CIVE1400 Examination 1996.

Answers
Question 6

6(a) Use the Bernoulli equation to show that the relationship between flow and depth

over a sharp-edged triangular weir is given by

(10 marks)
6(b) A rectangular weir and a V-notch weir are located in parallel channels of the
same dimensions. Both weirs have an opening 0.3 m wide at the top and 0.3 m deep.
Both have a Cd of 0.6. What head would be required over the rectangular weir to pass
the same flow as over the V-notch weir when it has a head of 0.29 m?

(For a rectangular weir )

(10 marks)
6(a):

A General Weir Equation

Consider a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in
the figure below.

Elemental strip of flow through a notch

Assuming the velocity is only due to the head.

Integrating from the free surface, , to the weir crest, gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge
This will be different for every differently shaped weir or notch. To make further use
of this equation we need an expression relating the width of flow across the weir to
the depth below the free surface.

For the "V" notch weir the relationship between width and depth is dependent on the
angle of the "V".

"V" notch, or triangular, weir geometry.

If the angle of the "V" is then the width, b, a depth h from the free surface is

So the discharge is

The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

6(b):

Equating the two weir equations:

Cd is the same for both equations.

HR = 0.29 m
b = 0.3m

Substituting these into the above equation gives.

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CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers

Question 7

7)
A plunger of diameter 0.1 m and length 0.15 m has five small holes of diameter 2 mm
drilled through it in the direction of its length. The plunger fits closely inside a
cylinder containing oil, such that no oil passes between the plunger and the cylinder.
Calculate the force which must be applied to the plunger, in a downward vertical
direction, to make the plunger fall with a speed of 0.0005 m/s. Assume that the
upwards flow through the small holes is laminar and that the coefficient of viscosity
of the oil is 0.2 kg/ms.

(20 marks)

Velocity, u = 0.0005 m/s

viscosity  = 0.2 kg m-1 s-1
length = 0.15m
hole diameter, d = 2mm = 0.002m
Plunger diameter D = 0.1m

The Hagen-Poiseuille equation for head loss during laminar flow in a pipe is:

Pressure loss is given by

Pressure difference between top and bottom of each hole is:

So we need a pressure of 120 N/m2 at the bottom of the cylinder.

Pressure = Force / area

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CIVE1400 Examination 1997. Answers

Question 1

1.a A differential "U"-tube manometer containing mercury of density is

used to measure the pressure drop along a horizontal pipe. If the fluid in the pipe is
water and the manometer reading is what is the pressure difference between the
two tapping points.
(7 marks)
1.b A square tank of side length is filled with oil to a depth of . If the
density of the oil is , find the resultant force and its point of action on one
wall.
(6 marks)
1.c A jet of water of area is being fired horizontally at a vertical wall. If the
velocity of the jet is estimate the force exerted on the wall.
(7 marks)
1.a
 Figure of manometer setup

density of mercury  = 13000 kg/m3

pressure at C and D is equal:

pC = pD
pA + w g a = pB + w g ( b - h ) + Hg g h

pA - pB = w g b - w g h - w g a + Hg g h
= w g ( b - a ) + hg ( Hg - w )

As horizontal a = b

pA - pB = hg ( Hg - w )
= 0.6  9.81  ( 13000 - 1000 )
= 70 632 N/m2
= 70.6 kN/m2
1.b
Force per unit width R,

R =  g H  H  0.5
=   9.81  0.82 0.5
= 2668 N/m

Total force on wall = 2668  1.3 = 3468 N

Point of action , normal to wall through centroid of pressure diagram. 2/3 from
surface.

Distance from surface to point of action of resultant = 2H/3 = 0.53 m

1.c
Force on the water:

Force on the wall = R = -F = 62500 N (in the direction of the jet)

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CIVE1400 Examination 1997. Answers

Question 2

2
Water flows ate a rate of 0.5m3/s round a , contracting pipe bend which lies in a
horizontal plane. The diameter at the bend entrance is and at the exit
- as shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1.

