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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Interfere with or prohibit recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, and boating.
Detract from the aesthetic appeal of a body of water.
Stunt or interfere with a balanced fish population.
Fish kills due to removal of too much oxygen from the water. Oxygen depletion occurs
when plants die and decompose. Photosynthetic production of oxygen ceases, and the
bacteria, which break down the plant material, use oxygen in their own respiration. Fish
kills in summer are frequently caused by die-offs of algae blooms. Fish kills in winter
occur when snow accumulates on ice cover. Light is blocked thus preventing
photosynthesis by any living plants or algae. Decomposition of plants that died in the fall
causes further oxygen depletion. Fish kills also can be caused by insecticide runoff,
ammonia runoff from feedlots, and diseases.
Produce quiet water areas that are ideal for mosquito breeding.
Certain algae can give water bad tastes and odors.
Impede water flow in drainage ditches, irrigation canals, and culverts, causing water to
back up.
Deposition of weeds, sediment, and debris, can bodies of water to fill in.
The demand for water resources for recreation, agriculture, and industry is increasing.
Many kinds of plant and animal aquatic pests can interfere with water uses. Control of
aquatic pests must be done without harm to people and the environment.
Habitats for aquatic weeds involve various proportions of water and soil, including
intermittently wet ditches, ditches which always hold standing water, streams, stock ponds,
farm ponds, lakes, ornamental ponds, and intermediate habitats. This manual considers three
types of water situations - static, limited flow impoundments, and moving water.
Static Water
Static water is confined for considerable periods of the year, or totally confined within
a known area, with no downstream movement. However, even totally enclosed bodies of
water often have appreciable water movement because of wind and changes in water
temperature. Weeds commonly grow in static water up to 12 feet deep. Weeds may grow in
very clear water that is more than 20 feet deep. If a herbicide is applied for weed control,
there is no reason to expect that any appreciable downstream effect may occur, unless there is
overflow resulting from unusual storm conditions.
Many farm ponds may be characterized as having limited flow because there nearly
always is an overflow pipe and an emergency overflow channel (spillway). The overflow
pipe is designed to permit passage of a continuous and relatively well-defined amount of
water at all times. The emergency spillway is provided to release from the pond when storms
dump in excess amounts of water in a short time. In these situations, small amounts of
pesticides may be carried downstream from the application site. Larger amounts may be
found downstream after sudden rain storms, which interrupt or come immediately after
pesticide application.
Moving Water
Moving water is found in small streams, creeks, streams, and rivers where there is always
some detectable downstream current. Applied pesticides may be found in downstream
locations in varying amounts away from the area of original application. Such situations
present the greatest potential for concern as an environmental hazard.
Algae
Microscopic algae form scums and/or color the water green or yellow-green.
Sometimes they cause red, black, or oily streaks in the water called "blooms." Blooms
usually occur where abundant nutrients are reaching the water. They should be treated with
chemicals before they cause a noticeable color but a sudden die-off of these algae can cause
fish kills.
Filamentous algae (also known as moss) form floating, mat-like growths which
usually begin around the edges and bottom of ponds in the early spring. Moss is probably the
most common in lakes and ponds in the Midwest. Often, repeated chemical treatments during
the summer season are necessary for effective control.
Chara, or stonewort usually grows in very hard water and is often calcified and
brittle. The plant is rooted, and leaves are arranged along the stem in whorls. It grows
completely underwater and has a musky smell. Chara can be difficult to control once it has
become established and has a heavy coating of calcium carbonate. Use contact herbicides
when the plants are still young and not heavily calcified. Although this plant resembles some
flowering plants, it is an alga.
Flowering Plants
Flowering plants can be grouped into broad categories according to where they are found in a
body of water.
Submersed plants are rooted in the bottom sediments and grow up through the water.
Flowers or flowering spikes sometimes emerge above the water surface. The main criteria for
identification are leaf arrangement and leaf shape.
Curly-leaf pondweed has an alternate leaf arrangement. It grows best in the spring and
tends to die out in the summer. This weed is common in ponds, lakes, and ditches.
Leafy pondweed has very narrow leaves with an alternate arrangement. It is more
common in ponds than in large lakes.
Waterthread pondweed, usually restricted to shallow water, has small floating leaves that
are about 1" long. Leaves of other floating-leaved pond weeds (such as American
pondweed) may be 4" to 5" long.
