Lecture1 PPSX

Chapter 2
MENG 370
Element Machine Design (#4)
Materials Selection
Feb. 03, 2016
ⓒ 2016 Jong B. Lee, PhD

ME @NYIT
Poisson's Ratio, n
 Poisson's ratio, n:
L
 

• metals: n ~ 0.33
• ceramics: n ~ 0.25
• polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units: (n) dimensionless

• : closes to 0.5: incompressive
• : closes to 0.0: highly
compressive material
N
Y
I
T MENG 370 – Element Machine Design, Jong B. Lee, PhD, All rights reserved. 2
Poisson's Ratio, 
 Poisson’s Ratio Materials Poisson's Ratio
 Between 0.0 and 0.5 Aluminum-alloy 0.33
Concrete 0.20
 Most steels: around 0.3
Cast iron 0.21-0.26
 Cork: close to 0.0
Glass 0.18-0.3
 Rubber: almost 0.5 Clay 0.30-0.45
 Some materials, (mostly polymer f Saturated clay 0.40-0.50
oams), have a negative Poisson's r Copper 0.33
Cork ca. 0.00
atio Magnesium 0.35
 If these auxetic materials are stretched in Stainless steel 0.30-0.31
one direction, they become thicker in perp Rubber 0.50
endicular directions Steel 0.27-0.30
Foam 0.10 to 0.40
Titanium 0.34
Sand 0.20-0.45
Auxetics negative
N
Y
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Negative Poisson’s Ratio: auxetic materials
N
Y
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Young’s Modulus: in Comparison
Graphite
Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites
Alloys Semicond /fibers
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E (GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
GFRE*
20
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
N LDPE
0.2
Y
I
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
 Simple tension:
FL0

EA0
Fw0
 L  
EA0
 Material, geometric, and loading par

ameters all contribute to deflection
 Larger elastic moduli minimize elast
ic deflection
N
Y
I
Shear Strain, 
x
 tan    (small x)
y
• Angular distortion of two lines

• Always dimensionless
N
Y
  E   G
I
Mechanical Properties of Common Materials at Room Temperatur
e - (SI)
Mass Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Poisson’s
Material Density Elasticity Stress Stress Expansion
Ratio
[kg/m3] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa] Coef. [10-6/oF]
Structural Steel
A36 7,830 200 0.28 248 400 12.1
A572 (50) 7,830 200 0.28 345 448 12.1
Spring Steel SAE 1,210- 1,380-
7,730 207 0.27 14.9
4068 1,660 1,860
Stainless Steel
S40500 7,730 191 0.31 172 414 17.3
S17700 7,730 191 0.31 1,030 1,280 17.3
Aluminum Alloys
2024-T3 2,730 69 0.33 345 483 22.7
6061-T6 2,730 69 0.33 276 310 24.3
7075-T6 2,730 69 0.33 503 572 24.7
Copper
Soft (pure) 8,920 110 0.34 69 220 17.6
N
Hard (Be-Cu) 8,400 124 0.34 1,170 1,310 17.8
Y
I
e - (SI)
Mass Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Poisson’s
Material Density Elasticity Stress Stress Expansion
Ratio
[kg/m3] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa] Coef. [10-6/oF]
Magnesium Alloy AZ80A-T5 1,800 45 0.35 262 379 28.8

Cast Iron, Gray, No 40 7,220 126 0.25 -- 276 (896) 10.8
Wrought Iron 7,730 193 0.30 159-220 234-372 11.7
Glass 2,630 69 0.25 -- (69-862) 5.4-16.2
Titanium Alloy (5 A1, 2.5 Sn) 4,430 117 0.34 758 793 10.3
Nickel Steel 7,730 200 0.29 138-207 310-414 13.0

Wood (tension parallel grain)
Douglas Fir (coast) 464 9-13 -- -- 1.4-7 --
Southern Pine 464 9-13 -- -- 2-12 --
Hemlock 464 7.6-10 -- -- 1.4-4.8 --
ABS/Nylon 1,080 2.0 0.40 -- 37 101
PE-TFE 1,860 8.3 0.40 -- 83 21.6
Tungsten 19,300 345 0.28 -- 124-4,140 4.5
Granite 2,780 27-110 0.05-0.2 -- (90-380) 7.4
Sandstone 2,340 4.8-69 0.1-0.3 -- (34-138) 9.5
N
Y Brass, Hard 8,250 103 0.34 517 586 36
I
e - (USCS)
Modulus of Yield Thermal