If the pressure at the entrance to the bend is , determine the magnitude

and direction of the force exerted by the fluid on the bend.

(17 marks)

Comment on the reason why frictional losses may be neglected in this analysis.

(3 marks)

A1= d1 / 4 = 0.3848 m2

A2= d2 / 4 = 0.1963 m2
u1 = Q/A1 = 0.5/0.3848 = 1.299 m/s
u2 = Q/A2 = 0.5/0.1963 = 2.546 m/s
p1 = 200 kN/m2 = 200 000 N/m2

Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:

In the y-direction:
Calculate the pressure force

Use Bernoulli to calculate force at exit, p2

the friction loss hf can be ignored, hf=0

As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2

By continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2

Calculate the body force

There are no body forces as the pipe is in the horizontal plane.

Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

the force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

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CIVE1400 Examination 1997. Answers

Question 3
3.a Using continuity and the Bernoulli equation derive an expression which can be
used to measure flow in a Venturi meter.

(15 marks)

3.b A Venturi meter is being used to measure flow in a pipeline of diameter

which carries water. When the pressure difference between the throat and the entrance
of the Venturi meter is on a mercury manometer, determine the flow in the
pipeline.

The Venturi meter has a throat diameter of and a coefficient of discharge of

0.97. The relative density of mercury is 13.6.

(5 marks)

A Venturi meter

Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat
of the Venturi meter we have
By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual
discharge taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of
discharge

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

A1 =  0.252 /4 = 0.049 m2

A2 =  0.082 /4 = 0.005 m2

h = 0.3 m

Hg = man = 13 600 kg/m3

H20 =  = 1000 kg /m3

Cd = 0.97

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Question 4

4
Two vertical cylindrical tanks of 3m and 2m diameter containing water are joined at
their bases by a pipe of diameter 0.05m. This pipe is short enough to be treated as an
orifice with a coefficient of discharge of 0.58.
The tank initially has a level higher than the other, calculate how long it will
take for the level difference to half.

(20 marks)
 Two tanks of initially different levels joined by an orifice

Applying the continuity equation

Also we can write

So

Then we get

Re arranging and integrating between the two levels we get

h in this expression is the difference in height between the two levels (h2 - h1).

To get the time for the levels to equal use hinitial = h1 and hfinal = 0.

The question says hinitial = 2m and we want the time for this to half so, hfinal = 1m

A1 =  32 /4 = 7.069 m2
A2 =  22 /4 = 3.142 m2
Ao =  0.052 /4 = 0.0019634 m2

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CIVE1400 Examination 1997. Answers

Question 5

5
In an experiment water is flowing over an V-notch - Figure 2 - with a constant
head of into a vertical cylindrical tank of diameter .
 Figure 2

If the level in the tank rises in 20 seconds, deriving all formulae, determine the
coefficient of discharge of the notch.

(20 marks)
A General Weir Equation

Consider a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in
the figure below.

Elemental strip of flow through a notch

Assuming the velocity is only due to the head.

Integrating from the free surface, , to the weir crest, gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge

This will be different for every differently shaped weir or notch. To make further use
of this equation we need an expression relating the width of flow across the weir to
the depth below the free surface.
For the "V" notch weir the relationship between width and depth is dependent on the
angle of the "V".

"V" notch, or triangular, weir geometry.

If the angle of the "V" is then the width, b, a depth h from the free surface is

So the discharge is

The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

From the question:

Q = Atank h /time =  0.52 / 4) 0.8/20 = 0.00785 m3/s

 = 80
Head = H = 0.3

Re arranging the weir equation, and substituting in these values gives

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CIVE1400 Examination 1997. Answers

Question 6

6
An emergency relief outlet from an ornamental pond in a public garden consists of a
2m wide sluice leading into a dry channel. This outlet is controlled by a sector gate of
1.5m radius as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Determine the resultant force on the gate and the angle that this makes to the
horizontal.

