RF Communication Circuits

Lecture 2: Transmission Lines

KAVOSHCOM
 Waveguiding Structures
A wave guiding structure is one that carries a signal
(or power) from one point to another.

There are three common types:

§ Transmission lines
§ Fiber-optic guides
§ Waveguides

2
 Transmission Line
Properties
§ Has two conductors running parallel
§ Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
§ Becomes lossy at high frequency
§ Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
§ Does not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
§ May or may not be immune to interference
§ Does not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)

Twin lead
Coaxial cable (coax) (shown connected to a 4:1
impedance-transforming balun)
3
 Transmission Line (cont.)

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)

The two wires of the transmission line are twisted to reduce interference and
radiation from discontinuities.

4
 Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines commonly met on printed-circuit boards

w
er
h
er h w

Microstrip Stripline

w w w

er h er h

Coplanar strips Coplanar waveguide (CPW)

5
 Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines are commonly met on printed-circuit boards.

Microstrip line

A microwave integrated circuit

6
 Fiber--Optic Guide
Fiber
Properties
§ Uses a dielectric rod
§ Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
§ Can be made very low loss
§ Has minimal signal distortion
§ Very immune to interference
§ Not suitable for high power
§ Has both Ez and Hz components of the fields

7
 Fiber--Optic Guide (cont.)
Fiber
Two types of fiber-optic guides:

1) Single-mode fiber
Carries a single mode, as with the mode on a
transmission line or waveguide. Requires the fiber
diameter to be small relative to a wavelength.

2) Multi-mode fiber
Has a fiber diameter that is large relative to a
wavelength. It operates on the principle of total internal
reflection (critical angle effect).

8
Fiber--Optic Guide (cont.)
Fiber
Higher index core region

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
9
 Waveguides
Properties
§ Has a single hollow metal pipe
§ Can propagate a signal only at high frequency: w > wc
§ The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength
§ Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case
§ Immune to interference
§ Can handle large amounts of power
§ Has low loss (compared with a transmission line)
§ Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or TEz)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide_(electromagnetism) 10
 Transmission--Line Theory
Transmission

§ Lumped circuits: resistors, capacitors,

inductors
neglect time delays (phase)

§ Distributed circuit elements: transmission lines

account for propagation and

time delays (phase change)

We need transmission-line theory whenever the length of

a line is significant compared with a wavelength.

11
 Transmission Line
2 conductors

4 per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [W/m] Dz

G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m]
W
12
 Transmission Line (cont.)
i ( z, t )

B x x x +++++++
----------
v ( z, t )

Dz

i(z,t) R Dz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GD z CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

13
 Transmission Line (cont.)
i(z,t) R Dz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GD z CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

¶i ( z , t )
v( z , t ) = v( z + Dz , t ) + i ( z , t ) RDz + LDz
¶t
¶v( z + Dz , t )
i ( z , t ) = i ( z + Dz , t ) + v( z + Dz , t ) GDz + C Dz
¶t
14
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence

v( z + Dz , t ) - v( z , t ) ¶i ( z , t )
= - Ri ( z , t ) - L
Dz ¶t
i ( z + Dz , t ) - i ( z , t ) ¶v( z + Dz , t )
= -Gv( z + Dz , t ) - C
Dz ¶t

Now let Dz ® 0:

¶v ¶i
= - Ri - L
¶z ¶t “Telegrapher’s
Equations”
¶i ¶v
= - Gv - C
¶z ¶t
15
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

¶v2
¶i ¶ æ ¶i ö
= -R - L ç ÷
¶z 2
¶z ¶z è ¶t ø Switch the
order of the
¶i ¶ æ ¶i ö derivatives.
= -R - L ç ÷
¶z ¶t è ¶z ø
é ¶v ù
= - R ê -Gv - C ú
ë ¶t û
é ¶v ¶ vù2

- L ê -G - C
ë ¶t ¶t úû 2

16
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

¶v
2
é ¶v ù é ¶v ¶ vù 2

= - R ê -Gv - C ú - L ê -G - C
¶z 2
ë ¶t û ë ¶t ¶t úû 2

Hence, we have:

¶v
2
¶v æ¶ vö
2

- ( RG ) v - ( RC + LG ) - LC ç ÷=0
¶z 2
¶t è ¶t ø
2

The same equation also holds for i.

