Project 2002 – Amsterdam – Holland 2002

International seminar for the construction, management

and operation of luxury yachts

“The 10 most frequently asked questions about corrosion”

Presented by David Moran, Corrintec Ltd

SYNOPSIS
The development of the new class of vessel, the so called Super-Yacht and the Mega-Yacht, pose
some interesting questions from both designers and operators of vessels on the high standards of
maintenance required from their owners. These standards of maintenance are not usually driven
by cost, unlike pleasure yachts and commercial craft that are operated for profit. Although some
corrosion is often overlooked on a commercial vessel, it becomes an issue for the Super-yacht not
just to paint it over but also to prevent it in the first place. A corrosion blemish above or below
the water is not tolerated nor is the risk of inoperative water closets from corrosion leaks or
barnacle infestation.

This is the challenge for the corrosion engineer - ‘zero tolerance’.

It is this background of interest from crews and designers that the 10 most raised issues of
concern are presented in this paper for consideration. Any reader involved in the marine industry
will have had experience of most of these corrosion related issues. However, they may not
necessarily fully understand the mechanism behind the cause of concern or the best solution for
its prevention.

Speaker Profile

David Moran MICorr

David Moran was trained and educated as a mechanical engineer, obtaining his HNC in 1969 at
Southampton College of Technology. He is an active member of the Institute of Corrosion,
having served on a number of technical sub-committees (Task Groups).
He is an Author of a number of papers and has written several articles in trade and technical
journals on the subject of corrosion, cathodic protection and electrically generated marine
antifouling systems. He has developed products and systems that have advanced the application
of ICCP and its’ monitoring.
He has more than 27 years experience in corrosion control, all spent with Corrintec (formally
Morgan Berkeley) now a division of Cathelco Limited.
David, when not playing the 'Corrosion Detective' around the world, still spends much of his time
on maintaining the highest standards of design, training and manufacturing throughout the
Cathelco group of companies.
Corrosion
‘(1)What is corrosion?’
It is a big question normally requiring a highly technical answer and lots of time. The simple
answer is, however, that every metal has a natural tendency to revert back into the form from
which it was taken from the ground. In general those metals which are won with considerable
difficulty from the soil revert back comparatively easily, unfortunately, this particularly applies to
iron and, consequently steel. Figure 1 indicates how iron oxide is reduced in a blast furnace to
make steel. The steel in contact with an oxygen-containing environment can rapidly become
oxidized and easily revert back to its original oxide form. Nature compensates us for this very
unstable element with gold which is mined in its elemental state and is consequently renowned
for its resistance to corrosion.
We use this characteristic of metals to win back the energy used to process them. The
battery is an example of a corrosion cell, winning back the electrical energy, due to corrosion.
Consequently we can infer that corrosion is a process in which the physical properties of a metal
are gradually destroyed by an electrochemical reaction between the metal and its environment;
the corrosion engineer has to understand the reason for its deterioration and to propose methods
of prolonging structure life – some simple and some not so simple.

Fig 1. The Corrosion Cycle

The Nature of Corrosion

‘(2) I have corrosion but how can I tell which type it is?’
There are primarily four basic types which can initiate metallic deterioration:
ƒ Bi-metallic (Galvanic Corrosion)
ƒ Differential Aeration and Concentration Effect
ƒ Stray Current Corrosion
ƒ Bacterial corrosion
Of the four types the most encountered and damaging is bi-metallic corrosion. When two
dissimilar metals are connected together in an electrolyte a current will flow from one to another.
The metal from which the current flows will tend to dissolve in the electrolyte leaving that
receiving the current not obviously affected. When current leaves one of these metals it becomes
negatively charged and the flow to the other metal creates a positive charge in this part of the
circuit. The current generator is known as the anode and the metal to which the current flows as
the cathode.
The ease or extent by which metals will corrode when joined in a specific electrolyte is a
direct function of the electrochemical series, a practical version of this is the galvanic series
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 A Galvanic Series Based on Potential Measurements
in Flowing Seawater at 25ºC. (after LaQue)

Metal Steady state potential

negative to a saturated
calomel half cell (V)