(20 marks)

h = 1.5 sin 20 = 0.513 m

b = 1.5 cos 20 = 1.4095 m
a = 1.5 - b = 0.09046 m

Horizontal force

Rh = pressure on a projection of curved surface on to a vertical wall

= pressure at centroid of vertical projection  Area
=  g h’  A

h’ = 0.5 + h/2 = 0.7565 m

Rh = 1000  9.81  0.7565  0.513  2

= 7614.2 N

Vertical force

Rv = weight of imaginary fluid in volume ABC

Area of sector =   1.52  20 /360 = 0.3927 m2
 Area of triangle = b h /2 = 0.513  1.4095  0.5 = 0.3615 m2
Area of rectangle = 0.5  a = 0.5  0.09064 = 0.04523 m2
Rv =  g ( 0.3927 - 0.3615 + 0.04523)  2
= 1500 N

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

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Question 7

7
Describe the following phenomenon and explain why they occur:

Read any fluid mechanics book to find the text for these answers.

a. The boundary layer;

(5 marks)
b. Boundary layer separation;
(5 marks)
c. Boundary layer separation at a T-junction;
(5 marks)
d. The laminar sub-layer.
(5 marks)

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1. A rectangular sluice gate is fitted at the base of a reservoir wall with a pivot in
the arrangement shown in Figure 1. The gate is designed to regulate the level
of water in the reservoir by opening when the water level to the right, h,
reaches a certain depth. The gate has a width of 1.2m and its centre of gravity
is 0.3m from the wall.

Determine the weight, W, of the gate, if a water level of h = 2.779m

will just cause the gate to open.
[The second moment of area of a rectangle about an axis through its
centre is bd3/12]

(20 marks)

Figure 1

The gate opens when the moment at the pivot is clockwise.

That is when the moment due to the water > 0.3w.

Method 1

Force on plane = Area  Pressure at centroid

Method 2

Horizontal force = Hf = Area of projection on vertical plane  pressure

at centroid
 Vertical force = weight of water above gate

Resultant force

Method 3

Point of action of the force = centre of pressure

For a rectangle,
Need to find the lever arm, i.e. the distance from the pivot to the centre of pressure
specified by Sc.

First find the position of the pivot, x2, from the surface (along the inclined plane)

x2 cos 30 = 2

x2 = 2.309m

Lever are, x1 = Sc - x2 = 2.783 - 2.309 = 0.474 m

Take moments to fine the weight of the gate, w

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CIVE1400 Examination 1998. Answers

Question 2

2. A pipeline carries water around a horizontal 45 bend. The entrance diameter of the
bend is 500mm and the velocity of flow is 1 m/s. The bend tapers gradually to 200
mm diam0eter at its exit. If the pressure just upstream of the entrance is measured at
200kN/m2 , what is the force, and its line of action, exerted by the water on the bend?

(17 marks)

Comment on the reason why frictional losses may be neglected in this analysis.

(3 marks)
A1= d12 / 4 = 0.1963 m2

A2= d22 / 4 = 0.0314 m2

u1 = Q/A1 ;

Q = u1 A1. = 1.0  0.1963 = 0.1963 m3 /s

u2 = Q/A2 = 0.1963/0.0314 = 6.248 m/s

p1 = 200 kN/m2 = 200 000 N/m2

Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:

In the y-direction:

Calculate the pressure force

Use Bernoulli to calculate force at exit, p2

the friction loss hf can be ignored, hf=0

As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2

By continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2

Calculate the body force

There are no body forces as the pipe is in the horizontal plane.

Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

the force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

Friction can be ignored in the analysis because the pipe length is very short frictional
effects it will be tiny in comparison to the other forces. Other losses are minimised as
the bed is converging.