17
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Time-Harmonic Waves:

¶v 2
¶v æ¶ vö
2

- ( RG ) v - ( RC + LG ) - LC ç ÷=0
¶z 2
¶t è ¶t ø
2

dV
2

- ( RG )V - ( RC + LG ) jwV - LC (-w )V = 0 2

dz 2

18
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
dV2

= ( RG )V + jw ( RC + LG )V - (w LC )V 2

dz 2

Note that

RG + jw ( RC + LG ) - w LC = ( R + jw L ) (G + jw C )
2

Z = R + jw L = series impedance/length

Y = G + jwC = parallel admittance/length

dV
2

Then we can write: = ( ZY )V

dz 2

19
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

g = ZY dV
2

= (g )V
2
Let Then 2

dz 2

Solution: V ( z ) = Ae + Be
-g z +g z

g is called the "propagation constant."

g = [ ( R + jw L )(G + jwC )]
1/ 2
Convention:
z= z e jq /2
= principal square root
-p < q < p

g = a + jb a = attenuation contant
a ³ 0, b ³ 0
b = phase constant
20
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive z direction):

V + ( z ) = V0+ e -g z = V0+ e -a z e - j b z

{
v + ( z , t ) = Re (V0+ e -a z e - j b z ) e jwt }
= Re {( V 0
+
e jf e-a z e- j b z )e }
jwt

= V0+ e-a z cos ( wt - b z + f )

The wave “repeats” when:

bl = 2p
g
t = 0
lg
Hence:
V 0
+
e -a z

z 2p
b=
l g

21
 Phase Velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant phase), e.g., the
crest.

vp (phase velocity)

v + ( z , t ) = V0 + e-a z cos(wt - b z + f )

22
 Phase Velocity (cont.)

Set wt - b z = constant
dz
w-b =0
dt
dz w
=
dt b

w In expanded form:
Hence v = w
b
p
v =
Im {[ ( R + jw L )(G + jwC ) ] }
p 1/ 2

23
 Characteristic Impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the positive z direction.

V + ( z)
Z0 º +
I ( z)

+
V0
+
V ( z ) = V0 e + -g z so Z0 = +
I0
I + ( z ) = I 0 + e-g z
(Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)
24
 Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

Use Telegrapher’s Equation:

¶v ¶i
= - Ri - L
¶z ¶t

dV
so = - RI - jw LI
dz
= - ZI

+ -g z + -g z
Hence -g V0 e = - ZI 0 e

25
 Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)
1/2
V0+ Z æ Z ö
From this we have: Z0 = + = = ç ÷
I0 g èY ø

Using
Z = R + jw L
Y = G + jw C

1/ 2
We have æ R + jw L ö
Z0 = ç ÷
è G + jw C ø

Note: The principal branch of the square root is chosen, so that Re (Z0) > 0.
26
 General Case (Waves in Both Directions)
V ( z ) = V0+ e+ g z + V0- e+ g z
jf + +a z - j b z jf -
=V e e
0
+
e + V e e +a z e + j b z
0
-

wave in +z
wave in -z
direction
Note: direction

v ( z , t ) = Re {V ( z ) e jwt }
= V0+ e -a z cos (wt - b z + f + )
+ V0- e +a z cos (wt + b z + f - )

27
 Backward--Traveling Wave
Backward
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V - ( z) V - ( z)
-
= Z0 so = -Z0
- I ( z) -
I ( z)

Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same as
for the forward wave.

28
 General Case
I (z)
+
V (z)
- z

Most general case: A general superposition of forward and

backward traveling waves:

V ( z ) = V0 + e-g z + V0 - e+ g z Note: The reference

directions for voltage
1 and current are the
I ( z) = éëV0 + e -g z - V0 - e + g z ùû same for forward and
Z0 backward waves.

