced. For a WI of less than 25 MJ/Sm', 10 ppmv CO cannot
be achieved even at 90% load. As previously discussed, the reduc-
tion in the fiame temperature and shorter resident time contribute
towards the uncompleted conversion from CO to CO2, thus
increasing emissions. This will need to be considered during the
project/application technical review.
The burner temperature reduces with the reducing WI, which
again correlates to the findings on the standard burner shown in
Fig. 3. The combined effect of the flame moving downstream and
the change in the fiame temperature are believed to cause the
reduction in temperature with the WI.
The fuel pressure drops across the main burner at full load
APf = {Pf -Pa)/Pa X 100%, which is the normalized pressure
difference between the fuel supply pressure Pf and the combus-
tion air pressure P„ in the burner. The practical impact of the
design change is shown in the supply pressure requirement, which
is reduced significantly with the modified burner.
Summary
Figure 5 is the summary for the standard and modified burners
on emissions and burner metal temperatures for the different WI
fuels with only CO2 as a diluent in the natural gas to provide a
more fundamental insight. The metal temperature was normalized
to the standard burner temperature at full load natural gas
condition.
stadanl bwner 75% load
edtHirrar7S%ioad
standard burner 50% lowi
„ modified burner 50% toad
:r^^j2^J «
I 8tàid«dbt»ner 1 0 ^ ^ * * - "-*•**"''^
•-—v
modifKd bumer 100% toad
modffied t>umer50% load
8 A ~~--star»Ùwdbutt«r75%toad
~ modified bumef 75% load
0 5 10 IS 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Fig. 5 Summary results: effect of CO2 addition in the fuei on
the emissions and burner metal temperature
Transactions of the ASME
 Generally, NO^ reduces as more CO2 is added into the fuel. At
the full load condition the modified bumer has a lower NOx and
the difference of the NO^ between the standard and modified
bumers tends to be reduced as more CO2 is added into the fuel. At
part loads of 75% and 50% the NOx for the two burners is compa-
rable when the CO2 is less than 25% (a WI 28.7 MJ/Sm'), and the
modified bumer has a higher NOx when more CO2 is added in
because more pilot split is required. The modified bumer has a
higher CO emission than the standard burner at part loads. At full
load the modified burner has a lower metal temperature when the
CO2 is less than 25% and the temperature difference between the
two bumers is reduced with more CO2 added into the fuel.
The lower NOx and bumer metal temperature for the modified
bumer at full load may indicate that the aerodynamics feature is
modified due to the fuel jet penetration change caused by the fuel
injection size modification. However, this investigation requires
advanced computational fluid mechanics.
Conclusions
The successful development of the SGT-300-1S SITL DLE
combustion system to operate with an extended fuel range cover-
ing a WI from 15 to 49 MJ/Sm"* has been reported. The significant
site experience on the SGT-300-1S operating with an extended
fuel range, such as PLG, provided strong confidence to further
extend the fuels capability. The results from high pressure rig tests
have been presented, showing that the emission performance and
stability of the combustion system is good for the extended range.
For standard combustion hardware, a stable operation can be
achieved for a WI as low as 23 MJ/Sm^. Minor modifications to
the burner allow this range to be extended to 15 MJ/Sm"*. Consist-
ent trends in combustion performance were observed in both bum-
ers, however, the modifications were required in order to reduce
the fuel supply pressure to acceptable levels in the low range of
the WI.
The NOx emissions are reduced as the WI decreases as a result
of the combined effects of chemical kinetics, enhanced fuel air
mixing, and a shorter resident time of the bumt gas. An increase
in the CO at part loads as the WI decreases is noted and factored
into the project technical reviews. The emissions of UHCs are low
and demonstrated the high combustion efficiency in nonadverse
effects by the reduction in the WI. The NOx emissions are sensi-
tive to the selection of diluents; generally, more NOx is produced
if N2 is selected, however, the combustion dynamic pressure
seems to be insensitive to the selection of the diluents [21,22]. A
measurement of the combustion dynamic pressure ensured confi-
dence in the combustion stability with variations in the WI. An
increased pilot fuel schedule was necessary in order to compen-
sate for potential unstable operation at very low WIs.
For the purpose of engine building standards, the use of two
combustor variations will be considered:
( 1 ) standard hardware: covering a WI range from 30-49 MJ/Sm''
(2) medium calorific value hardware: covering a WI range
from 20-37 MJ/Sm^; the capability, if required, of starting
on a richer gas, including natural gas, may be considered
This arrangement offers the best combination of supply pres-
sure requirements and acceptable operational parameters such as
NOx, combustion dynamics, bumer pressure drop, and bumer
metal temperature.
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
References
II] Bulat, G.. Liu. K.. Brickwood. C . Satideison, V.. and Igoe. B., 2011,
"Intelligent Operation of Siemens (SGT-300) DLE Gas Turbine Combustion
System Over an Extetided Fuel Range With Low Emissions," ASME Paper No.
GT2011-46103, pp. 917-925.
|2] Kowkabie, M., Noden, R., atid De Pietro, S., 1997. "The Development of a Dry
Low NO, Combustion System for the EGT Typhoon." ASME Paper No. 97-
GT-60.
