LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES

Development of Leadership and Management Theories

Name : Chishikwa Munde

Registration number : I1812D7175060
Course Code : BS4S16
Tutor’s name: Kyriaki Kornioti
Date: 23rd June 2019
Introduction

The sculpture of management and leadership are as old as civilization from the ancient crafting of the

Egyptians pyramids, the Red Fort and Qutub Minar in Delhi, including Chinese greatest Wall, all based

on simple management principles (Bhatia,2013). The evolution of management and leadership theories

are deliberated, their essence to moderns today and whether they remain relevant in doing so we have

selected two corporates to illustrate their relevance.

The practical methods have been applied on Toyota Inc, particularly on the management theories and

Amzon.com, Inc emphases more on leadership practices. Satoshi Hino (2015) assess the foundation of

Toyota strength and uses 14 principles of management styles that they have adopted in managing their

organisation to improve productivity. Amazon.com Inc, an exclusive revolutionary company based in

Seattle, USA was established by Jeff Bezos in 1994 after realization of massive growth in internet

usage that hit over 2300% a month (Vogelstein2003). Amazon is the market leader for ecommerce that

entails reselling goods, products and services purchased from different vendors using retail websites.

They are also involved in the production and retail of electronic devises like Kindle, Drone, Fire TVs ad

tablets. Amazon is unusual because it operates its business based on 14 leadership principles and

every employee is guided them and these have been mentioned by Rivet (2017) as : Customer

Obsession, Ownership, Invent and Simplify, Leaders are Right A lot, Hire and Develop the best, Learn

and Be Curious, Insist on the Highest Standards, Think Big, Bias for Action, Frugality, Earn Trust, Dive

Deep, Have Backbone-Disagree and Commit, and Deliver Results.

The literature provided in the analysis of this paper is based on searches using, Google Scholar for

articles that have been progressed with key search words being management and leadership. Other

sources included text books, seminal work and web-based articles.

Management
Management has been defined by several authors and among them is E.F.L Brech (1957), who

describes management as being a social process consisting of planning, control, coordination and

motivation. Further, authors like Robins et al.(2018) describe management as a universal requirement

for all organizations regardless of size, type, level and sector and that well managed organisations

promote customer retention, growth and profitability during difficult times. Management is further

discussed by Bhatia (2013) as a necessity for all types of organisations and its survival depends on it

and that organizations that are successful practice good management.

The history of management dates as far back as 3000BC-1776, during which period great projects like

the Great Wall of China and the Egyptians pyramids were built (George.C.S. Jr, 1972). To develop such

massive structures, George (1972) illustrates that during the time of building the great pyramids, the

Egyptians run into real challenges that led to the development of management beliefs and the

realization that working with thousands of people called for refenced structures. Because of this the

Egyptians set out a plan of work to be done, organized materials and workers for the job and ensured

controls were put in place. They further confirmed that employees participated in decision making

through several consultations.

The early theorists of management can be divided into two main groups – the practicing managers,

such as Taylor and Fayol, and the social scientists, such as Mayo and McGregor. The classical

approach to management was primarily concerned with the structure and activities of formal or official

organization

Development of management thoughts started from the Classical school of management or commonly

known as the Classical approach. Cole and Kelly (2016) state that classical approaches were more

concerned with the composition and performance of conventional organisations. Classical approaches
were divided into two groups known as the Scientific Management and Administrative management.

According to Robins et.el (2018), the pioneers of scientific management were Fredrick W. Taylor , Frank

and Lillian Gilberth. The administrative theory was pioneered by Henri Fayol and Max Weber. Between

1700s – 1950s, Behavioral Approach was developed and this focused on the actions of workers in an

organization. The early advocates of organization behavior included Robert Owen, Chester Barnard,

Hugo Munsterberg and Mary Follet. The Behavioral approaches gave development to an advocate

known Elton Mayo who realized that workers needed more than money to get motivated. This resulted

in a series of studies known as the Hawthorne Studies that was used to measure factors that affected

employee productivity (Griffin, 2006). Robbin et al (2018) further states that the Hawthorne Studies

ushered in the base for contemporary theories of motivation, leadership and other socio psychological

theories.

Much of the early theories as described concentrated more on the internal affairs of an organization.