29
 Summary of Basic TL formulas

V ( z ) = V0+ e -g z + V0- e+ g z
V0+ -g z V0- +g z
I (z) = e - e
Z0 Z0 guided wavelength º lg
1
g = a + j b = éë( R + jw L )( G + jwC ) ùû 2
2p
lg = [ m]
æ R + jw L ö
1
2 b
Z0 = ç ÷
è G + jw C ø
phase velocity º vp
w
vp = [m/s]
b
30
 Lossless Case
R = 0, G = 0

g = a + j b = [ ( R + jw L)(G + jw C )]
1/ 2

= jw LC

a =0 w
so vp =
b = w LC b

1/ 2
æ R + jw L ö L 1
Z0 = ç ÷ Z0 = vp =
è G + jwC ø C LC
(real and indep. of freq.) (indep. of freq.)
31
 Lossless Case (cont.)
1
vp =
LC
In the medium between the two conductors is homogeneous (uniform)
and is characterized by (e, m), then we have that

LC = me (proof given later)

1
The speed of light in a dielectric medium is cd =
me

Hence, we have that v p = cd

The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is always the
speed of light (in the material).
32
 Terminated Transmission Line
Terminating impedance (load)
V ( z ) = V0+ e -g z + V0- e + g z

Ampl. of voltage wave

propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0. l
Ampl. of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
direction at z = 0.

Where do we assign z = 0?

The usual choice is at the load.

Note: The length l measures distance from the load: l = -z

33
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)
V (z) = V e 0
+ -g z
+V e0
- +g z

What if we know
V + and V - @ z = -l
l
Can we use z = - l as
a reference plane?

V0+ = V + ( 0 ) = V + ( -l ) e - g l V - ( -l ) = V - ( 0 ) e - g l

Þ V0- = V - ( 0 ) = V - ( -l ) eg l
Hence

V ( z ) = V + ( - l ) e - g ( z + l ) + V - ( - l ) eg ( z + l )
34
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

l
Compare:

V ( z ) = V + ( 0 ) e-g z + V - ( 0 ) e+g z

V ( z ) = V + ( -l ) e + V - ( -l ) e
-g ( z - ( - l ) ) g ( z -( - l))

Note: This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0 to z = -l.

35
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

V ( z ) = V0+ e-g z + V0- e + g z Terminating impedance (load)

What is V(-l )?

V ( -l ) = V0+ eg l + V0- e-g l l

propagating propagating
forwards backwards

The current at z = - l is then

V0+ g l V0- -g l
I ( -l ) = e - e
Z0 Z0 l º distance away from load
36
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Z0 , g

Total volt. at distance l

from the load
æ V -
-2g l ö
V ( -l ) = V0+ eg l + V0- e-g l + gl
= V0 e ç1 + + e ÷
0

Ampl. of volt. wave prop.
towards load, at the load
position (z = 0).
è V0 ø
Ampl. of volt. wave prop. GL º Load reflection coefficient
away from load, at the
load position (z = 0). Gl º Reflection coefficient at z = - l

= V0+ eg l (1 + G L e -2g l )
Similarly,
V0+ g l
I ( -l ) = e (1 - G L e -2g l )
Z0 37
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Z0 , g

Z ( -l )

V ( -l ) = V0+ eg l (1 + G L e-2g l )
V0+ g l
I ( -l ) = e (1 - G L e-2g l )
Z0
V ( -l ) æ 1 + G L e-2g l ö
Z ( -l ) = = Z0 ç -2g l ÷
I ( -l ) è 1 - G L e ø

Input impedance seen “looking” towards load

at z = -l . 38
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
At the load (l = 0):

æ 1+ GL ö Z L - Z0
Z ( 0 ) = Z0 ç ÷ º ZL Þ GL =
è 1- GL ø Z L + Z0

æ 1 + G L e-2g l ö
Recall Z ( -l ) = Z0 ç -2g l ÷
è 1 - G L e ø

Thus, æ æ Z L - Z0 ö -2g l ö
ç 1+ ç ÷e ÷
ç è Z L + Z0 ø ÷
Z ( -l ) = Z0
ç æ Z - Z ö -2g l ÷
çç 1 - ç L 0
÷ e ÷÷
è è Z L + Z0 ø ø
39
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Simplifying, we have
æ æ Z L - Z0 ö -2g l ö
ç 1+ ç ÷e ÷
Z ( -l ) = Z0 ç è Z L + Z 0 ø ÷ æ
= Z0 çç
( Z L + Z 0 ) + ( Z L - Z 0 ) e -2g l
ö
-2g l ÷
÷
ç æ Z - Z ö -2g l ÷
è ( Z + Z ) - ( Z - Z ) e ø
çç 1 - ç L 0
÷ e ÷÷
L 0 L 0