Zinc 1.03
ALUMINIUM 0.79
Cast Iron 0.61
Carbon Steel 0.61
18.8 STAINLESS STEEL (ACTIVE) 0.53
Naval brass 0.40
63.37 brass 0.36
Copper 0.36
85.15 gliding metal 0.33
Gunmetal 0.31
Admirably brass 0.29
90.10 cupro-nickel 0.28
80.20 cupro-nickel 0.27
70.30 cupro-nickel 0.25
Nickel 0.20
Inconel 0.17
Silver 0.13
Titanium 0.10
Monel 0.08
Hastelloy C 0.08
18.8 STAINLESS STEEL (PASSIVE) 0.08

By examination of Table 1 it is possible to predict which metal becomes the anode and which
the cathode when both are connected in an electrolyte. It is important to appreciate that the
order in the table can alter slightly in certain electrolytes but the series given is the one
indicating the conditions likely to be experienced in the marine industry and ships particularly.
Aluminium
‘(3) Is cathodic protection effective on Aluminium?’
Aluminium alloys have been used in the marine industry for many years, mainly because of their
combination of lightness with strength and corrosion resistance. Aluminium is a reactive metal
with a high affinity for oxygen and due to the inert and protective nature of the oxide film which
forms on the metal surface, the metal exhibits a particularly high resistance to seawater. The pH
of seawater is close to neutral and consequently the natural oxide film which forms on
unprotected aluminium is very stable. Localised pitting can occur, however, even where pH is
close to neutral. Figure 2 charts this typical pitting development over a 20 year period.

µm

YEARS

Fig 2. Typical Corrosion Rates for Marine Grade Aluminium

Corrosion of aluminium alloys is often attributable to a lack of oxygen; which prevents

the formation of the protective oxide film layer which would otherwise protect against the effects
of bimetallic corrosion. Experience has demonstrated that this can occur in narrow cavities and in
areas of the ship where the surface of the aluminium has become fouled. Beneath rubber gaskets
and other such devices, there is a real risk of pitting, and corrosion of crevices can be severe.
The rate at which bimetallic corrosion takes place is affected by a number of factors other
than pH and oxygen levels in the surrounding water; such as seawater resistivity and the driving
voltage of the bimetallic corrosion cell. The water resistivity itself is a product of salinity and
temperature and varies in the oceans of the world between 19 ohm.cm averages in the Indian
Ocean to 30 ohm.cm average in the North Atlantic. Estuaries and large river-fed seas like the
Baltic, where the average resistivity in open water is between 100 and 150 ohm.cm, are
considerably less aggressive.
If the aluminium alloy in the hull is also in contact with a more noble material, then rapid
bimetallic corrosion can occur, usually taking the form of large 'pits'. This phenomenon is most
noticeable in those areas of the hull in which stainless steel or copper alloys are present, such as
parts of the hull surrounding the propellers or waterjets, bow thruster tunnels, foils and sea chests.
Again Table 1 indicates the relative positions of aluminium and stainless steels in the galvanic
series. Whilst such a table indicates a qualitative measure of corrosion, the actual rate of attack
depends on the resistivity at the bimetallic junction and the polarisation effects, in addition to the
mechanisms that resist corrosion. The potential difference between an aluminium hull and
stainless steel waterjet can be as high as -700mV to -900mV and thus becomes the predominant
factor that determines the corrosive rate.
The exact chemical composition of the aluminium alloy, and the presence or absence of
other elements with which aluminium is alloyed, also determines whether corrosion may take
place. The very low copper content, coupled with the high content of magnesium, in the 5000
and 6000 series of aluminium alloys provides the enhanced corrosion resistance for use in the
marine industry. Susceptibility to bimetallic corrosion is also affected by the internal structure of
the alloy. In many types of aluminium alloys, the magnesium content of the alloy, the manner in
which the alloy was fabricated (which affects grain structure) and environmental effects, all
influence the rate at which corrosion may take place in service.
A more commonly used method of protecting aluminium alloys against bimetallic
corrosion is cathodic protection. When aluminium is in its passive state (without corrosion) the
potential of the aluminium alloy hull will be approximately -850mV with respect to a standard
silver chloride seawater (Ag/AgClseawater) reference cell. However, when the aluminium comes
into contact with more noble metals, the potential of the aluminium surface increases and leads to
corrosion. Using a cathodic protection system the effect of this increase in potential can be
counteracted, thus reducing the risk of corrosion. The protection potential bands recommended
for aluminium and most of the associated metal types that are likely to be encountered are given
in Table 2. Cathodic protection can have the additional benefits of suppressing impingement
corrosion and mitigating cavitation of the propeller.
 Sacrificial anodes can be used to provide cathodic protection on aluminium-hulled
vessels. These are usually manufactured from zinc or aluminium alloys, but experience has
shown that the application of sacrificial anodes of this type is somewhat limited and they may not
provide complete protection against corrosion, are heavy and can produce unacceptable drag.
This is particularly true of the waterjet intake duct area where standard sacrificial anodes are
ineffective due to the problems of providing sufficient quantity and effective positioning. Anodes
are generally excluded from the critical stressed areas, such as the waterjet entry chamber, where
they would be most efficient. This is because of the effects of additional drag and disturbance of
the water which will affect the performance of the waterjet; as well as posing a threat to the
structural integrity of the jet itself.
Only Zinc anodes are considered to be inherently safe for mounting directly onto the aluminium
surface otherwise some form of dielectric shield needs to be employed to prevent localised over-
protection. Figure 3 illustrates the mounting arrangement of a zinc anode.
 Fig 3

Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) can be used to protect aluminium alloys
for the hulls of vessels. ICCP is effective, but can subject the aluminium to over-protection,
which can itself lead to corrosion due to the formation of alkaline hydroxyl ions on the surface of
the aluminium.
In this type of system, which uses a stable anode manufactured from an inert material
coated with an active layer of platinum or metal oxides, the surfaces to be protected are connected
to the negative supply; while the positive supply is connected to the anode, thus forming an
electrolytic cell. Potentially harmful corrosion is prevented by introducing a negative charge onto
the aluminium, returning the surface to a value close to a passive potential.
A typical ICCP diagram for the protection of a ship is given in Figure 4. The
power/control and monitoring unit (PCMU) normally needs to be light weight and compact.
Figure 5 shows a typical PCMU which uses switch mode technology together with
microprocessor control and diagnostics.

Figure 4
Galvanic Isolators
‘(4) I have heard of Galvanic Isolators but I am not sure of their purpose?’
A Galvanic Isolator, Polarisation Cell or Decoupler is used to ensure that there is separation from
the grounding of a shore power supply from the ships electrical grounding.
Whenever a marine vessel is connected to AC shore power, a bimetallic circuit, which
can cause corrosion of the vessel and its drive system components, can be established. Any time
there is a direct bond between dissimilar metals in an electrolyte, a galvanic corrosion cell, is
produced.
In Europe most marinas provide an isolated power supply for its vessels, but in the USA
it is mandatory for the shore power supply to be grounded. In many cases investigated, accidental
grounding of an isolated power supply or unprotected grounding in the vessel-to-shore power
cable has been detected leading to corrosion. In these cases the direct bond is the grounding
conductor in the vessel-to-shore power cable; the electrolyte is earth and water; and the metals in
the marina or port electrical grounding system are normally different than the metals in a vessel.
If adjacent vessels are also connected to shore power from the same source, then a vessel-to-
vessel corrosion cell can also be established since they will be interconnected through a common
grounding conductor.
The rate of metal erosion is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stray current. If
this current is confined to a small area or a critical drive component, even a small amount of
metal erosion can result in damage and costly repair. It should be the responsibility of those
supplying the shore power to prevent this from occurring. The simple way to eliminate this
corrosion causing circuit, whilst retaining the safety against shock hazards provided by a
grounding conductor of the vessel-to-shore power conductor, is to install a galvanic isolator in
series with the grounding conductor of the vessel-to-shore power cable. This interrupts the
corrosion-causing circuit by maintaining a potential difference between shore ground and the
vessel ground (usually 2Vdc). A typical installation of a Galvanic Isolator for a Marine Vessel is
given in Figure
6.
Figure 6 Inter-connection diagram for a typical ship-board galvanic isolator