[3] Liu, K., Wood. J. P.. Buchanan. E., Martin, P., and Sanderson, V. E.. 2010,
"Biodie.sel as an Alternative Fuel in Siemens Dry Low Emissions Combustors:
Atmospheric and High Pressure Rig Testing," ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines
Powerl32. p. 011501.
|4] University of New Hampshire, 2012. "UNH Cogeneration Facility," http://
www.energy.unh.edu/cogen.html
[5] Ren, J. Y., Egolfopoulos, F. N., Mak. H., and Tsotsis, T. T., 2002, "NO, Emis-
sion Control of Lean Methane-Air Combustion With Addition of Methane
Reforming Products," Combust. Sei. Technol., 174, pp. 181-205.
[6] Lafay, Y.. Renou, B., Cabot. G., and Boukhalfa. M., 2007, "Experimental
Determination of Laminar Flame Thickness for COT and Hi Diluted Methane/
Air Flames," Proceedings of the 3rd European Combustion Meeting, Chania,
Crete, April 11-13.
[7] Cohe, C , Chauveau, C , and Gokalp, I., 2009, "CO2 Addition Effect in High
Pressure CH4-Air Turbulent Premixed Flames," Proc. Combust. Inst., 32, pp.
1803-1810.
[8] Ren, J. Y., Qin. W.. Egolfopoulos, F. N., Mak, R, and Tsotsis. T. T., 2001,
"Methane Reforming and Its Potential Effect on the Efficiency and Pollutant Emis-
sions of Lean Methane-Air Combustion." Chem. Eng. Sei., 56, pp. 1541-1549.
19] Qin, Q.. Egolfopoulos, F. N., and Tsotsis, T. T., 2001. "Fundamental and Envi-
ronmental Aspects of Landfill Gas Utilization for Power Generation," Chem.
Eng. Sei., 82, pp. 157-172.
[10] Kishore, V. R.. Duan. N., Ravi. M. R., and Ray, A., 2008, "Measurement of Ad-
iabatic Buming Velocity in Natural Gas Like Mixtures," Exp. Therm. Huid
Sei., 33, pp. 10-16.
[11] Liu, F., Guo, H., and Smallwood. G., 2003, "The Chemical Effect of CO2
Replacement of Nj in Air on the Buming Velocity of CH4 and H2 Premixed
Flames." Combust. Flame. 133. pp. 495-497.
[ 12[ Glarborg. P., and Bentzen. L. L. B., 2008. "Chemical Effects of a High CO2 Con-
centration in Oxy-Fuel Combustion of MethiUie," Energy Fuels. 22, pp. 291-296.
[13] Fackler, K. B.. Karalus. M. F., Novosselov, L V., Kramlich, J. C, and Malte,
P. C, 2011, "Experimental and Numerical Study of NO^ Formation From the
Lean Premixed Combustion of CH4 Mixed With CO2 and N2," ASME Paper
No. GT2011-45090.
[14] Dobbeling, K., Meeuwissen, T., Zajadatz, M., and Flohr, P., 2008, "Fuel Flexi-
bility of the Alstom GTI32E Medium Sized Gas Turbine," ASME Paper No.
GT2008-50950.
[15] Liu, K.. Alexander. V.. Sanderson. V., and Bulat, G., 2012, "Extension of Fuel
Flexibility in the Siemens Dry Low Emissions SGT-300-IS to Cover a Wobbe
Index Range of 15^9 MJ/Sm'." ASME Paper No. GT2012-68838.
[16] Elkady, A. M., Brand, A. R.. Vandervort, C. L.. and Evulet, A. T., 2011,
"Exhaust Gas Recirculation Performance in Dry Low Emissions Combustors,"
ASME Paper No. GT2011-46482.
[17] Thimchengode. M., Nair. S., Prakash. S.. Scarborough. D.. Neumeier, Y., Lieu-
wen, T., Jagoda, J., Seitzman, J., and Zinn, B., 2003. "An Active Control Sys-
tem for LBO Margin Reduction in Turbine Engines." Proceedings of the 4Lst
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, NV, January 6—9, AIAA Paper
No. 2003-1008.
[18] Asti, A., Stewart, J. F., Forte, A., Yilmaz, E., and D'Ercole, M., 2008,
"Enlarging the Fuel Flexibility Boundaries: Theoretical and Experimental
Application to a New Heavy-Duty Gas Turbine (MS5002E)," ASME Paper No.
GT2008-50773.
[19] Cocchi, S., Provenzale, M., and Ceccherini, G., 2007, "Fuel Flexibility Test
Campaign on a 10 MW C]a.ss Gas Turbine Equipped With a Dry-Low-NO,
Combustion System," ASME Paper No. GT2007-27154.
[20] Lafay, Y., Cabot, G., and Boukhalfa, A., 2006, "Experimental Study of Biogas
Combustion Using a Gas Turbine Configuration," 13th Intemational Sympo-
sium on the Application of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon,
Portugal, June 26-29.
[21] Rokke, P. E., and Hustad, J. E., 2005, "Exhaust Gas Recirculation in Gas Tur-
bines for Reduction of CO2 Emissions: Combustion Testing With Focus on Sta-
bility and Emissions," Int. J. Thermodyn.. 8, pp. 167-173, available at: http://
www.doaj.org/doaj?func=openurl&genre=joumal&issn=13019724&volume=8
&issue=4&date=2005&uiLanguage=en
[22] Liu, K., and Sanderson, V., 2012, "The Influence of Changes in Fuel Calorific
Value to Combu.stion Performance for Siemens SGT-300 Dry Low Emission
Combustion System," J. Fuel (in press).
FEBRUARY2013, Vol. 135 / 024502-5
Copyright of Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines & Power is the property of American Society of
Mechanical Engineers and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.