Density Poisson’s Ultimate
Material Elasticity Stress Expansion
[slugs/ft3] Ratio Stress [ksi]
[Mpsi] [ksi] Coef. [10-6/oF]
Structural Steel
A36 15.2 29 0.28 36 58 6.7
A572 (50) 15.2 29 0.28 50 65 6.7
Spring Steel SAE
15 30 0.27 175-240 220-270 8.3
4068
Stainless Steel
S40500 15 27.6 0.31 25 60 9.6
S17700 15 27.6 0.31 150 185 9.6
Aluminum Alloys
2024-T3 5.3 10 0.33 50 70 12.6
6061-T6 5.3 10 0.33 40 45 13.5
7075-T6 5.3 10 0.33 73 83 13.7
Copper
Soft (pure) 17.3 16 0.34 10 32 9.8
N Hard (Be-Cu) 16.3 18 0.34 170 190 9.9
Y
I
e - (USCS)
Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Density Poisson’s
Material Elasticity Stress Stress Expansion
[slugs/ft3] Ratio
[Mpsi] [ksi] [ksi] Coef. [10-6/oF]
Magnesium Alloy AZ80A-T5 3.5 6.5 0.35 38 55 16
Cast Iron, Gray, No 40 14 18.3 0.25 -- 40 (130) 6.0
Wrought Iron 15 28 0.30 23-32 34-54 6.5
Glass 5.1 10 0.25 -- (10-125) 3-9
Titanium Alloy (5 A1, 2.5 Sn) 8.6 17 0.34 110 115 5.7
Nickel Steel 15 29 0.29 20-30 45-60 7.2

Wood (tension parallel grain)
Douglas Fir (coast) 0.9 1.3-1.9 -- -- 0.2-1.0 --
Southern Pine 0.9 1.3-1.9 -- -- 0.3-1.7 --
Hemlock 0.9 1.1-1.5 -- -- 0.2-0.7 --
ABS/Nylon 2.1 0.29 0.40 -- 5.3 56
PE-TFE 3.6 1.2 0.40 -- 12 12
Tungsten 37.5 50 0.28 -- 18-600 2.5
Granite 5.4 4-16 0.05-0.2 -- (13-55) 4.1
Sandstone 4.5 0.7-1.0 0.1-0.3 -- (5-20) 5.3
N Brass, Hard 16 15 0.34 75 85 20
Y
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Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
 Simple tension test
Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress
Elastic
initially permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
plastic strain
N
Y
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Yield Strength, y
 Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation h
as occurred
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, s
Sy = yield strength
Sy
Note: for 2 inch sample

 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002
N
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Yield Strength: Comparison
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Tensile Strength, TS
 Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength
Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

N
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
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aligned and about to break.
Tensile Strength: Comparison
N
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Stress -Strain Curve
 Typical Engineering Material
True Stress
Normal Stress,
Ultimate stress (u)

Engineering
Rupture stress (y) Stress
Yield stress (y)
Proportional
limit
Yielding Strain hardening Necking
Normal Strain, 
N Linear
Y region
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True and Engineering Stress
N
Y
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True Stress and Strain
 True Stress (T)
 True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the instantan
eous cross-sectional area
 True stress is related to engineering stress
 Assuming material volume remains constant
A0l0  Al
P P A0 P A0 P
T          1   1   
A A A0 A0 A A0
A0 l   l0 
   1   1
A l0 l0 l0
 True Strain (T)

dl l   l  

 rate
The
l ln  increase
 of instantaneous
T ln 0 in the 
l 
instantaneous
 l  
ln 1   gauge length 
 0  0 
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True Stress-Strain Curve
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Stress-strain relationship
 Typical steel
1. Ultimate Strength
2. Yield Strength
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking region
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 Typical aluminum
2. Yield Strength
3. Proportional Limit Stress
4. Rupture
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 Brittle material
2. Rupture
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Hardness
 A measure of the resistance of a materi
al to plastic (permanent) deformation
 Measured by indentation
 indenter material (ball, pyramid, cone) is hard
er than the material being tested (i.e.: tungste
n carbide, diamond)
 indenter is pressed at 90o
 Hardness us based on the depth of the impre
ssion of its cross sectional area
 Several common hardness tests: hardne
ss numbers can be calculated
 Material strength and hardness are relat
ed Hardness test is nondestructive ⇒ of
N ten used
Y
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Hardness
 Large hardness means:
 Resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression
 Better wear properties
N
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Fracture Behavior
 Ductility
 Amount of plastic deformation that occurs before
fracture
 Ductile material
 Significant plastic deformation and energy absorp
tion (toughness) before fracture.
 Characteristic feature of ductile material - necking
 Brittle material
 Little plastic deformation or energy absorption be
fore fracture.
 Characteristic feature of brittle materials – fractur
e surface perpendicular to the stress.
 If ductility
 high  material can be deformed by applying stress
 low  material breaks first without siginificant deformation
N
 Depend on T: at low T many metals become brittle and can break as a glass
Y
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Other Mechanical Characteristics
 Resilience: ability to have high yield strength and l
ow E.
 Ex.: good springs
 Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to a fractur
e
N
Y
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Design or Safety Factors
 Factor of Safety (N)
 Description
 Number of structural capability over that required, or a multiplier applied to t
he maximum expected load
 The ratio of the breaking stress of a structure to the estimated maximum str
ess in ordinary use
 Used
 because no manufacture can guarantee 100% quality
 to provide a design margin over the theoretical design capacity to allow for u
ncertainty in the design process
 N is usually between 1.2 and 4, but not always
 Aerospace engineering: 1.5 ~ 3.0
 Due to costs associated with structural weight are high
 This low design factor is why aerospace parts and materials are subject to m
ore stringent quality control
y
 