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CIVE1400 Examination 1998. Answers

Question 3

3.a The expression below calculates the discharge in a pipeline from measurement of
the pressure at the tapping points of a Venturimeter.

Show that if the pressure is measured using a manometer, as shown in

Figure 2, then the inclination of the metre is not relevant.

Figure 2

(15 marks)

3.b A Venturimeter with a throat diameter of 40mm is connected to a

100mm pipeline. When the flow in the pipeline is 12 litres/s the
difference in pressure on a mercury manometer is 375mm. What is the
coefficient of discharge at this flow?

(The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6).

(5 marks)

3.a
This can be expressed in terms of the manometer readings (see figure below)

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

There are no terms that require the angle or height on the Venturi
meter in this expression.

3.b

d1 = 100mm = 0.1 m

A1 =  0.12 /4 = 0.00785 m2

d2 = 40mm = 0.04 m

A2 =  0.042 /4 = 0.001257 m2
h = 375mm = 0.375 m

Hg = man = 13 600 kg/m3

H20 =  = 1000 kg /m3

Q = 10 litres/s = 0.01 m3/s

Cd = ?

4.a Starting from the Bernoulli equation develop a relationship

between the flow over a sharp edged rectangular weir and the depth of
water above the base of the weir. State any assumptions made.

(15 marks)

4.b A sharp edged rectangular weir has a width of 400mm and a

coefficient of discharge of 0.65. What is the flow of water when the
upstream depth above the base of the weir is 250mm.

(5 marks)

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Question 4

4.a

A General Weir Equation

Consider a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in
the figure below.
 Elemental strip of flow through a notch

Assuming the velocity is only due to the head.

Integrating from the free surface, , to the weir crest, gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge

This will be different for every differently shaped weir or notch. To make further use
of this equation we need an expression relating the width of flow across the weir to
the depth below the free surface.

For a rectangular weir b = B = constant

The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

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CIVE1400 Examination 1998. Answers

Question 5

5. Explain, with a complete description of the mechanisms at work, what is meant by

the following phrases.

a. Laminar flow

(5 marks)

b. Turbulent flow

(5 marks)

c. Boundary layer

(5 marks)

d. Boundary layer separation

(5 marks)

These require book work.

A minimum of two pages of descriptions will be required.

Answers with full explanations of the processes and how they interact (with diagrams)
will get good marks.

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Question 6

6.a Describe some uses for dimensional analysis. Your explanation should include the
meanings and relevance of the terms geometric similarity, dynamic similarity and
kinematic similarity.

(8 marks)
6.b The drag force, F, exerted on a body in a moving fluid can be said to be a function
of the following parameters

fluid density 

fluid viscosity 

diameter d

velocity u

Show that an expression for the drag force is

where  is some unknown function and Re is the Reynolds number.

(12 marks)

6.a

Book work - requires at least 5 lines per description.

One line answers are NOT sufficient.

6.b

Assume the governing variables  , u, d

According to Buckingham's  theorem there are n-m groups

where

n = number of variables (5) and

m = number of dimensions (i.e. MLT, giving 3)

n-m = 5-3 = 2 groups

Dimensions of the variables are:

 = density (kg/m3) = ML-3

 = viscosity (kg/m/s) = ML-1 T-1

u = velocity (m/s) = ML-1

d = length (m) = L

F = newtons (kg m /s2) = MLT-2

For  1

For  2
 Inverting  1 gives

Rearranging this gives

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CIVE1400 Examination 1998. Answers

Question 7

7.a Define the following terms in connection with the flow of a liquid

i. Uniform flow
ii. Steady flow
iii. Unsteady flow
iv. Mean velocity
v. Discharge
vi. Mass flow rate
vii. Continuity

(14 marks)

7.b Oil flows in a pipe which contracts from 450mm diameter at point
A to 300mm at point B then splits into to branches of diameters
150mm and 225mm discharging at C and D respectively.

If the velocity at A is 1.8m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6m/s, what is

the discharge at C and D and the velocity at B and C?