è è Z L + Z0 ø ø
æ ( Z L + Z 0 ) e + g l + ( Z L - Z 0 ) e -g l ö
= Z0 çç -g l ÷
÷
(
è L Z + Z 0 ) e +g l
- ( Z L - Z 0 ) e ø
æ Z cosh ( g l ) + Z0 sinh ( g l ) ö
= Z0 çç L ÷÷
Z
è 0 cosh ( g l ) + Z L sinh ( g l ) ø

Hence, we have

æ Z L + Z0 tanh ( g l ) ö
Z ( -l ) = Z0 çç ÷÷
è Z0 + Z L tanh ( g l ) ø
40
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
g = a + jb = jb

V ( -l ) = V0+ e jb l (1 + G L e-2 jb l )
Impedance is periodic
+
V jb l
I ( -l ) = 0
e (1 - GL e-2 jb l ) with period lg/2
Z0
tan repeats when
æ 1 + G L e-2 j b l ö
Z ( -l ) = Z0 ç -2 j b l ÷
è 1 - GLe ø
bl = p
2p
l =p
æ Z L + jZ0 tan ( b l ) ö lg
Z ( -l ) = Z0 çç ÷÷
Z
è 0 + jZ tan ( )ø
b l
L
Þ l = lg / 2
Note: tanh ( g l ) = tanh ( j b l ) = j tan ( b l )
41
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
For the remainder of our transmission line discussion we will assume that the
transmission line is lossless.

Z0 , b

Z ( -l)

V ( -l ) = V0+ e jb l (1 + G Le-2 jb l ) Z L - Z0
V0+ jb l
GL =
I ( -l ) = e (1 - G Le-2 jb l ) Z L + Z0
Z0
2p
lg =
Z ( -l ) =
V ( -l ) æ 1 + G L e-2 jb l ö
= Z0 ç
b
-2 jb l ÷
I ( -l ) è 1 - G e ø
L
w
æ Z + jZ0 tan ( b l ) ö vp =
= Z0 çç L
Z + jZ tan ( b l )
÷÷ b
è 0 L ø 42
 Matched Load

Z0 , b

Z ( -l)

A Matched load: (ZL=Z0)

Z L - Z0
GL = =0
Z L + Z0
No reflection from the load
Þ V ( -l ) = V0+ e+ jb l
V0+ + jb l Þ Z ( -l ) = Z 0
I ( -l ) = e
Z0 For any l 43
 Short--Circuit Load
Short
B Short circuit load: (ZL = 0)
0 - Z0
GL = = -1 Z0 , b
0 + Z0
Þ Z ( -l ) = jZ0 tan ( b l )
l
Note: b l = 2p
lg Always imaginary! Þ Z ( -l ) = jX sc

X sc = Z 0 tan ( b l )

l / lg

S.C. can become an O.C.

with a lg/4 trans. line
44
Using Transmission Lines to Synthesize Loads
This is very useful is microwave engineering.

A microwave filter constructed from microstrip.

45
 Example

Z0 = b

Find the voltage at any point on the line.

æ Z L + jZ0 tan ( b d ) ö
Zin = Z ( -d ) = Z 0 çç ÷÷
è Z0 + jZ L tan ( b d ) ø

æ Zin ö
Þ V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷
Z
è in + ZTH ø
46
 Example (cont.)
Note: V ( -l ) = V e 0
+ jb l
(1 + G e L
-2 j b l
)
Z L - Z0
GL =
Z L + Z0
At l = d :
æ Zin ö
V ( -d ) = V e
0
+ jb d
(1 + G eL
- j2bd
) = VTH ç Z + Z ÷
è in TH ø

+ æ Zin ö - jb d æ 1 ö
Þ V = VTH ç
0 ÷e ç - j 2b d ÷
è Zin + ZTH ø è 1 + G L e ø
Hence