Coontail has branched, spined leaves in a whorled arrangement. This weed is very
common in the Midwest.
Brittle naiad, more common in the southern Midwest, has an opposite or whorled leaf
arrangement.
Eurasian watermilfoil usually has four feather-like leaves at a node. This serious, rapidly
spreading invader is found in lakes and ponds throughout the Midwest.
Floating weeds
Free-floating plants, such as duckweed and watermeal are seed-bearing plants which
float free on the water's surface. They never become rooted in the soil, and are propagated by
sexual and asexual means. They can completely cover the surface of a pond. Both are
extremely small. Duckweed is no more than 1/4 inch in diameter, and watermeal is even
smaller. Both plants are found in nutrient-rich waters. Input of waste water from sources such
as livestock feedlots and septic tank fields should be eliminated.
include waterlily, spatterdock, and water lotus. Spatterdock is usually the weedier of
the three and completely fill in shallow areas less than 3' or 4' deep. Spatterdock is a massive,
difficult to kill underground rhizome from which new plants sprout. It differs from waterlily
in having heart-shaped leaves that come above the surface of the water and a yellow
flower. Waterlily has round leaves.
Commonly include cattails, bulrushes, spike rushes, reed canarygrass, and other grass-
like perennial plants. Broadleaves include willow trees and creeping water primrose.
1. Preventive Measures
Proper design and construction of ditches and channels makes weed control easier in the
future. If the banks are leveled and smoothed, hard-to-reach places will be eliminated.
Lining canals will help to alleviate water weed problems, too.
2. Mechanical Control
Even with preventive measures, many ponds still have severe waterweed infestations. In
some cases, use of a herbicide may not be possible if the water is used for livestock,
drinking, or fish. Hand-pulling the weeds or dredging the pond are possible methods of
control. But often the infestation is so severe that these methods are impractical or
uneconomical.
Motor-driven underwater weed cutters are available and can be used for the control of
such plants as waterlilies and watermilfoil. Some mowers simply cut the weeds loose
beneath the water surface. Aquatic weed harvesters collect weeds for removal. Disposal
of harvested weeds can be a problem. Most mechanical control methods fragment weeds.
Many weed species can spread and reproduce from these pieces.
Mechanical control is usually slower and more expensive than use of herbicides.
Underwater weed cutting must be done continuously during the summer and usually
represents a long term financial investment.
Chemicals used in aquatic weed control are classified as herbicides. Herbicides used
primarily to control algae may be called algicides, even though they also kill other aquatic
plants. For most aquatic weed problems, properly-used herbicides control vegetation without
harming the fish. Aquatic herbicides are effective and commonly used means of controlling
aquatic vegetation.
Generally, only 1/4 to 1/3 of the surface area of the water should be treated at
a time. This helps to protect fish from a possible shortage of oxygen. Surface
Surface
area (in acres) of a rectangular body of water equals length in feet times
width divided by 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre).
Total water The whole body of water from the surface to the bottom is treated OR you
volume can treat 1/4 to 1/3 of the water volume (based on surface area) at a time.
Calculate the volume of the body of water and add chemical to obtain the
required dilution.
The concentration of chemical needed to control aquatic plants is often very
small and is stated in parts per million (ppm). For example, if the toxic
concentration for a particular plant is 2 ppm, then the chemical should be
applied at the ration of 2 parts of active ingredient to one million parts of
water (2:1,000,000) in the area to be treated.
1) Calculate the acre-feet of the body of water to be treated. Multiply the
surface acres by the average depth in feet. An acre-foot of water weighs 2.7
million pounds (2,700,000). 2) 2.7 * ppm concentration wanted * acre-feet =
pounds of active ingredient needed.
The following calculation shows how to calculate the number of pounds of
active ingredient needed to treat a body of water containing 10 acre feet at the
rate of 0.5 ppm.
2.7 x 0.5 x10 = 13.5 pounds of active ingredient
Bottom soil Herbicide applications may be made to the bottom soil of a drained pond,
surface lake, or channel.
Sprayable formulations- Most herbicide formulations must be mixed with water and applied
so that they disperse evenly. These include-
WSP- water soluble powders that dissolve and form true solutions in water.
WP- wettable powders form suspensions in water. The particles do not dissolve.