Shaft Grounding
‘(5) Why do I need Shaft Grounding?’
A turning propeller shaft on a ship becomes electrically insulated from the hull by the lubricating
oil film in the bearings and by the use of non-metallic bearing materials in the tail shaft. When the
shaft is insulated in this way an electrical potential can be measured between the shaft and the
hull. The electrical potential between the shaft and the hull can also cause a heavy current to flow
in bearings when the oil film breaks down or is contaminated with seawater. This current can
cause deep pitting of the bearing surface on both main engines and tail shaft bearings. Excessive
wear on the shaft bearings can often be traced to this cause.
Under the conditions described above and also when the impeller is not turning,
accelerated corrosion of the hull and duct nearest the propeller will occur if suitable anti-
corrosion measures such as cathodic protection are not in place. Trouble can be avoided and
cathodic protection extended to the propeller if the shaft is properly earthed with a propeller shaft
slipring. The effectiveness of the shaft earthing system should ensure a maximum contact
resistance of no greater than 0.001 ohms for a water filled bearing and 0.01 ohms for an oil filled
bearing.
Our own tests indicate that only high silver content brushes running on a silver track have
the repeatable low conductivity needed to maintain these limits and to ensure a low resistance
contact is maintained, even under dirty conditions. The shaft earthing assembly comprises a pair
of high silver content/graphite compound brushes mounted in a balanced brush holder, running on
a copper slipring with solid silver inlay track. The potential difference between the shaft and the
hull can be monitored with an additional brush linked to a voltmeter. Potential differences of 20
to 50 mV are achievable.

Propeller and Turbulent Water Cathodic Protection

‘(6) I have heard that cathodic protection will prevent cavitation?’
The current that is required to achieve cathodic protection depends on the rate of arrival of
oxygen at the cathode surface and an empirical relationship which exist between speed and the
cathodic protection current density. At a highly turbulent surface however the corrosion is
enhanced by differential oxygen cells caused by variations in the partial pressure of oxygen in the
water. This type of attack, often called impingement corrosion, is evident on many vessels,
principally in the stern area, on the propeller blades, on the leading edge of the rudder and on the
A and P brackets.
A propeller blade will suffer a more extreme form of attack which is usually called
cavitation damage and this is the corrosion of the metal at the point of the cavity collapse.
Cavitation is usually considered to be a mechanical attack and it has been claimed that it can be
reproduced with ultrasonic devices. However, if we consider the collapse of one of these cavities
we can formulate an electrochemical mechanism for the corrosion. The cavity that will be formed
in the liquid will be extremely low pressure and because of this will be completely ionised. The
liquid surface of the cavity as it collapses will travel towards the metal of the propeller blade and
will pick up an electric charge from the ionised gas. It will probably do this unequally and there
will be a resultant charge left on the surface of the metal. This charge will disperse into the liquid
and the metal and in doing so will cause corrosion. Because the mechanism has this electrical
component it is susceptible to cathodic protection to minimise the effects.
A well designed cathodic protection system will prevent impingement attack and
minimise cavitation. By biasing the propeller with a propeller protection device the effects of
cavitation can be further reduced. This is illustrated in figure 7. Cavitation can be reduced but not
prevented.
ICCP vs. Sacrificial Anodes
‘(7) Which is best?’
A correctly designed cathodic protection system will protect against underwater bi-metallic and
pitting corrosion of the hull whether it is by sacrificial anodes or impressed current. It is a 100%
system of prevention. Apart from special applications where one system has a technical
advantage such as waterjet inlet tunnels discussed earlier in the paper, the selection is more to do
with commercial considerations.
It is clear from the comparison Table 3 below that for the Super Yacht it would be almost
bazaar to design a ship’s hull to be sleek and streamline and for then to attach lumps of ‘knobbly’
metal on the skin of the hull not withstanding the reduction in speed capability and extra fuel
costs which would be saved by fitting ICCP.
Streamlining or recessing the sacrificial anodes only improves the drag coefficient and
becomes more costly. For seachest and ballast tanks where drag is not an issue, sacrificial anodes
are preferred, and generally the only acceptable method for cathodic protection because of the
higher risk of gas evolution by impressed current.