æ Zin ö - j b ( d -l ) æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b l ö
V ( -l ) = VTH ç ÷e ç - j 2b d ÷
è Z m + ZTH ø è 1 + G L e ø
47
 Example (cont.)
æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b d ö
Some algebra: Zin = Z ( -d ) = Z0 ç - j2bd ÷
è 1 - G L e ø

æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b d ö
Z0 ç
Z in è 1 - G Le- j 2b d ø
÷ Z 0 (1 + G L e- j 2 b d )
Þ = =
Zin + ZTH æ 1 + G Le- j 2b d ö Z 0 (1 + G L e- j 2 b d ) + ZTH (1 - G L e - j 2 b d )
Z0 ç - j 2b d ÷
+ ZTH
è 1 - G L e ø
Z 0 (1 + G L e- j 2 b d )
=
( ZTH + Z0 ) + G L e- j 2 b d ( Z0 - ZTH )
æ Z0 ö
=ç
(1 + G Le- j 2b d )
÷
Z
è TH + Z 0 ø æ Z - ZTH ö
1 + G Le- j 2b d ç 0 ÷
Z
è TH + Z 0 ø

æ Z0 ö
=ç
( 1 + G Le- j 2b d )
÷
Z
è TH + Z 0 ø æ Z - Z0 ö
1 - G L e - j 2 b d ç TH ÷
è ZTH + Z 0 ø
48
 Example (cont.)
Hence, we have

Z in æ Z0 ö æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b d ö
=ç ÷ç ÷
Z in + ZTH è Z 0 + ZTH ø è 1 - G S G L e - j 2 b d ø

ZTH - Z 0
where GS =
ZTH + Z 0

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

æ Z0 ö - j b ( d - l ) æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b l ö
V ( -l ) = VTH ç ÷e ç - j 2b d ÷
è Z0 + ZTH ø è 1 - G G
S L e ø

49
 Example (cont.)

Z0 = b

æ Z0 ö - j b ( d -l ) æ 1 + G L e- j 2 b l ö
V ( -l ) = VTH ç ÷e ç - j 2b d ÷
è Z0 + ZTH ø è 1 - GS G Le ø

Voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from

the load (a semi-infinite transmission line or a matched load).

50
 Example (cont.)

Z0 = b

Wave-bounce method (illustrated for l = d):

é1 + G L e- j 2b d + ( G L e- j 2 b d ) G S ù
æ Z0 ö êê ú
V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷ + éë( G Le ) G S ùû ( G Le ) + éë( G L e ) GS ( GLe ) ù GS ú
- j 2b d - j 2b d - j 2b d - j 2b d
û ú
è Z0 + ZTH øê
ê +K ú
ë û

51
 Example (cont.)
é1 + G Le- j 2 b d + ( G Le- j 2b d ) GS ù
æ Z0 ö êê ú
V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷ + éë( G L e ) G S ùû ( G L e- j 2b d ) + éë( G Le- j 2b d ) GS ( G L e- j 2 b d ) ùû G S ú
- j 2b d

è Z 0 + ZTH øê ú
ê +K ú
ë û

é1 + ( G G e- j 2 b d ) + ( G G e- j 2b d )2 + K ù
ê L S L S
ú
æ Z0 öê ùú
V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷ê + G L e - j 2b d é
êë1 + ( G G
L S e - j 2b d
) + ( G G
L S e )
- j 2b d 2
+ Kúû ú
è Z0 + ZTH øê ú
ê +K ú
ë û

Geometric series:
¥
1
åz
n =0
n
= 1+ z + z2 +K =
1- z
, z <1 z = G LG S e- j 2b d

52
 Example (cont.)
Hence
é 1 ù
ê - j 2b d ú
æ Z0 ö ê1 - G L G s e ú
V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷ê
è Z0 + ZTH ø + G e- j 2 b d æ 1 öú
ê L ç - j 2b d ÷ú
êë è 1 - G LG s e øúû

or
æ Z0 ö é 1 + G L e- j 2 b d ù
V ( -d ) = VTH ç ÷ê - j 2b d ú
è Z0 + ZTH øë 1 - G G
L s e û

This agrees with the previous result (setting l = d).