EC- emulsifiable concentrates form milky white "oil-in-water" emulsions
Granular formulations (G)- are small clay-based pellets that carry the active ingredient on
or in the product. They are usually distributed by some sort of slinger-spreader and sink to the
bottom. Slow-release granules or pellets release the pesticide active ingredient over an
extended period of time.
Floating and immersed weeds can be killed with direct sprays on the foliage applied
from a boat or the shore.
Submersed weeds and algae can be treated using sprays or granular formulations.
Sprays are applied as water surface treatments, particularly in shallow water. The herbicide is
then dispersed by diffusion, thermal currents, and wave action. Good control depends upon
good dispersion of the chemical in the water. Granules are used primarily to control algae or
submersed weeds. They sink to the bottom and work about the same manner as bottom soil
treatments. Application rates for granules are given as amount per unit of surface area or as a
concentration in ppm. They must be broadcast evenly over the water surface for best results.
Herbicides that work well in small bodies of water may perform poorly in large
impoundments because of much greater water movement by thermal currents and wave
action. In these cases, weed control may be improved by
Flood drainage canals, sloughs, and drains are good examples of limited-flow
waterways. Weed control methods in these systems are very similar to those for static water.
Evaluate the possibility of contamination when planning herbicide use. In some areas,
drainage water may flow onto crop land or into drinking water supplies.
Improper applications can kill fish directly or deplete the oxygen concentration excessively if
the plants die too quickly. Decomposition of dead fish can contaminate downstream water
supplies. Water may be unsuitable for humans, animals, or irrigation.
If application rates are too low in a static water situation, weed control may be
unsatisfactory. Excessive application rates may kill fish or exclude livestock from use of the
water for a period of time. Use of water supplies for irrigation may not be possible for an
indefinite period of time. However, little effect would probably be observed as far as
downstream hazards are concerned, since little or no outflow normally occurs.
In limited-flow water
In moving water
Faulty Application
There are two major hazards involved in faulty application of pesticides: (1) damage
to non-target organisms (2) unsatisfactory control. For example, it would be hopeless to apply
granular herbicides in fast moving water, whereas they might work quite well in static water
impoundments and even in limited-flow water situations. All currently registered herbicides
employed for aquatic weed control are rated as slightly toxic, or non-toxic to fish, birds,
insects, and other aquatic organisms so long as proper application rates and techniques are
employed. Pesticide labels should be carefully observed to ensure that the aquatic
environment is not contaminated during pest control efforts.
Aquatic weeds may occur in the whole body of water as submersed weeds, or may
appear to cover the whole surface of the water as floating weeds. Conversely, the same weeds
or other pests may occur only in limited areas within a body of water, whether it is a static,
limited-flow, or moving body of water. "Limited area application" implies the advantage of
improved safety to aquatic species, specifically the fish population. If pesticides that are
potentially toxic to the fish population are applied to a limited area, the fish population can
move to untreated water areas and escape potential toxic effects. Also implied in this concept
is that a minimal amount of pesticide is applied. This tends to reduce the potential effect upon
downstream environments in the event of spillover from the treated body of water.
The most important considerations before buying and applying a herbicide for aquatic
weed control are these:
Identity of the weed. This can save you a lot of money because certain chemicals will
work only on certain weeds and not on others. Identification help can be obtained from
your county Extension Service.
Restrictions on use of water treated with herbicides. Although most aquatic herbicides
break down readily and rapidly in water and pose no threat to human or animal health,
there are waiting periods on the use of water treated with most herbicides. These
restrictions--usually on fishing, swimming, domestic use, livestock watering or irrigation-
-dictate which herbicides will be appropriate for your pond or lake. Always check the
herbicide label for possible restrictions.
Dosage. Calculate carefully, and don't overdo it. Most aquatic herbicide labels give
dosages on the basis of acre-feet (volume measurement). Acre-feet is calculated by
multiplying the surface area by the average depth. For example, a pond with a surface
acreage of l/2 acre and an average depth of 4 feet contains (4 feet x 1/2 acre) 2 acre-feet.
The herbicide label can then be checked for the amount of chemical to apply per acre -
foot.
Timing. Late spring is usually the best time to apply aquatic herbicides. The plants are
young and actively growing and most susceptible to herbicides. Do not wait until July or
August! If you wait until late summer to treat, you are running a serious risk of killing
fish. By that time, the vegetation is usually extensive and thick. Also the water is warm
and still. Killing all vegetation at once under these conditions could seriously deplete the
water of its oxygen and cause a fish kill. If you must treat this late in the summer, treat
only a portion of the weed growth at a time.
