Running head: LITERACY 1

Teaching Literacy

Gillian L Edwards

University of Alaska

February 20th, 2018

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Abstract

My role as a literacy teacher is to provide the scaffolding and support for children to construct

their knowledge. To construct their understanding, children need many varied opportunities to

read, write, speak, and listen with meaningful teacher facilitation. My literacy program begins

with a literature rich classroom and utilizes whole class read-aloud; reading and writing

workshops; individualized spelling work; and daily word study to support student growth.
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Reading, Writing and Oral Language

Candidates demonstrate a high level of competence in use of English language arts and

they know, understand and use concepts from reading, language and child development to teach

reading, writing, speaking, viewing, listening and thinking skills to help students successfully

apply their developing skills to many different situations, materials and ideas.

Teaching Literacy

Success in the 21st century requires more than simply being able to read and write. Our

students also need to be able to evaluate evidence, interpret visual information, use technology,

form and support an argument, listen to differing opinions and speak appropriately in different

contexts. My job as a teacher of literacy is to ensure that students have many opportunities to

develop these diverse skills and to help each child move towards becoming an independent

reader, writer and thinker. My underlying teaching philosophy is constructivist. I believe that to

learn to read, write, speak and listen, children need, more than anything else, to spend many

hours engaged in reading, writing and intentional conversations (Atwell, 2015 & Miller, 2009). I

tend towards a whole language perspective on literacy instruction. I believe that teaching isolated

skills out of context and breaking language into its smallest parts can make literacy learning

more difficult (Gilles, 2006). Literacy, perhaps more than any other content area, requires us to

assess student knowledge and adapt our instruction to their readiness and interest. Literacy

instruction is, as Marie Clay writes, “about starting where the learner already is and helping that

learner move toward a new degree of control over novel tasks, teaching so that learners are

successful” (Clay, 2014, p. 4).

Goals of Literacy Instruction

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There are significant differences between the goals and instructional needs of students in

the early grades (K - 3) and students in middle grades (4th - 8th grade). I teach 4th grade, so in

this paper I focus on middle grade literacy content and skills. In the middle grades instructional

emphasis shifts from learning to read to reading to learn (Erickson, 1998). The Alaska Standards

outline the overarching goals of literacy for college and career readiness (DEED, 2012). Students

who meet the standards: demonstrate independence; can comprehend and evaluate a wide range

of texts; build strong content knowledge through reading and research; respond to the “varying

demands of audience, task, purpose and discipline” (p. 4) when writing; comprehend and

critique; evaluate evidence and support their own ideas with evidence; and understand diverse

cultures and perspectives (DEED, 2012). While each student will have individual and grade

level objectives, it is important to keep this big picture in mind when planning instruction. The

ultimate goal of literacy learning is to develop literacy skills that are robust, flexible, and useful

in the real world.

The Elements of Literacy Instruction

Literacy encompasses a huge body of knowledge and skills and is integral to all

curriculum areas. Fountas and Pinnell’s continuum of literacy learning is a useful framework for

breaking literacy instruction into elements and assessing student progress (2011). The continuum

includes seven curriculum components: interactive read aloud and literature discussion; shared

and performance reading; writing about reading; writing; oral, visual and technological

communication; phonics, spelling and word study and guided reading (Pinnell & Fountas, 2011).

The continuum of literacy learning gives us a way to look for specific evidence of learning and

determine the next instructional steps (Pinnell & Fountas, 2011). The skills in the continuum are

interrelated and often interdependent: student’s progress in one area will aid development in
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another (Pinnell & Fountas, 2011). “Literacy is an emerging set of relationships between reading

and writing. These relationships are situated in a broader communication network of speaking

and listening, whose components work together to help the learner negotiate the world and make

sense of experience” (Roskos, Christie & Richgels, 2003).

How Students Learn: Cambourne’s Conditions of Literacy Learning

Brian Cambourne was interested in how children learn to read and write. He described

eight conditions that must be present for optimal literacy learning: immersion, demonstration,

expectations, approximations, responsibility, employment, response and engagement (1995).