Note: This is a very tedious method – not recommended.

53
 Time-- Average Power Flow
Time
I(- )

+
Z0 , g V(- ) ZL
-

At a distance l from the load:

1 V ( -l ) = V0+ eg l (1 + G Le-2g l )
P ( -l ) = Re{V ( -l ) I * ( -l )}
V0+ g l
2 I ( -l ) = e (1 - G Le-2g l )
éV+ 2 ù Z0
1
2 ê Z0
0
(
= Re ê * e2al (1 + GL e-2g l ) 1 - G*L e-2g l
*

) ú
ú
g = a + jb
ë û

Note:
If Z0 » real (low-loss transmission line)
*
G Le-2g l - G*Le-2g l
+ 2
1V
( ) = GL e-2g l - ( G L e-2g l )
*
P ( -l ) »
0 2
e2a l 1 - GL e-4a l
2 Z0 = pure imaginary
54
 Time-- Average Power Flow
Time
I(- )

+
Low-loss line Z0 , g V(- ) ZL
-
+ 2
1V
P ( -d ) »
2 Z0
0 2
(
e2a l 1 - G L e-4a l )
+ 2 + 2
1V 0
2a l 1V 2 -2a l 0
= *
e - *
GL e
2 Z0 2 Z0
1424 3 1442443
power in forward wave power in backward wave

Lossless line (a = 0)
+ 2
V
P ( -d ) =
1 0
2 Z0
1 - GL
2
( )
55
 Quarter--Wave Transformer
Quarter

æ Z L + jZ0T tan b l ö Z0 Z0T ZL

Zin = Z 0T ç ÷
Z
è 0T + jZ L tan b l ø
Zin
lg 2p lg p
bl = b = =
4 lg 4 2
Gin = 0 Þ Z in = Z 0
Z 02T
æ jZ 0T ö Þ Z0 =
Þ Z in = Z 0T ç ÷ ZL
è jZ L ø This requires ZL to be real.

so
2
Z Hence
Z in = 0T

ZL Z 0T = [ Z 0 Z L ]
1/2

56
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
I(- )

V ( -l ) = V0+ e jb l (1 + G L e-2 jb l ) +
Z0 , g V(- ) ZL
=V e0
+ jb l
(1 + G L
jfL -2 j b l
e e ) -

V ( -l ) = V0+ 1 + G L e jfL e- j 2 b l 1+ G L
V ( z)
1 V0+

Vmax = V0+ (1 + G L ) 1- G L

Vmin = V0+ (1 - G L ) Dz = l / 2
z
z =0

Vmax
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( VSWR) =
Vmin
1 + GL
VSWR =
1 - GL 57
 Coaxial Cable
Here we present a “case study” of one particular transmission line, the coaxial cable.

b e r ,s
Find C, L, G, R

For a TEMz mode, the shape of the fields is independent of frequency, and hence we
can perform the calculation using electrostatics and magnetostatics.

We will assume no variation in the z direction, and take a length of one meter in the z
direction in order top calculate the per-unit-length parameters.
58
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
h = 1 [m]
Find C (capacitance / length)

er
Coaxial cable

From Gauss’s law:

æ rl 0 ö æ rl0 ö
E=r ç
ˆ ÷= rç
ˆ ÷
er è 2p e r ø è 2p e e
0 r r ø
a
rl0 B

V = VAB = ò E × dr
b -rl0 A
b
rl 0 æbö
= ò Er d r = ln ç ÷
a
2p e 0 e r è a ø
59
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
h = 1 [m]

er
Coaxial cable
Hence

Q rl 0 (1)
C= =
V æ rl 0 ö æ b ö
ç ÷ ln ç ÷
è 2p e 0 e r ø è a ø
er
a We then have
rl0

b -rl0 2p e 0 e r
C= [F/m]
æbö
ln ç ÷
èaø
60
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Find L (inductance / length)

h = 1 [m]
I
From Ampere’s law:
æ I ö
mr H = fˆ ç
2p r
÷
Coaxial cable è ø

æ I ö
B = fˆ ç ÷ m0 m r
Note: We ignore “internal inductance”
here, and only look at the magnetic field
è 2p r ø
between the two conductors (accurate I
for high frequency.