However, by the 1960s, there was shift for management to focus more on their exterior setting and

locations. This gave birth to what is referred to even today as Contemporary Approaches, where

organizations are characterized by adapting to adjustments in the environment (Vidya,2017).

Contemporary Approaches are referred to under Systems and Contingence theories. (Robins, et .al,

2018).

Leadership

Leadership is an important part of management because when we talk about the functions of

management instantly we think of planning, organizing, directing and controlling. Directing functions

include leading, communicating, motivating and coaching among others. Therefore, leading is an

important function for every manager because at each level in their own departments they will deal with

people. In the corporate world today, managers are required to have some form of leadership skills that

can be acquired either my learning or training themselves to become effective leaders. John Kotter
(1990), a famous author in the field of change management believes that to maximize the effectiveness

of an institution management and leadership need to complement each, but this is not the case as

institutions are over managed and under led.

Leadership is looked at differently by many authors and who have defined it in many ways. Among the

several definitions, leadership is defined by Robbins et al (2018, p.555) “a process of leading a group

and influencing that group to achieve its goals”. Leadership is also defined by Jaques et, al (1994, p.4) "

as that process in which one person sets the purpose or direction for one or more other persons and

gets them to move along together with him or her and with each other in that direction with competence

and full commitment.” In addition, and according to (Northouse, 2010, p. 3), “leadership is a process

whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.”

Characteristics of Leadership

Leadership has several characteristics that have been pointed out by many theorists like John Sculley

who believes that a leader must have strong traits to influence his followers even without giving them a

to do list and that a leader must inspire his or her followers (Bennis,1989). The leader must be able to

make use of resources available and in an institution and significant of such resources is people

(Batten, 1989). According to Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf a leader must have a strong character and

that even in the absence of a strategy the leader must at least exhibit a resilient character. Additionally,

writers like T. Boone Pickens (1928) argues that a leader is seen as being significant when they are

keen to make decisions (Fallen,2015). Famous leader and co-founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates, sees a

leader as someone who can invest in his supporters (Mayowa, A. 2009).

Robins et al (2018) discuss leadership theories to have been studied in the early twentieth century and

were fixated on the leader that came to be known as the leadership trait theories, and also, the way a

leader related with their followers known as the leader behaviour theories. With the passage of time
came the development of Contemporary theories known as Transformational and Transactional

leadership, Charismatic leadership, Authentic leadership, Ethical leadership and, Team Leadership.

Amanchukwu and colleagues (2015) further see contemporary leadership theories as belonging to three

categories that include procedure, mixture of character and actions or familiarly known as leadership

skills.

Difference Between Leadership and Management

There are many theorists that have identified the differences between leadership and management.

Scholars such as Wagdi (2017) have highlighted several authors that have distinguished leadership

from management. Though leadership and management are interrelated, they are not similar as they

differ on attributes (Bhatia,2013). Furthermore, Kotterman (2006) believes that even though leadership

and management have certain commonalities, they are not even. Managers and leaders are not

inherently different types of people, because there are managers at all levels who are also good

leaders, and many people can develop qualities needed for effective leadership and management.

The table below illustrates some differences as identified by Wagdi et al.(2017), in their analysis of

establishing the difference between leadership and Management.

Variable Author Leadership Management Thought

Power Katz 1955 Multi- Uni-directional Management focus on getting

directional authority the most results out of people so

influence production goals are achieved,

and leadership looks into

investing more in people so that

they are motivated and inspired

to do more. Whereas,
 management relationships are

based on position and formal

authority, leadership is a

relationship based on personal

influence and trust.

Goals Zaleznik Promote Promote Management maintains a degree

1977 change stability of stability, predictability, and

order through a culture of

efficiency. Leadership creates

change often radical

change within the culture of

agility and integrity that helps an

organization thrive over the long

haul by promoting openness and

honesty, positive relationships

and innovation.

Watson Communicatio Control Management entails organizing

1983 n a structure to accomplish the

plan through employees and

developing policies, procedures

and systems to direct employees

and monitor implementation of

the plan. Leadership is

concerned with communicating

 the vision and developing a

shared culture and set of core

values that can lead to a desired

future state.

Process Bennis & Do the right Do things Right Mangers will follow laid down

Nannus thing rules and procedures and

1985 ensure that employees are in

tuned by ticking the checklist,

while on the other hand

leadership ensure that laid down

rules and produces are in line

with the organization strategy.