Immersion requires that children are surrounded by text and examples of language being used in

many ways (Cambourne, 1995). Demonstration means that teachers frequently model reading

and writing and provide students with access to their thinking so that they see how texts are

constructed and used (Cambourne, 1995). Expectations are “powerful coercers of learners:”

students are more likely to engage with literacy learning if they feel that their teachers hold high

expectations for them (Cambourne, 1995). Responsibility requires that we empower students

with choices in what to attend to and allow them to make decisions about how they learn

(Cambourne, 1995). Students must also feel free to make approximations and receive timely

teacher response that helps them move to the next level of understanding. The condition of

employment necessitates that students have many functional opportunities to use their literacy

learning in authentic contexts (Cambourne, 1995). Engagement is the key condition without

which a program that includes all others may fail. It requires that students believe they can learn

the demonstrated skills; that the skills will further the purposes of their lives; and that they can

try without fear of emotional or physical injury if they fail (Cambourne, 1995). Cambourne
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writes that creating the condition of engagement “constitutes the artistic dimension of teaching”

(1995). Cambourne’s conditions provide us with a foundation for effective literacy instruction.

My Literacy Program

I support the Alaska ELA standards and student growth in all areas of the continuum by

creating an active literacy environment based on Cambourne’s conditions of literacy learning

(1995). A literacy program comprised of read aloud and discussion, reading workshop, writing

workshop, spelling and word study engages students in purposeful and meaningful literacy

activities “in a community of thinkers, expressers, listeners and learners” (Harvey & Goudvis,

2008). Literacy learning is not achieved through reading and writing alone. I provide a book rich

classroom environment with many entry points and guidance in comprehension strategies, word

knowledge, vocabulary and writing craft to help each child grow (Atwell 2015). Individual

reading and writing conferences and assessments with student friendly rubrics provide feedback

and support.

Classroom Environment

A Book Rich Classroom

“Classroom environments are most effective when they are literate and purposeful,

organized and accessible, and, most of all, authentic” (Miller, 2008, p. 17). Research shows that

children need to spend large amounts of time reading to develop proficiency and to do this, they

need access to many books (Allington, 2002). A literacy rich environment begins with a

classroom library filled with books of different genres and reading levels and organized in a way

that helps students locate and select their own reading material (Strickland, 2002 & Miller,

2009). An inviting classroom library provides the conditions of immersion and responsibility

(Cambourne, 1995) and supports struggling readers by providing many access points to literature
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(Strickland, 2002). The physical space in my literacy rich classroom includes comfortable spaces

for children to read and be read to; readily available literacy materials; word walls for vocabulary

development; technology that promotes literacy learning (Morrow, 2001); a “recommended

reads” poster for sharing books; a quote board for favorite quotes; and anchor charts developed

by the class (Atwell, 2015). A literate classroom shows students that literacy learning is

important, immerses students in language arts, provides many demonstrations of language in use

and promotes engagement in literacy learning.

Read Aloud

Read aloud is a research-based component of literacy instruction for middle grade

students. In just fifteen minutes a day, reading strategies, discussion techniques and new

vocabulary can be taught while sharing entertaining and engaging books with the class (Miller,

2008). In an analysis of over 10,000 studies, the U.S. Department of Education Commission on

Reading found that reading aloud was the most important activity for building the skills required

for reading (Oczkus, 2012). Reading aloud provides students with demonstrations of fluent

reading and exposure to “language forms and structures of the many different text types they

need to control as a reader” (Hoyt quoted in Oczkus, 2012). Read aloud is an effective

differentiation strategy. It offers an inviting literacy learning experience that gives readers of all

levels access to challenging texts (Wadsworth, 2008 & Orzkus, 2012). Read aloud also helps

support struggling readers by providing access to teacher thinking during reading and a model of

fluent reading (Strickland, 2002, p. 18). Read aloud builds student vocabularies: a study found

that picture books contain far more uncommon words than conversations thus, while talking with

children is important in reading readiness, reading aloud is a much more effective to expand

vocabulary and prepare children to read and write (Massaro, 2016). Whole class read aloud
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supports Cambourne’s conditions of demonstration and immersion but most importantly, read

aloud provides the essential condition of engagement by offering children an “irresistible

invitation to welcome children into the exciting world of literacy” (Wadsworth, 2008).