z
Magnetic flux: I center conductor
b S
y = (1) ò Bf d r
a

h
61
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
b
y = (1) m0 mr òH f dr
h = 1 [m] a
I b
I
= m0 mr ò dr
2pr
mr a

Coaxial cable I æbö

= m0 mr ln ç ÷
2p è a ø

y 1 æbö
L= = m0 mr ln ç ÷
I 2p è a ø

m0 m r æ b ö
Hence L= ln ç ÷ [H/m]
2p èaø
62
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Observation:

2p e 0 e r
C= [F/m]
æbö
ln ç ÷
èaø
m0 m r æ b ö
L= ln ç ÷ [H/m]
2p èaø

LC = me = m 0e 0 ( m r e r )

This result actually holds for any transmission line.

63
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

L
For a lossless cable: Z0 =
C

2p e 0 e r m0 m r æ b ö
C= [F/m] L= ln ç ÷ [H/m]
æbö 2p èaø
ln ç ÷
èaø

mr 1 æ b ö
Z 0 = h0 ln ç ÷ [W]
e r 2p è a ø

m0
h0 = = 376.7303 [W ]
e0
64
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
h = 1 [m]
Find G (conductance / length)

s
Coaxial cable

From Gauss’s law:

æ rl 0 ö æ rl0 ö
E=r ç
ˆ ÷= rç
ˆ ÷
s è 2p e r ø è 2p e e
0 r r ø
a
rl0 B

V = VAB = ò E × dr
b -rl0 A
b
rl 0 æbö
= ò Er d r = ln ç ÷
a
2p e 0 e r è a ø
65
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

s J =sE
a
rl0
I leak = J r
r =a
[(1) 2p a ]
b -rl0 = 2p as Er
r =a

æ rl 0 ö
= 2p as ç ÷
è 2p e e
0 r a ø
I leak
We then have G=
V

æ rl 0 ö
2p as ç ÷
è 2 p e e a ø 2ps
G= 0 r
or G= [S/m]
rl 0 æbö æbö
ln ç ÷ ln ç ÷
2p e 0 e r è a ø èaø
66
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

Observation:

2p e
C= [F/m] e = e 0e r
æbö
ln ç ÷
èaø

2ps
G= [S/m]
æbö
ln ç ÷
èaø
æs ö
G = Cç ÷
èe ø
This result actually holds for any transmission line.
67
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
As just derived,
æs ö
G =Cç ÷
èe ø

To be more general:

G æs ö
÷ = tan d
This is the loss tangent that would
=ç
wC è we ø arise from conductivity effects.

G The loss tangent actually arises from

= tan d both conductivity loss and polarization
wC loss (molecular friction loss), ingeneral.

Note: It is the loss tangent that is usually (approximately)

constant for a material, over a wide range of frequencies.
68
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)

General expression for loss tangent:

æs ö
ec = e - j ç ÷ Effective permittivity that accounts for conductivity
èw ø
æs ö
= ( e - je ) - j ç ÷
¢ ¢¢
èw ø
= e c¢ - je c¢¢

Loss due to molecular friction Loss due to conductivity

¢¢ æs ö
e +ç ÷
e c¢¢ èw ø
tan d º =
e c¢ e¢
69
 Coaxial Cable (cont.)
h = 1 [m] Find R (resistance / length)

R = Ra + Rb
Coaxial cable
æ 1 ö
Ra = Rsa ç ÷
è 2p a ø
Rs = surface resistance of metal
æ 1 ö
Rb = Rsb ç ÷
s b , m rb è 2p b ø

1 1
s a , m ra Rsa = Rsb =
s s ad a s bd b
a

2 2
b da = db =
wm0 mras a wm0 m rbs b
70
 General Transmission Line Formulas
L
(1) = Z 0lossless = characteristic impedance of line (neglecting loss)
C

(2) LC = me ¢ = m 0e 0 ( m r e r¢ ) R = Ra + Rb
é 1 ù
Ri = Rs ê 2 ò J sz (l ) dl ú
2
G (4)
(3) = tan d êë I Ci úû
wC Ci = contour of conductor, i = a, b

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find L and C if we know the material
properties and the characteristic impedance of the lossless line.