(3 marks)

7.c If point A is 10m higher than point B and the pressure at A is

10kN/m2, what is the pressure at point B?

(3 marks)

7.a
A minimum of 3 lines per description is required - preferably more with simple
examples. Four or five words is NOT sufficient and you will get no marks.

7.b

vA = 1.8 m/s

AA =  0.452 / 4 = 0.159 m2

vD = 3.6 m/s

AD =  0.2252 / 4 = 0.0398 m2

QA = vA AA = 0.286 m3/s

AB =  0.32 / 4 = 0.0707 m2

AC =  0.152 / 4 = 0.0177 m2

QA = QB = 0.286 = AB vB

vB = 0.286 / 0.0707 = 4.0545 m/s

QD = AD vD = 3.6  0.398 = 0.1439 m3/s

QC = QA - QD = 0.1427 m3/s

vC = QC / AC = 0.14272 / 0.0177 = 8.063 m/s

7.c

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 Back To June 1999 Questions Page

1.a A concrete dam has the cross-sectional profile shown in Figure 1. Calculate the
magnitude, direction and position of action of the resultant force exerted by the water
per unit width of dam?

(15 marks)

Figure 1

1.b A second design for the same dam has the cross-sectional profile composed of a
vertical face with a circular curved section at the base as shown in Figure 2. Calculate
the resultant force and its direction of application per unit width of this dam.

(10 marks)

Figure 2

1.a.

Method 1

Vertical force = weight of water =  g A b

Horizontal force = force on a projection of the vertical plane

Acting at right angle to the wall 15 to the horizontal. Also

Method 2

Force on wall = pressure at centroid  area of wall

=  g  depth to centroid  area of wall

Sloping wall length,

Position of this force is through the centre of pressure, Sc.

Using the parallel axis theorem,

is the distance along the face to the centroid = v/2 = 5.175m

This is the distance to the centre of pressure from O.

1.b.

Vertical force

Horizontal force = force on the projection of vertical plan.

This is the same as in part a of this question.

Resultant force

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Question 2
2.a A differential "U"-tube manometer containing mercury of density is
used to measure the pressure drop along a horizontal pipe. If the fluid in the pipe is
water and the manometer reading is 0.65m, what is the pressure difference between
the two tapping points?

(8 marks)

2.b A square tank of side length is filled with oil to a depth of

1.8m. If the density of the oil is , find the resultant force
and its point of action on one wall.

(6 marks)

2.c A jet of water of diameter 0.2m is being fired horizontally at a

vertical wall. If the velocity of the jet is 20.0m/s estimate the force
exerted on the wall.

(6 marks)

2.d Water is flowing from a horizontal nozzle into the atmosphere at

20m/s. The diameter of the pipe feeding the nozzle is 80mm and the
nozle has a diameter of 20mm at its exit. Find the pressure just
upstream of the nozzle.

(5 marks)

2.a
 Figure of manometer setup

density of mercury  = 13000 kg/m3

pressure at C and D is equal:

pC = pD

pA + w g a = pB + w g ( b - h ) + Hg g h

pA - pB = w g b - w g h - w g a + Hg g h

= w g ( b - a ) + hg ( Hg - w )

As horizontal a = b

pA - pB = hg ( Hg - w )

= 0.65  9.81  ( 13000 - 1000 )

= 76 518 N/m2

= 76.5 kN/m2

2.b

Force per unit width R,

R =  g H  H  0.5

=   9.81  1.82 0.5

= 12 713 N/m

Total force on wall = 12713  1.5 = 19070 N

Point of action , normal to wall through centroid of pressure diagram.

2/3 from surface.