I use read aloud to introduce students to genres they may not chose to read on their own,

build background knowledge for social studies and science, teach speaking and listening skills

and to build a classroom culture that promotes kindness, empathy and tolerance. Conversations

about literature are an essential part of an “active literacy” environment: (Harvey & Goudvis,

2007) they deepen understanding and build speaking and listening skills. It may look like

children “talking a lot” but when children engage in what Pinnell and Fountas call “intentional

conversation” (2011) they negotiate meanings, uncover subtext and make connections (Clay,

2014). Every student can participate in an intentional conversation about books that are read

aloud, providing struggling readers with opportunities to join the discussion and access the

thinking of proficient readers. As Peter Johnston writes; “when children are thinking together

they generate strategies and these strategies become available for others to use” (Johnston, 2012,

p. 98). Daily read aloud and discussion are and important part of my classroom culture. Through

our shared reading experiences, we learn about character, culture and the world in which we live

and develop active listening and respectful speaking skills.

Strategic Reading Instruction in Reader’s Workshop

Middle grade students need time to read books at an appropriate level and instruction in

comprehension boosting strategies to grow as readers. Reading is a complex activity that

involves far more than simply decoding written text. Weaver’s psycholinguistic model of reading

describes “constant interplay between the mind of the reader and the language of the text” (2002,

p. 15). Studies show that time spent reading is one of the best predictor of a student’s literacy
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growth (TCRWP, 2012) and that students need to be reading texts that they can comprehend and

read independently with at least 96% accuracy (Allington 2002, Strickland, 2002). There is little

evidence that reading challenging texts improves reading outcomes (TCWRP, 2012) rather,

students need “high accuracy, fluent, and easily comprehended reading that provides

opportunities to integrate complex skills and strategies into an automatic, independent reading

process” (Allington, 2002). I believe that a love of reading is one of the greatest assets a child

can have in their literacy growth. Studies have shown that motivation is a key factor in helping

struggling readers (Strickland, 2002). No one can make a reluctant reader love to read, but if we

provide consistent support for growth; choice; and many ways to access text (including audio

books, technology, comic books, picture books, non-fiction and read aloud) then we have the

best possible chance of helping our struggling readers by fostering a love of reading. (Strickland,

2002). Readers workshop is an invitational format that allows each student to work at their own

level and provides the conditions of responsibility and employment - students chose their own

reading material; immersion – significant time for reading; response – individual conference

feedback; and expectations – in mini-lesson instruction.

Instruction in Comprehension Strategies

Reader’s workshop provides students with what they need most to improve their reading

skills: lessons in strategies and time to read books of an appropriate level of complexity that they

have chosen themselves (Atwell, 2015). For middle grade students who are reading

independently comprehension (or meaning making) is the focus of reading instruction (Gill,

2008). Studies show that three factors affect comprehension: the reader, the text and the situation

(or activity) (Gill, 2008) and that proficient readers use strategies in addition to their schema and

word knowledge to comprehend text (Neufeld, 2005). Harvey and Goudvis identify four goals
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that help readers construct the meaning of a text; “we want readers to: monitor understanding,

enhance understanding, acquire and actively use knowledge and develop insight” (2007, p. 14).

Teaching strategies including making connections, questioning, visualizing, inferring,

summarizing, and monitoring meaning improves reading comprehension. (Gill, 2009). In the

workshop format, these strategies are taught in mini lessons using “think aloud” (Miller, 2008);

directed reading and thinking activities (Gill, 2008); QARs (Strickland, 2002) and graphic

organizers (Dymock & Nicholson, 2005). Mini-lessons may also focus on workshop procedures,

literary genres and elements and effective reading practices. Students then read texts they have

chosen themselves independently for at least twenty minutes.

In December and January, students choose “Battle of the Books” texts to read during

workshop and discuss in literature circles two days per week. Literature circles allow students to

collaborate and develop speaking and listening skills while the competition element of Battle of

the Books” boosts engagement. Reading workshop concludes each day with five minutes

devoted to recording reading in our logs and book talks (recommendations from students

(Atwell, 2015)) or discussion on how students applied the mini lesson to their own reading.

Assessment

Reading is assessed in several ways. I conduct individual reading conferences during

reading time and keep track of student progress on a standards-based checklist (Atwell, 2015). At

the beginning of each trimester I conduct a miscue analysis during student conferences to gain

deeper insight into students reading process (Weaver, 2002) and to determine instructional needs.