Temperature. Aquatic weeds are not affected by herbicides when the water is too cold.
The water temperature should be in the 60's, preferably the upper 60's (in the area to be
treated). These temperatures usually occur from late April to early June. This means that
as soon as the plants are up and actively growing, and if the water temperature is right,
the herbicide should be applied.
Retreatment. More than one treatment may be required for adequate control. Retreatment
is usually required in succeeding years. Plants can regenerate each spring from seeds,
spores, and underground rhizomes. These structures generally are not affected by aquatic
herbicides. Also, new plants can sprout from seeds.
CHPATER 3
COMPONENTS USED
Belt conveyor
DC motor (Brushless motor)
Cylinder roller
Transmitter and Receiver
Battery (Lipo Battery)
30 A Esc
3*3 S9 T-Slotted Aluminium frame
8mm to 8mm Coupling
Y Servo connector
It is just a prototype of weed removing machine named as Aqua arc. It includes a chain
conveyor driving using high torque right angled DC motor. The conveyor is used to collect
the weed from the river. There are two cylinders, which is mounted for press to remove the
water content of the weed. Then the crushed weed is collected in the storage box made up of
multi wood pvc material and there is a pvc pipe attach both left and right side of the machine
for float over the water. The machine is floated over the water with the help of four brushless
motor attached at the tail of the machine and it is connected to a receiver is controlled by a
receiver is controlled by a fly sky six channel transmitter. The storage units are the batteries
of four thousand mah lipo batteries for each of the motors and the base is made up of iron
square tubes of two mm square.
Water weed cutting machine, the structure is made up of iron 3*3 sq pipe and the body of
the machine is made up of 12 mm multi wood because it‘s a pvc material having less weight,
and emax 340kv brushless motors are used for floating the machine through the water we
using brushless motor because of it have less weight and easy to handle through the receiver
MT4114-340kv motors are use here these are thrust motors. This motor can provide upto 2.02
kg thrust good for heavy lifting.
A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor system (often shortened to belt
conveyor). A belt conveyor system is one of many types of conveyor systems. A belt
conveyor system consists of two or more pulleys (sometimes referred to as drums), with an
endless loop of carrying medium—the conveyor belt—that rotates about them. One or both of
the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward. The
powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the unpowered pulley is called the idler
pulley. There are two main industrial classes of belt conveyors; Those in general material
handling such as those moving boxes along inside a factory and bulk material handling such
as those used to transport large volumes of resources and agricultural materials, such
as grain, salt, coal, ore, sand, overburden and more.
3.2 DC motor
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism,
either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in
part of the motor. Brushless DC motors exhibit reduced energy use, long life, low noise,
compact size and light weight characteristics. Nidec is the world leader in the development
and production of these high-performance motors.
Brush DC motors have various advantages such as high efficiency, potential to downsize,
ability to run on electric power, and low manufacturing costs. However, these motors have a
number of disadvantages such as noise due to brush friction, generation of sparks and
electrical noise, and limited life due to brush wear. Development of the brushless DC motor
has solved all these problems. In the brushless DC motor, the rotor, made of a permanent
magnet, is driven by the magnetic force of the stator's winding circuit. While the brush DC
motor uses a brush and commutator for current switching, the brushless DC motor uses a
sensor and an electronic circuit for current switching. Development of this motor has been
made possible due to the evolution of the semiconductor and peripheral device technologies.
This motor has advantageous characteristics of DC motors (current and voltage are
respectively proportional to torque and rotating speed) and AC motors (brushless structure).
Features of the brushless DC motor include compact size, high output, long life, and no
generation of sparks and noise, and it is used in a wide range of applications from PCs to
home appliances.
DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the
strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a
lightweight brushed motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors
are currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, and in drives for
steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors
with AC motors possible in many applications.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air. Different
number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide different
inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be controlled
by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the
armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often
controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC
current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often
used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the
mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-
cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and
an electrical grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second
Industrial Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing
the motive power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as
well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as
small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper
machines. Large DC motors with separately excited fields were generally used with winder
drives for mine hoists, for high torque as well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives.
These are now replaced with large AC motors with variable frequency drives.