working 
allowable
N
Y  Steam boilers: usually between 8 and 10 N
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Factor of Safety
N Applications
Material properties known in detail. Operating conditions known in
detail Loads and resultant stresses and strains known with high
1.25 – 1.5
degree of certainty. Material test certificates, proof loading, regular
inspection and maintenance. Low weight is important to design.
Known materials with certification under reasonably constant
environmental conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can
1.5 – 2.0
be determined using qualified design procedures. Proof tests,
regular inspection and maintenance required
Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant standards
2.0 – 2.5 operated in normal environments and subjected to loads and
stresses that can be determined using checked calculations.
For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average
2.5 – 3.0
conditions of environment, load and stress.
For untried materials used under average conditions of
3.0 – 4.0
N
environment, load and stress.
Y Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be
I 3.0 – 4.0
T used
MENG 370 – Element in Design,
Machine uncertain environments
Jong B. Lee, or subject to uncertain stresses 29
PhD, All rights reserved.
Strategies for Strengthening of Materials
1. Reduce Grain Size
2. Solid Solutions
3. Cold Work (%CW)
4. Heat Treatment
N
Y
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1. Reduce Grain Size
 Grain boundaries are barriers to slip
 Barrier "strength” increases with increasing angle of mis-o
rientation
 Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip
N
Y
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2. Solid Solutions
 Impurity atoms distort the lattice and generate stress
 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion
Smaller substitutional impurity Larger substitutional impurity
Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
N
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motion to the right. motion to the right.
I
Solid Solution: Strengthening in Copper
 Tensile strength & yield strength increase with w
t% Ni
 Alloying increases y and TS

N
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Strategies for Strengthening of materials
3. Cold Work (%CW)
 Room temperature deformation
 Common forming operations change the cross-sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling

roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
roll
-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container
die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
N
Y Ao
I
Impact of Cold Work
 As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases
• Tensile strength (TS) increases
• Ductility (%EL or %RA) decreases
N
Y
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Transformations & Undercooling
 Eutectoid transf. (Fe-C System): g Þ a +Fe3C
 Can make it occur at:
0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
 ...727ºC (cool it slowly) 0.022 wt% C
 ...below 727ºC (“undercool” it!)
T(°C)
1600
d
1400 L
g g+L
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C
Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
1000
a Eutectoid: g +Fe3C
ferrite 800 Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727ºC
727°C
DT a +Fe3C
600
Undercooling by DTtransf. < 727C
0.022
0.76
N 400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
Y (Fe) Co , wt%C
I
Heat Treatments
800
a) Annealing Austenite (stable)
T(°C) TE
A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite B
400 A
10
0%
50
0% %
0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%
b) a)
N -1 3 5 c)
10 10 10 10
Y
I time (s)
Mechanical Properties : Fe-C System
• Effect of wt% C Pearlite (med)

Pearlite (med) Cementite
ferrite (soft) (hard)
Co < 0.76 wt% C Co > 0.76 wt% C
Hypoeutectoid Hypereutectoid
Hypo Hyper Hypo Hyper
TS(MPa) %EL 80
1100
Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

YS(MPa) 100
900
hardness
40
700
50
500
0
300
1 0
0.76
0 0.5
0.76
0 0.5 1
wt% C wt% C
• More wt% C: TS and YS increase, %EL decreases.
N
Y
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• Fine vs coarse pearlite vs spheroidite
Hypo Hyper 90 Hypo Hyper