Student grades are based on their reading logs which are checked weekly, reader response

assignments, book talk presentations, traditional assessments and literature circle work.
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Teaching 6+1 Traits in Writing Workshop

Like Donald Graves, I believe that “all children can write” and that writing workshop is

the most effective way to teach children to write (1985). Writing workshop is the ideal format for

teaching writing because it delivers all Cambourne’s conditions for learning (1995) and develops

the habit of writing. In the workshop students are immersed in writing; they have freedom to

make approximations; mini-lessons provide demonstrations; conferences give timely feedback;

and when we allow students the freedom to engage in the writing process on their own, we

communicate high expectations and help them see themselves as writers (or potential

performers) (Cambourne, 2005). What I believe is most valuable about the writing workshop

format is that, with careful guidance and many hours of practice, students grow to see themselves

as writers and come to know the “purpose and power” of the written word (Fletcher & Portalupi,

2001). Writing workshop is scheduled at least three days per week, it begins with a mini lesson

on procedures, pre-writing activities, revision and editing, technology, or one of the traits.

Students then write for about twenty-five minutes. Each student sets a goal and works on their

own writing at their own pace. While students write I conduct individual conferences. At the end

of the workshop we meet for students to share their work from the “author’s chair” (Fletcher &

Portalupi, 2001) and receive response from other students.

Technology is an essential piece of the writing workshop: our students may never need to

put pen to paper in their working lives, but they will certainly need to be able to use technology

in a variety of ways. Children may choose to plan and compose with paper and pencil or with a

computer, however most presentation pieces are typed or digitally recorded. We use our

classroom blog, VoiceThread, Blabberize, Powerpoint and Google docs to digitally produce and

present writing.
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The 6+1 traits of writing is a research-based model that provides a consistent framework

for teaching the elements of good writing in workshop mini-lessons and a basis for assessing

writing (Education Northwest, 2016). The six traits are: ideas, organization, voice, word choice,

sentence fluency and conventions with the +1 being presentation (Education Northwest, 2016).

The traits are elements of effective writing in any genre – including non-fiction and poetry. They

provide a common language for learning about and reflecting upon writing and teach

conventions in context. There is no evidence that grammar instruction improves student writing;

in fact, an overwhelming amount of research shows that skills taught in isolation during

traditional grammar instruction do not transfer to student writing (Wilson, Amenson & Nanke,

2006 & Atwell, 2015). Conventions are taught as one of the traits, during revision and in a

weekly “conventions in context” mini lesson, based on common grammar issues in student

writing. Ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency and presentation skills are also

taught in mini lessons in writer’s workshop. Each trait is initially taught for two weeks then

revisited as it applies to different types of writing. The traits model takes the mystery out of

good writing and shows students that writing is a craft that is developed through hard work,

practice and revision.

Assessment

Writing assessment should be based on student friendly trait rubrics and focus on helping

students grow as writers (Education Northwest, 2016). Young writers have fragile egos: careless

or harsh assessment can crush a student’s spirit (Atwell, 2015). In writing conferences, I show

students the strengths in their writing and give each student one specific trait-related goal for

improvement (Fletcher & Portalupi, 2001). Initially, presentation pieces are assessed using a

student friendly rubric that focuses on the trait we are studying (Education Northwest, 2016).
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Once all traits have been introduced, work is assessed on all traits so that students develop a

holistic view of their writing (Education Northwest, 2016). Examples of excellent student work

are provided. I also utilize a standards-based skills checklist to inventory student writing skills at

the beginning of the year and end of each trimester. The checklists provide information on

conventions and skills that need to be taught or retaught and help me ensure that all students can

meet the standards.

Spelling and Word Study

Middle grade students need spelling and word study to build vocabulary, support

conventional spelling, and expand their knowledge of language (Wilson, Amenson, Nanke,

2006). I teach spelling using the district’s Storytown curriculum with differentiated spelling lists

for students who are well above or below the grade level expectations. We also maintain a

“tricky words” word wall in our literacy area for words that are frequently misspelled in writing.