Distance from surface to point of action of resultant = 2H/3 = 1.2 m

2.c

Area of the jet

Force on the water:

 Force on the wall = R = -F = 12560 N (in the direction of the jet)

2.d

u1 = unknown

d1 = 0.08m

u2 = 20 m/s

d2 = 0.02m

Use continuity to calculate the unknow velocity

Use Bernoulli to calculate the unknown pressure

As horizontal z1 = z2

p2 = atmospheric = 0.0
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CIVE1400 Examination 1999. Answers

Question 3

3 A 5m wide tank with an L-shaped cross section, as shown in Figure 3, has a gate
which is hinged at the top at it right hand end. If the tank is filled with water to a level
of 8m determine the torque required at the hinge to just keep the gate closed.

(20 marks)

Determine also the force on the base of the tank and comment on why this is not the
same as the weight of the water.

(5 marks)

Figure 3
 Position of action of force = Sc from the point O

The point O is the point where a line from the gate crosses the top
water surface level

Position of this force is through the centre of pressure, Sc.

Using the parallel axis theorem,

is the distance along the face to the centroid

 Torque required = Nm clockwise

Force on base = PA = pghA = 3924 kN

Weight of water = (1085 - 465)9810 = 2746800 kN

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Question 4

4 Water flows at a rate of 1.0m3/s round a 45 contracting pipe bend which lies in a
horizontal plane. The diameter at the bend entrance is 800mm and at the exit 400mm -
as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4.

If the pressure at the entrance to the bend is100 kN/m2, what is the magnitude and
direction of the force exerted by the fluid on the bend?

(22 marks)

Comment on the reason why frictional losses may be neglected in this analysis.

(3 marks)

A1= d12 / 4 = 0.5027 m2

A2= d22 / 4 = 0.1257 m2

u1 = Q/A1 = 1.0/0.5027 = 1.989 m/s

u2 = Q/A2 = 1.0/0.1257 = 7.955 m/s

p1 = 100 kN/m2 = 100 000 N/m2

Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:

In the y-direction:

Calculate the pressure force

Use Bernoulli to calculate force at exit, p2

the friction loss hf can be ignored, hf=0

As the pipe is in the horizontal plane, z1=z2

By continuity, Q= u1A1 = u2A2

 Calculate the body force

There are no body forces as the pipe is in the horizontal plane.

Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

the force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

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Question 5

5.a Using continuity and the Bernoulli equation derive the following expression that
can be used to measure flow rate with a Venturi meter.

(12 marks)

5.b A manomter may be attached to the Venturi meter to measure the pressure
difference between point 1 and 2 in figure 5 below. Show that in this situation it is not
necessary to know the inclination of the Venturi meter to measure flow rate.

(8 marks)

5.c A Venturi meter is being used to measure flow in a pipeline of diameter

which carries water. When the pressure difference between the throat and the entrance
of the Venturi meter is on a mercury manometer, determine the flow in the
pipeline.

The Venturi meter has a throat diameter of and a coefficient of discharge of

0.97. The relative density of mercury is 13.6.
 (5 marks)

Figure 5

5.a

Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat
of the Venturi meter we have

By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual
discharge taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a coefficient of
discharge

5.b

This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading::

5.c

A1 =  0.252 /4 = 0.049 m2

A2 =  0.082 /4 = 0.005 m2

h = 0.3 m

Hg = man = 13 600 kg/m3

H20 =  = 1000 kg /m3

Cd = 0.97

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CIVE1400 Examination 1999. Answers

Question 6

6.a Assuming the drag force, F, exerted on a body is a function of the

following

fluid density 

fluid viscosity 

diameter d

velocity u

Show that the drag force can be expressed as

where  is some unknown function and Re is the Reynolds number.

(10 marks)

6.b The diameter of a ball is 0.1m and it is required to predict the force
it will experience when exposed to a flow of water travelling at 5 m/s.
A sphere of 1.0 m diameter is available and can be exposed to a flow
of air. To obtain the dynamically similar conditions at what velocity
should this flow of air opperate?

(8 marks)

6.c Under these conditions the 1m diameter sphere exeperiences a

force of 14 200 N. What force would you expect on the 0.1m diameter
ball when in water flow?