320
fine
Ductility (%AR)
spheroidite
pearlite 60
Brinell hardness
240 coarse
pearlite
spheroidite
160 30 coarse
pearlite
fine
80 pearlite
0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
wt%C wt%C
• Hardness: fine > coarse > spheroidite
• %RA: fine < coarse < spheroidite
N
Y
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 Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:
Hypo Hyper
Brinell hardness 600

martensite
400
200
fine pearlite
0
0 0.5 1
wt% C
 Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite

N
Y
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Tempering Martensite
• Reduces brittleness of martensite,
• Reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
TS(MPa)
YS(MPa)
1800
1600 TS
1400 YS
9 mm
1200 60
1000 50
%RA %RA
40
800 30
200 400 600
Tempering T (°C)
• Produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by a.

N • Decreases TS, YS but increases %RA
Y
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T MENG 370 – Element Machine Design, Jong B. Lee, PhD, All rights reserved. 41 / 56
Processing Options of Fe-C System
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T MENG 370 – Element Machine Design, Jong B. Lee, PhD, All rights reserved. 42 / 56
Ferrous Alloys
 Iron containing – Steels - cast irons
 Nomenclature AISI & SAE
 10xx Plain Carbon Steels
 11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
 15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
 40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
 43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
 44xx Mo (0.5%)
 Where xx is wt% C x 100

 example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
 Stainless Steel  11% Cr Added

N
Y
I
Metal Fabrication Methods - I
FORMING CASTING JOINING
• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
force
• Drawing • Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
N die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Y
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Metal Fabrication Methods - II
• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying elements added. Then
cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials
N
Y
I
• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., • trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
• cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!
• pack sand around form (pattern) of
desired shape
N
Y
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• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks) Investment Casting
• pattern is made from paraffin.
• mold made by encasing in
plaster of paris
• melt the wax & the hollow
• Investment Casting mold
(low volume, complex shapes is left
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • pour in metal
plaster
die formed
N
around wax
Y prototype
I
• Sand Casting • Die Casting

(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
N
around wax
Y prototype
I
Metal Fabrication Methods - III
• Powder Metallurgy • Welding

(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2
densify
• Heat affected zone:
point contact densification
by diffusion at
(region in which the
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
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changed).
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Material Property Chart
 Material properties limit performance of the material
 Therefore, the values design-limiting properties nee
d to be surveyed.
 One property can be displayed as a ranked list or bar
-chart.
 The resulting chats are helpful in many ways.
 They condense a large body of information into a co
mpact but accessible form; they reveal correlations b
etween material properties that aid in checking and e
stimating data; and in later chapters they become to
N
ols for tackling real design problems.
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Young’s Modulus and Mass Density Chart
N
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Strength and Density Chart
N
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Elastic Modulus and Strength Chart
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Material Selection
 The basic procedure for material selection in design proce
ss, establishing the link between material and function.
 All material has characteristics, including its density, stren
gth, cost, resistance to corrosion, and so forth.
 A design demands a certain profile of these: a low density,
a high strength, a modest cost and resistance to sea water,
perhaps.
 It is important to start with the full menu of materials in mi
nd; failure to do so may mean a missed opportunity.
 If an innovative choice is to be made, it must be identified
early in the design process
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Material Selection
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Material Selection Strategy
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Material selection of lower cost and stiff material
N
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Material selection of lower cost and stronger material
N
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Price and Availability
 Current Prices on the web: e.g., http://www.metalprices.com
 Short term trends: fluctuations due to supply and demand
 Long term trend: prices will increase as rich deposits are depleted
 Materials require energy to process them
Energy to produce materials Cost of energy used in