The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to
the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets),
and rotating electromagnets. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high
reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low
life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes
and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator.
These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to
the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.
Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added dispersed
copper to improve conductivity. In use, the soft brush material wears to fit the diameter of the
commutator, and continues to wear. A brush holder has a spring to maintain pressure on the
brush as it shortens. For brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a flying lead
will be molded into the brush and connected to the motor terminals. Very small brushes may
rely on sliding contact with a metal brush holder to carry current into the brush, or may rely
on a contact spring pressing on the end of the brush. The brushes in very small, short-lived
motors, such as are used in toys, may be made of a folded strip of metal that contacts the
commutator.
Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor
and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC
to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates
the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The
motor controller can sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar devices and
can precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize
torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking. Advantages of
brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency.
Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some
such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have
no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC
synchronous motors.
A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on
PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve
commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control.
PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of
the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator
windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled;
field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs
are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large
machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-
boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at
least competitive with all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric
machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at
least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing
is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.
There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible
for DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and
shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different
loading torque profiles/signatures.[1] A series DC motor connects the armature and field
windings in series with a common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear
function of load torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor
yielding current squared (I^2) behavior. A series motor has very high starting torque and is
commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists. [2] This
speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the
digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.
A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the
series motor, the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field
winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to
balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by over speed. This is called a
runaway condition. Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current.
Since the armature voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues
to be produced in the same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on
AC supply when compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in
DC.[3]Since the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop
higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same
rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools.
Universal motors for commercial utility are usually of small capacity, not more than about
1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed
by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation
under heavy and varying loads.
A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a
common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load
varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for
industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines
and tensioners. A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt
and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC
motor.[5] This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is
needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially.
Cumulative compound motors connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides
higher starting torque but less speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good
speed regulation and are typically operated at constant speed.
A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft in a much larger hole, and cylinders
called "rollers" tightly fill the space between the shaft and hole. As the shaft turns, each roller
acts as the logs in the above example. However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never
fall out from under the load. Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff
between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Other
bearing designs are often better on one specific attribute, but worse in most other attributes,
although fluid bearings can sometimes simultaneously outperform on carrying capacity,
durability, accuracy, friction, rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only plain bearings are used
as widely as rolling-element bearings.
Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing, dating back to
at least 40 BC. Common roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter.
Roller bearings typically have higher radial load capacity than ball bearings, but a lower
capacity and higher friction under axial loads. If the inner and outer races are misaligned, the
bearing capacity often drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing or a spherical roller
bearing. As in all radial bearings, the outer load is continuously re-distributed among the
rollers. Often, only less than half of the total number of rollers carries a significant portion of
the load at all time. The animation on the right shows how a static radial load is supported by
the bearing rollers as the inner ring rotates.
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit that controls and regulates the
speed of an electric motor. It may also provide reversing of the motor and dynamic braking.
Miniature electronic speed controls are used in electrically powered radio controlled models.
Full-size electric vehicles also have systems to control the speed of their drive motors. An
electronic speed control follows a speed reference signal (derived from a throttle lever,
joystick, or other manual input) and varies the switching rate of a network of field effect
transistors (FETs) .[1] By adjusting the duty cycle or switching frequency of the transistors,
the speed of the motor is changed. The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the
motor itself to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower
speeds.
Different types of speed controls are required for brushed DC motors and brushless DC
motors. A brushed motor can have its speed controlled by varying the voltage on its armature.
(Industrially, motors with electromagnet field windings instead of permanent magnets can
also have their speed controlled by adjusting the strength of the motor field current.) A
brushless motor requires a different operating principle. The speed of the motor is varied by
adjusting the timing of pulses of current delivered to the several windings of the motor.
rotation, which is to be taken into account by the ESC: Usually, back EMF from the motor is
used to detect this rotation, but variations exist that use magnetic (Hall effect) or optical
detectors. Computer-programmable speed controls generally have user-specified options
which allow setting low voltage cut-off limits, timing, acceleration, braking and direction of
rotation. Reversing the motor's direction may also be accomplished by switching any two of
the three leads from the ESC to the motor.
ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or
25 A. Generally the higher the rating, the larger and heavier the ESC tends to be which is a
factor when calculating mass and balance in airplanes. Many modern ESCs support nickel
metal hydride, lithium ion polymer and lithium iron phosphate batteries with a range of input
and cut-off voltages. The type of battery and number of cells connected is an important
consideration when choosing a battery eliminator circuit (BEC), whether built into the
controller or as a stand-alone unit. A higher number of cells connected will result in a
reduced power rating and therefore a lower number of servos supported by an integrated
BEC, if it uses a linear voltage regulator. A well designed BEC using a switching regulator
should not have a similar limitation.
A motor used in an electric bicycle application requires high initial torque and therefore uses
Hall sensor commutation for speed measurement. Electric bicycle controllers generally use
brake application sensors, pedal rotation sensors and provide potentiometer-adjustable motor
speed, closed-loop speed control for precise speed regulation, protection logic for over-
voltage, over-current, and thermal protection. Sometimes pedal torque sensors are used to
enable motor assist proportional to applied torque and sometimes support is provided
for regenerative braking but infrequent braking and the low mass of bicycles limits recovered
energy. An implementation is described in an [3] for a 200 W, 24 V Brushless DC (BLDC)
motor.[4]
The radio signal from the transmitter is applied to the antenna, which radiates the energy
as radio waves. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside of the
transmitter, as in portable devices such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, and garage door
openers. In more powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on
a separate tower, and connected to the transmitter by a feed line, that is a transmission line.
Electromagnetic waves are radiated by electric charges undergoing acceleration.[1][2] Radio
waves, electromagnetic waves of radio frequency, are generated by time-varying electric
currents, consisting of electrons flowing through a metal conductor called an antennawhich
are changing their velocity or direction and thus accelerating.[2] An alternating
current flowing back and forth in an antenna will create an oscillating magnetic field around
the conductor. The alternating voltage will also charge the ends of the conductor alternately
positive and negative, creating an oscillating electric field around the conductor. If
the frequency of the oscillations is high enough, in the radio frequency range above about
20 kHz, the oscillating coupled electric and magnetic fields will radiate away from the
antenna into space as an electromagnetic wave, a radio wave.
A radio transmitter is an electronic circuit which transforms electric power from a power
source into a radio frequency alternating current to apply to the antenna, and the antenna
radiates the energy from this current as radio waves. The transmitter also impresses
information such as an audio or video signal onto the radio frequency current to be carried by
the radio waves. When they strike the antenna of a radio receiver, the waves excite similar
(but less powerful) radio frequency currents in it. The radio receiver extracts the information
from the received waves.
feature, like mobile devices and radio-controlled aircraft. Just as with other lithium-ion cells,
LiPos work on the principle of intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions from a
positive electrode material and a negative electrode material, with the liquid electrolyte
providing a conductive medium. To prevent the electrodes from touching each other directly,
a microporous separator is in between which allows only the ions and not the electrode
particles to migrate from one side to the other.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smart phones, to large lead acid batteries or
lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of
rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates
US$48 billion in sales each year,[5] with 6% annual growth. Batteries have much
lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline. In
automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting
chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.
first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.[8] This was a stack of copper and zinc
plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a
considerable length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical
reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[9] and that the
associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an
unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[10]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice
their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period.
The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first
practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption
as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.[11] It consisted of a copper pot filled with
a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled
with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[12]
These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if
not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them
fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable
appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which
replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[13]
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the
electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive [14] or bond energies of the metals,
oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy can be
stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron
bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically
favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the
circuit. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at
the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[15] Some
cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of
the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical
circuit. Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to
a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its halfcells.[16]
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of
1.2 volts.[21] The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[22] Batteries
convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy
released is the difference in the cohesive [14] or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or
molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy can be stored in
Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding,
unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically
favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the
circuit.
A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolytecontaining metal cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at
the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode.[15] Some
cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of
the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical
circuit.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance,[19] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it
would have performed 1.5 joules of work.[18] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases
under discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage
and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of
the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of
1.2 volts.[21] The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[22]
Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their
chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the
supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is
useless.[23]
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical
reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[24]
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the electrodes.[25] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable
due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely
used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an
unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated
to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid
battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low
manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over
approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common
application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of
450 amperes.