INSERT Table 3
A comparison of sacrificial anode and impressed current systems

Interference
‘(8) My boat has ICCP. Can it cause corrosion to the vessels moored alongside?’
This is probably the most asked question and the most investigated problem. The answer is that
the risk of interference is minimal and often the causes are related to other issues. This apart from
the fault condition described in question (4) where a metallic connection has been established
between mooring vessels.
As ropes and fenders act as electrical insulators, it would require a number of fault
conditions to cause interference. To cause corrosion it would be necessary for the vessel, with the
ICCP system, to be under fault conditions and the vessels tied up alongside to be unprotected
with little coating or cathodic protection.
Interference and corrosion has been found on vessels moored alongside jetty walls that
are protected by poorly designed ICCP systems. If a vessel is moored between a remote anode
and the steel piling then there is a risk that current could enter and leave the hull as the least
resistant path for cathodic protection current. Figure 8 illustrates this condition. A well designed
cathodic protection system would protect the hull against the problem.
 Fig 8.Interference effects on a Jetty ICCP system

Marine Fouling
‘(9) Can marine fouling cause corrosion?’
Marine fouling can cause corrosion to bare metal such as the sea water cooling and firewater
circuits. However, these rates are low and dwarf into insignificance compared with the bi-metallic
corrosion or erosion problems associated with the internal pipe work and the restriction of water
flow caused by these animals. Often it is the corrosion effects of the anti-fouling system that
gives rise to corrosion concerns.
The mechanism for corrosion caused by marine fouling is usually due to the Differential
Aeration and Concentration Effect, although some micro organisms can cause a chemical attack
of metals as a bi-product of their metabolism. These animals and organisms can be easily
prevented from becoming a problem by poisons and strainers. The simplest and most effective
method of preventing marine growth in the cooling systems is continuous copper injection. This
kills the animals at their vulnerable free swimming cycle preventing a build up of growth. For a
very low dose rate of 2 parts per billion to be effective it is important that these systems are in
continuous operation.
Suspended copper ions have a tendency to electro-plate out on the internal metal surfaces
and can increase corrosion rates within the pipe work as a consequence. It is usual for an
associated anti-corrosion system to be installed that will inhibit this effect. For electrolytic
systems it is usual for either aluminium or soft iron to be used alongside the copper anode. The
type of anode metal selected for this purpose depends on the predominant metal alloy used in the
make-up of the pipe work. When these metals are simultaneously driven, both metal ions
combine to form a ‘floc’ which will keep the copper ions free flowing.

Divers
‘(10) Is it safe for swimmers to dive alongside operating the ships ICCP system’?
There are a number of steel fabricated ship and municipal swimming pools that are protected
against corrosion using impressed current system similar to equipment that is used on hull
protection. The main modification is in the design of the anodes that does not allow direct contact
with the emitting surface of the anode and the control of the ripple content of the rectified mains
alternating current. It would not be beyond the wit of ICCP suppliers to provide Diver friendly
systems which are inherently safe for both commercial and recreational diver / swimmer.
One cannot conclude that all impressed current anodes do not present a hazard to swimmers but
calculations so far indicate that the probability of a diver receiving a serious shock from a local
impressed current anode is low. For higher gradients associated with high voltage / output or
remote anodes associated with the Jetty or Pontoon with brackish water, there is a proportionally
greater hazard and greater difficulty in protecting the Diver.
The idea of working whilst being part of an electric circuit cannot appeal to divers and although
calculations may show that the hazard is not serious, it must be irritating and counter productive
to be subjected to very minor shocks.
Commercial Divers will be subject to there own rules where a risk assessment is usually made on
each job performed as well as the usual precautions. The owner of the vessel should carry out the
same risk assessment consulting the ICCP manual where guidance is usually given on these
matters.

References

Moulton, R.J. ‘Hazards to Divers from Cathodic Protection Systems’, International

Conference, Coventry, April 1982

D.J. Moran, 'Corrosion Control of Waterjet Propelled Aluminium Vessels' The Third
International Forum on Aluminium Ships, Haugesund, Norway, 27-28th May 1998

J.H. Morgan 'Cathodic Protection' National Association of Corrosion Engineers (Houston,

Texas), 1989, pages 317 - 322.

F.L. La Que, 1951. Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, Vol, 51, page 545

Galvanic Isolators for Marine Application – DEI data sheet

Cathodic Protection BS 7361 Part 1: 1991