The 4th grade language standards require students to use context clues to determine word

meanings, distinguish between common homophones, determine word meanings using common

roots and affixes, explain the meaning or metaphors and similes in context, recognize and

explain idioms, adages and proverbs and use antonyms and synonyms (DEED, 2012). I use a

rotation of word study activities as bell ringers including root of the day; homophone of the day;

idiom/adage of the day; vocabulary word of the day – pulled from social studies, science, and

word sorts based on the week’s spelling words. A root of the day activity might include writing

the root and its meaning then seeking out more examples of words with the same root

(Bloodgood & Pacifici, 2004). Homophone of the day activities include choosing to illustrate the

difference between the two words, writing sentences using each word correctly, or playing a

game of homophone rummy (Bloodgood & Pacifici, 2004). Idiom activities include illustrating
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the meaning or inventing a sentence to use the idiom. Word sorts ask students to find a rule for

sorting a set of words (Freeman & Freeman, 2014). Each activity concludes with a brief class

discussion. These word study activities help support English language learners and struggling

readers (Strickland, 2009) and they are differentiated with options for response. They are also a

fun way to get students interested in language and expand their understanding of the structure

and usage of words.

Philosophy in Action

It was a late fall afternoon, sunlight streamed through the windows as students filed into

the classroom for the afternoon literacy block. The class was in the middle of writing narratives

and, to my surprise, this usually garrulous group of students immediately sat at their desks and

pulled out notebooks or laptops and got to work on their writing. Our schedule called for read

aloud first, I quietly erased the schedule from the whiteboard and observed the writers at work.

The students were completely absorbed: they were in the state known as “flow” in which the

learner has found optimal match between their abilities and the task (Fletcher & Portalupi, 2001).

As I quietly conferred with individual students, I looked for strengths to point out and identified

one trait that each student could work on. After a few conferences it was clear that many students

were struggling with word choice - especially with finding alternatives to “said” and “walked.”

Instead of my original plan, I decided to teach the mini lesson on technologically assisted

word choice. As the students worked, I hooked up my laptop to the projector and typed my own

story. In this story my awesome friends and I did many awesome things together on our

awesome adventure. I called the class together and asked a student to read my story aloud.

“That’s a great story!” said one student enthusiastically. “What can I do to improve it?” I asked.

The students hesitated. “Go on, I always give you suggestions, now you give me some.” “Well
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you used the word “awesome” a lot, maybe you could say “great” instead of awesome. We

counted: I had used the word awesome eleven times in my story. Students came up with several

alternatives but eventually we ran out of ideas. Next, I showed them how to use the Microsoft

Word synonyms function to find alternative words. We found four more synonyms for awesome

before I set the class loose to try it with their own work. Students were excited: Gary’s characters

whispered and bellowed at each other while Riley’s sauntered and ambled their way across the

page. When students discovered unknown words, they pasted them into the online dictionary to

learn more about them. The classroom was no longer quiet, it was alive with adjectives and

adverbs and students clamoring to read each other their enhanced stories. This day’s lesson

exemplifies my philosophy of literacy instruction. It is responsive, taught in context, student

centered and uses technology in an integral and meaningful way.

Conclusion

My love of literacy is what brought me to the teaching profession. I believe that reading

and writing profoundly affect our lives and that all students deserve the opportunity to become

confident readers and writers. I believe that children learn best in context and when interesting

and engaging work motivates them to read and write on their own terms. Literacy is an integral

part of life; each day we read road signs and newspapers, talk to coworkers, write emails and

shopping lists. We engage in meaningful literacy activities, each with a clear purpose. Literacy

learning tends to have a different character, it is “seldom meaningful and relevant to children's

lives as people” and “exercises are treated as ends in themselves” (Hall, 2013). Teachers of

literacy must strive to help children understand the real-world applications of reading and

writing: “with speech, children can influence the behavior of others, express their feelings, and

convey information. A big part of motivating them to take on the extra work of reading and
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writing must be letting them see how the permanence and portability of writing can widen the

scope of that influencing, expressing, and informing” (Roskos, Christie & Richgels, 2003 p. 5).

Literacy instruction can do much more than teach necessary skills. Quality literacy instruction

can inspire a love of reading and habits of writing that are lifelong assets; help students

understand the human experience through stories and nonfiction texts; and open fulfilling ways

for students to express themselves through poetry and prose.

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