The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an
immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf
life.[28] VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are
useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride(NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most
applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment. In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded
electronics such as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through
a USB connector,[29] nanoball batteriesthat allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than
current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection
circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary
cells to be charged prior to shipping.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN PROCESS
4.1 Working
ASME Code for Design of Shaft Since the loads on most shafts in connected
machinery are not constant, it is necessary to make proper allowance for the harmful effects
of loads fluctuations. According to ASME code permissible values of shear stress may be
calculated from various relations. Fs max = 0.18 Sut
= 0.18 x 40
= 7.2 N/mm2 Or
This is the allowable values of shear stress that can be inducted in the shaft material for safe
operation.
As, fSact < fSallowable Therefore, Shaft is safe under torsional load.
Design of conveyor:
α = tan-1(h/lh) = tan-1(310/550)
α = 30º
= 670 kg/m3 k = flowability factor = 2.20 x 10-4 B = belt width = 250 mm = 0.25 m V =
velocity of belt m/sec 4.2.2 Velocity of belt (V), Diameter of Pulley (D) = k1 x k2 x Zp =
1.25 x 40 x 2 =100 mm
Where, k1=Material Factor for plies = 1.25 K2=Belt tension and arc of contact factor = 40
Zp = Number of plies. = 2 V = = (π x 0.1x 200) / 60 = 1.0471 m/s
F1= Fslack F2 = F1 + Fp1 = F1+ €p1× Fslack = Fslack (1+ €p1) = Fslack (1+ 0.06)
Ftight = 2.1932 x Fslack 2.1932 x Fslack = Fslack x 1.1236 + 19.406 Fslack = 17.124 N
Ftight = 37.558 N Power required on drive pulley (P0), P0 = (Ftight - Fslack) x V, W =
(37.558 - 17.124) x 1.0471 P0 = 27.397 W Power rating of standard electric motor selected
is, Pi = 61.08 W.
Ftmax = 38.654 N
CHAPTER 5
COST OF ESTIMATION
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
A simple definition of an aquatic weed is a plant that grows (usually too densely) in
an area such that it hinders the usefulness or enjoyment of that area. Some common examples
of aquatic plants that can become weeds are the water milfoils, ribbon weeds, and
pondweeds. They may grow in ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, navigation channels, and
seashores, and the growth may be due to a variety of factors such as excess nutrients in the
water or the introduction of rapidly-growing exotic species . The problems caused by aquatic
weeds are many, ranging from unsightly growth and nuisance odors to clogging of
waterways, damage to shipping and underwater equipment, and impairment of water quality .
It is difficult and usually unnecessary to eliminate weeds completely from a lake or stream.
Therefore, aquatic weed control programs usually focus on controlling and maintaining the
prevalence of the weeds at an acceptable level. The methods used in weed control may
include one or a combination of the following: physical removal, mechanical
removal, habitat manipulation, biological controls, and chemical controls.
there are individual success stories (for example, stocking lakes with grass carp), it is difficult
to predict the long-term effects of the introduced species on the native species
and ecology and therefore, biological controls should be used with caution.
Here we successfully designed and developed an aqua arc weed remover to remove
the weeds in water.
REFERENCES
[5] ―Static Structural Analysis Of Rotary Weeding Blades Using CAD Software.‖ By
Manjunatha, K., M. Anantachar, Vijayakumar Palled, Sushilendra, K.V. Prakash, Sunil
Shirwal; 2014.
[7] ―Design Of Machine Elements‖, V. B. Bhandari; Mcgraw Hill Education (India) Private
Limited; Third Edition, 2013.
[8] Brenzy O, Mehta I, Sharma RK, Studies On Evapotranspiration Of Some Aquatic Weeds.
Weed Science, 1973.
[9] Abbasi SA. Renewable Energy From Aquatic Biomass. In: Processing Of The
International Congress On Renewable Energy Source. CSIE, Madrid. 1987, 60-69.
[10] Devendra Kumar, R.K. Mandloi ―Analysis & Prospects Of Modification In Belt
Conveyors - A Review‖ IJERA Vol. 3, Issue 1, January -February 2013, Pp.581-587.
[11] VINOD M. BANSODE, ABHAY A. UTPAT ―Fatigue Life Prediction Of A Butt Weld
Joint In A Drum Pulley Assembly Using Non-Linear Static Structural Analysis‖ Dept. Of
Mechanical Engineering, College Of Engineering, Pandharpur, India.