(GJ/ton) processing materials ($/MBtu)
AL 237 Electric resistance 25
PET 103 Propane 17
Cu 97 Oil 13
Steel 20 Natural Gas 11
Glass 13 British Thermal Unit (BTU): amount of
Paper 9 heat energy
 Energy using recycled material indicated in green
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MATERIAL AND SHAPE SELECTION
 Although all the material has a unique characterist
ics including elastic modulus and strength,
 It can be made stiffer and stronger when loaded in bending or twisti
ng by shaping it into an I-beam or a hollow tube.
 It can be made less stiff by flattening it into a leaf or winding it, in th
e form of wire, into a helix.
 Thinned shapes help dissipate heat; cellular shapes help conserve it.
 There are shapes to maximize electrical capacitance, to conserve m
agnetic field, shapes that control optical reflection, diffraction and re
fraction, shapes to reflect a sound, and shapes to absorb it.
 Shape is even used to change the way a material feels, making it sm
ooth or rough, slippery, or grippy.
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Shape Factor
 The best material and shape combination depends
on the mode of loading.
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Shape factor of the Elastic Bending
 The shape factor of the elastic bending depends on the shape, not on
size.
 Big and small beams have the same shape factor of the elastic bendi
ng if their cross-sectional area shape are the same.
 Shapes that resist bending well may not be so good when twisted
12I
B  2
A
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SUMMARY
 Mechanical properties
 Stress and strain, Elastic behavior, Plastic behavior, Toughness, Duct
ility
 Material costs fluctuate but rise over the long term as:
 Rich deposits are depleted
 Energy costs increase
 Recycled materials reduce energy use significantly
 Materials are selected based on:
 Performance or cost indices
 Examples:
 Design of minimum mass, maximum strength of:
 Shafts under torsion
 Bars under tension
 Plates under bending
 Selection of materials to optimize more than one property
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Announcements
 Homework #2 – See following slides
 Due Feb.
 Quiz #2
 Feb.
 Chapter 2, Materials Selection
 Mechanical properties of the metal section in material sci
ence text book will help you.
- “Material Science & Engineering: An Introduction”, latest edi
tion, by William D. Callister Jr.
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Homework #2
1. Determine the tensile and yield strengths for the fo
llowing materials
 UNS G10200 HR Steel
 SAE 1050 CD Steel
 AISI 1141 Steel quenched and tempered at 540C
 2024-T4 Aluminum alloy
 Ti-6Al-4V annealed titanium alloy
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Homework #2
2. A specimen of steel having an initial diameter of 0.503in was tested in tension
using a gauge length of 2 in. the following data were obtained for the elastic a
nd plastic states
Elastic State Plastic State
Load (lbf) Elongation (in) Load (lbf) Area (in2)
1000 0.0004 8800 0.1984
2000 0.0006 9200 0.1978
3000 0.0010 9100 0.1963
4000 0.0013 13200 0.1924
7000 0.0023 15200 0.1875
8400 0.0028 17000 0.1563
8800 0.0036 16400 0.1307
9200 0.0089 14800 0.1077
 Plot the engineering stress-strain diagram using excel spread sheet
l
 Elastic range: 
l0
l l  l0 l A
   1  o 1
 Plastic range: l0 l0 l0 A
N  From this diagram, find elastic modulus , the 0.2% offset yield strength, and ultimate strength
Y
 Is this material ductile or brittle, and explain your reasoning?
I
T MENG  Identifying
370 – Element a material
Machine Design,specification?
Jong B. Lee, PhD, All rights reserved. 68
Homework #2
3. The stress-strain relationship from a tensile test on a cast
iron specimen are
Engineering stress (kpsi) Engineering strain (x10-3)
5 0.20
10 0.44
16 0.80
19 1.00
26 1.5
32 2.0
40 2.8
46 3.4
49 4.0
54 5.0
 Plot stress-strain diagram

 Find elastic modulus at zero stress and at 20 kpsi
N
Y
I

Lecture1 PPSX

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Chapter 2

Feb. 03, 2016

ⓒ 2016 Jong B. Lee, PhD

Units: (n) dimensionless

 Material, geometric, and loading par

• Angular distortion of two lines

Mass Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Mass Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Magnesium Alloy AZ80A-T5 1,800 45 0.35 262 379 28.8

Nickel Steel 7,730 200 0.29 138-207 310-414 13.0

Modulus of Yield Thermal

Modulus of Yield Ultimate Thermal

Nickel Steel 15 29 0.29 20-30 45-60 7.2

Note: for 2 inch sample

• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

Ultimate stress (u)

Yielding Strain hardening Necking

 True Strain (T)

Smaller substitutional impurity Larger substitutional impurity

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

 Alloying increases y and TS

-Forging force -Rolling

-Drawing force -Extrusion

• Effect of wt% C Pearlite (med)

Impact energy (Izod, ft-lb)

Hypo Hyper 90 Hypo Hyper

Brinell hardness 600

 Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite

• Produces extremely small Fe3C particles surrounded by a.

 Where xx is wt% C x 100

 Stainless Steel  11% Cr Added

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Casting- mold is filled with metal

FORMING CASTING JOINING

FORMING CASTING JOINING

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting • Die Casting

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding

Energy to produce materials Cost of energy used in

 Energy using recycled material indicated in green

 Plot the engineering stress-strain diagram using excel spread sheet

 Plot stress-strain diagram

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