(7 Marks)

 water = 1.0  10-6 kg/ms

 air = 1.7  10-5 kg/ms

 water = 1000 kg/m3

 air = 12.5 kg/m3

6.a.
 Assume the governing variables  , u, d

According to Buckingham's  theorem there are n-m groups

where

n = number of variables (5) and

m = number of dimensions (i.e. MLT, giving 3)

n-m = 5-3 = 2 groups

Dimensions of the variables are:

 = density (kg/m3) = ML-3

 = viscosity (kg/m/s) = ML-1 T-1

u = velocity (m/s) = ML-1

d = length (m) = L

F = newtons (kg m /s2) = MLT-2

For  1
For  2

Inverting  1 gives

Rearranging this gives

6.b

For dynamic similarity the Reynolds numbers are equal for both the
water and air situation
 6.c.

With dynamic similarity

So

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 1

1 A 5m wide tank with an L-shaped cross section, as shown in Figure 1, has a gate
which is hinged at the top at it right hand end. If the tank is filled with water to a level
of 8m determine the torque required at the hinge to just keep the gate closed.

(20 marks)

Determine also the force on the base of the tank and comment on why this is not the
same as the weight of the water.

(5 marks)
 Figure 1

Position of action of force = Sc from the point O

The point O is the point where a line from the gate crosses the top water surface level

Position of this force is through the centre of pressure, Sc.

Using the parallel axis theorem,

 is the distance along the face to the centroid

Torque required = Nm clockwise

Force on base = PA = pghA = 3924 kN

Weight of water = (1085 - 465)9810 = 2746800 N

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 2

2 Water flows along a circular pipe and is turned vertically through 180 by a
reducing bend as shown in figure 2. The rate of flow in the pipe is 20 litres/s, the
pressure measured at the entrance to the bend is 120 kN/m3 and the volume of fluid in
the bend is 0.1m3. What is the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the
fluid on the bend? Ignore any friction losses.

(25 marks)
 Figure 2

Take the inlet as point 1 and the outlet as point 2.

Q = 2 l/s = 0.02 m3/s

p1 = 120000 N/m2

Height difference between the two pipe centres,

h = 0.35m

p1 = 120000 N/m2 p2 = ?

d1 = 0.3m d2 = 0.2 m

Calculate the total force on the bend.

In the x- direction
In the y-direction there is no component i.e.

Calculate the pressure force

Fp = pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2

We know p1 but need to find p2 using Bernoulli from point 1 to point 2.

Calculate the body forces

The only body force is that due to gravity i.e the weight of the water.

We are given the volume = 0.1 m3

Calculate the resultant force acting on the fluid

Acting at the angle 

The force acting on the bend is -12197 N i.e. equal in magnitude to the force on the
fluid, but in the opposite direction.

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 3

3 Describe with the aid of diagrams the following phenomena explaining why and
when they occur.

(Each part requires at least a half page description of the phenomenon plus diagrams.)

i. The laminar boundary layer

(5 marks)
 ii. The turbulent boundary layer

(5 marks)

iii. The laminar sublayer

(5 marks)

iv. Boundary layer separation

(5 marks)

v. Methods to prevent boundary layer separation

(5 marks)

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 4

4.a Starting from the Bernoulli equation, develop the equation shown below for
discharge over a sharp edged rectangular weir. State all assumptions made.

(15 marks)

4.b At the end of a channel is a sharp edged rectangular weir with a width of 400mm
and a coefficient of discharge of 0.65. The water is flowing at a depth 0.16m above
the base of the weir. If this weir is replaced by a 90 V-notch weir with the same
coefficient of discharge, what will be the necessary upstream depth of water to
achieve the same discharge as the rectangular weir.

The equation for discharge over a v-notch weir is:

(10 marks)

4.a
A General Weir Equation

Consider a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as shown in
the figure below.