Equation (3) can be used to find G if we know the material loss tangent.

Equation (4) can be used to find R (discussed later).

71
General Transmission Line Formulas (cont.)
Al four per-unit-length parameters can be found from Z 0lossless , R

L = Z 0lossless me ¢

C = me ¢ / Z 0lossless

G = (wC ) tan d

R=R

72
 Common Transmission Lines
Coax

mr 1 æ b ö e r , mr
Z lossless
0 = h0 ln ç ÷ [W]
e r 2p è a ø a

æ 1 ö æ 1 ö b
R = Rsa ç ÷ + Rsb ç ÷
è 2p a ø è 2p b ø

Twin-lead

h0 mr æ h ö
Z 0lossless = cosh -1 ç ÷ [W] h
p er è 2a ø
a a
é ù
ê æ h ö ú
ç ÷ e r , mr
ê 1 è 2a ø ú
R = Rs ê
p a æ h ö2 ú
ê -1 ú
êë ç ÷ úû
è 2a ø 73
 Common Transmission Lines (cont.)
Microstrip ( w / h ³ 1)

æ e reff ( f ) - 1 ö e reff ( 0 )
Z 0 ( f ) = Z 0 ( 0 ) ç eff
ç e ( 0 ) - 1 ÷÷ e eff ( f )
è r ø r

120p
Z0 ( 0) =
e reff ( 0 ) éë( w¢ / h ) + 1.393 + 0.667 ln ( ( w¢ / h ) + 1.444 ) ùû

t æ æ 2h ö ö
w¢ = w + ç1 + ln ç t ÷ ÷
p è è øø

w
t

er h
74
 Common Transmission Lines (cont.)
Microstrip ( w / h ³ 1)
2
æ e r - e reff (0) ö
e reff ( f ) = çç e r (0) +
eff
-1.5
÷
÷
1 + 4F
è ø

e r + 1 æ e r - 1 ö çæ 1 ö æ e -1 ö æ t / h ö
e eff
( 0) = +ç ÷ç ÷-ç r ÷ç ÷
è 2 ø è 1 + 12 ( h / w ) ÷ø è 4.6 ø è w / h ø
r
2

æ hö æ æ æ w ö ö
ö
2

F = 4 ç ÷ e r - 1 ç 0.5 + ç1 + 0.868ln ç1 + ÷ ÷ ÷
è l0 ø ç è è h ø ø ÷ø
è

w
t

er h
75
 Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory
At high frequency, discontinuity effects can become important.

transmitted

incident

Bend

reflected

The simple TL model does not account for the bend.

ZTH

+- Z0 ZL
76
 Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

At high frequency, radiation effects can become important.

We want energy to travel from the generator to the load, without radiating.

ZTH

+- Z0 ZL

When will radiation occur?

77
Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The coaxial cable is a perfectly

shielded system – there is never
any radiation at any frequency, or
under any circumstances.

er a
z b

The fields are confined to the region

between the two conductors.

78
 Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The twin lead is an open type of transmission

line – the fields extend out to infinity.

+ -
The extended fields may cause
interference with nearby objects.
(This may be improved by using
“twisted pair.”)

Having fields that extend to infinity is not the same thing as having radiation, however.
79
 Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The infinite twin lead will not radiate by itself, regardless of how far apart
the lines are.

æ1 ö
Pt = ò Re ç ( E ´ H* ) ÷ × rˆ dS = 0
è2 ø
reflected S

S
incident

+ -
h

No attenuation on an infinite lossless line

The incident and reflected waves represent an exact solution to Maxwell’s

equations on the infinite line, at any frequency.

80
 Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)
A discontinuity on the twin lead will cause radiation to occur.

Incident wave
pipe

obstacle h

Reflected wave

Note: Radiation effects

increase as the
frequency increases. Incident wave

bend h bend

81
Reflected wave
Limitations of Transmission-
Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

To reduce radiation effects of the twin lead at discontinuities:

1) Reduce the separation distance h (keep h << l).

2) Twist the lines (twisted pair).

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)
82