Elemental strip of flow through a notch

Assuming the velocity is only due to the head i.e. a very slow flow towards the weir.
Then from the Bernoulli equation we get this expression for:

Integrating from the free surface, , to the weir crest, gives the expression
for the total theoretical discharge

This will be different for every differently shaped weir or notch. To make further use
of this equation we need an expression relating the width of flow across the weir to
the depth below the free surface.

For a rectangular weir b = B = constant

The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

For the rectangular weir

 For the v-notch weir

(Note you have to use the inverse-root function of your calculator to get the value for
H from H5/2 )

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 5

5 A rectangular sluice gate is fitted at the base of a reservoir wall with a pivot in the
arrangement shown in Figure 3. The gate is designed to regulate the level of water in
the reservoir by opening when the water level to the right, h, reaches a certain depth.
The gate has a width of 1.2m and its centre of gravity is 0.3m from the wall.

Determine the weight, W, of the gate, if a water level of h = 2.779m will just cause
the gate to open.

(25 marks)

Figure 3
The gate opens when the moment at the pivot is clockwise.

That is when the moment due to the water > 0.3w.

Method 1

Force on plane = Area  Pressure at centroid

Method 2

Horizontal force = Hf = Area of projection on vertical plane  pressure

at centroid

Vertical force = weight of water above gate

Resultant force

Method 3
 Point of action of the force = centre of pressure

For a rectangle,

Need to find the lever arm, i.e. the distance from the pivot to the centre of pressure
specified by Sc.

First find the position of the pivot, x2, from the surface (along the inclined plane)

x2 cos 30 = 2

x2 = 2.309m

Lever are, x1 = Sc - x2 = 2.783 - 2.309 = 0.474 m

Take moments to fine the weight of the gate, w

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CIVE1400 Examination 2000. Answers

Question 6

6.a Describe what is meant by the term dimensional analysis. Your explanation should
include the meanings and relevance of the terms geometric similarity, dynamic
similarity and kinematic similarity as well as identifying some uses form the
technique.

(8 marks)

6.b Assuming the drag force, F, exerted on a body is a function of the following

fluid density 

fluid viscosity 

diameter d

velocity u

Show that the drag force can be expressed as

where  is some unknown function and Re is the Reynolds number.

(10 marks)

6.c A prototype boat propeller has a diameter of 1.0m. It is necessary

to determine the force it will experience when water flows past at 5
m/s. A model propeller is available of diameter 0.1m and can be placed
in a wind tunnel. To obtain the dynamically similar conditions at what
velocity would the air need to flow in the wind tunnel?

(7 marks)

 water = 1.0  106 kg/ms  air = 1.7  105 kg/ms

 water = 1000 kg/m3  air = 12.5 kg/m3

 6.a.

Dimensional analysis is used when constructing physical models of prototype

structures. Physical models are used when the fluid flow is particularly complex and
difficult to analyse by other means. It enables physical measurements - forces,
velocities etc. - taken from the scale models to be converted to the equivalent
measurement which would be found on a prototype.

The term similarity relates to physical a scale models.

Geometric similarity - all dimensions are in the in the same ratio.

Dynamic similarity - all velocities are in the same ratio - requires geometric similarity

Kinematic similarity - all forces are in the same ration - requires dynamic similarity.

6.b.

Assume the governing variables  , u, d

According to Buckingham's  theorem there are n-m groups

where

n = number of variables (5) and

m = number of dimensions (i.e. MLT, giving 3)

n-m = 5-3 = 2 groups

Dimensions of the variables are:

 = density (kg/m3) = ML-3

 = viscosity (kg/m/s) = ML-1 T-1

u = velocity (m/s) = ML-1

d = length (m) = L
F = newtons (kg m /s2) = MLT-2

For  1

For  2

Inverting  1 gives

Rearranging this gives

6.c
For dynamic similarity the Reynolds numbers are equal for both the
water and air situation

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