Change Kotter 1987 Informal Formal routine Management make changes in a

routine controlled manners and

leadership creates an

environment that makes change

a reality.

Activities Bass 1990 Manage Lead The management process

generally encourages emotional

distance and problem solving,

but leadership means being

emotionally connected to others

and requires the courage to

admit mistakes, to listen and to

trust.
 Focus Covey 2003 Vision Operating Management focuses on

results establishing plans and allocating

resources, whereas leadership

centers on creating a compelling

vision and game changers to

achieve the vision.

Scientific Management

Henry Winslow Taylor (1856-1 915) is the founding father of organizational studies and his scientific

management approach has influenced professional lives today. He was mechanical engineer and a

management consultant, which meant that he would come outside of organizations to help them make

things better (Robins et al, 2018). Factories were springing up everywhere and standardized ways did

not yet exist to manage large groups of people and t handle increasing complex work. Taylor wanted to

make organisations more standardized, efficient and productive by studying their work process closely

(Cole and Kelly, 2016). This led him to come up with a set of management principles because he

understood that if a job is evaluating scientifically it could decide one best way to complete it (Sarker

and Khan, 2013).

Taylor’s scientific management principles (Robbins et al, 2018)

1. Division of Labor - This was meant to divide the work process into small an separate steps which

could be performed by different people to boost productivity.

2. Science - He developed a clear description of each person’s job using scientist methods and

managers were tasked to ensure the employees followed accordingly.

3. Training – He believed that to improve efficiency in the work place workers needed to be

scientifically selected and trained

4. Method – He developed the scientific method called the time and motion study that could

established the amount of time it would take to complete a task.

Organizations today still use much of the scientific principles and one such organization is Toyota Inc.

Jeffrey Liker (2004) talks about the 14 principles of management that have been applied by Toyota, and

these are implemented from top levels of leadership to bottom hence creating customer experience.

Among the 14 principles of management, we have seen similarities in Taylors scientific management

principles that include the following:

a) The principle number 8 “Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves your people

and process” (Liker, 2014, p. 173). This is like when Taylor replaced the rule of thumb, because

Toyota believe that using technology that has been proved and tested will improve productivity.

b) The Principle number 9 “Grow leaders who thoroughly understand the work, live the philosophy,

and teach it to others” (Liker, 2014, p. 185). This principle agrees with Taylors view with

management and laborers work closely together to achieve the completion of work in line with

laid down principles of the science (Taylor,1911).

c) The principle number 14 “Become a learning organization through relentless reflection and

continuous improvement” (Liker, 2014, p. 261), is related to scientific management that workers

must me trained and developed to improve efficiency.

In today’s world, we see authors like Daniel (2011), who have suggested that the historic involvement of

Taylors management principles remains among the best of those that further developed management

theories adding that his book the Principles of Scientific Management is contemplated as the most

authoritative. Even though Taylors had many supporters like Frank and Lilian Gilbreth and Henry Grant

(Cole and Kelly, 2016), there are still those authors who heavily opposed some of Taylor’s work saying

that he was worried with underperformance and more obsessed with overwork (Hanson et al, 2011).

Charles S. Meyers (1920), argues against the scientific management known as Taylorism, that the one

best way as made labourer to work like machines in the same routine in a hostile environment that did

not give them any freedom whilst exercising their duties (Hanson et al, 2011). We further learn that

(Friedmann,1946), also contested the science of Taylorism stating that the principles did not address

historic challenges that happened in the industrial revolution that were related to worker exhaustion,

hefty tasks and the one best way deception. Braverman (1974) also opposes Taylors division of labour

as not being scientific because no alternatives were developed thereafter to improve working

conditions.

Administrative Management

During the same period that Taylor was developing his management theories focusing on first line

supervisors and technical systems, Henri Fayol also advanced a set of management principles that

were center on actions of the supervisors and most of these were drawn from his own personal

experiences as the Chief executive of a huge coaling mining company in France. (Robbins et al, 2018).
Prior of the development of the management principles, Fayol (1916) proposed that all supervisors

completed five functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

According to (Alika and Aibieyi (2014) Fayol is measured among others as the most powerful promoter

to the contemporary management and they recap the 14 Principles of Management , in discussing

Fayols principles we attempted to show similarities in some of the principles developed by Toyota Inc,

i. Division of Work: Once workforces are specialized, their production grows because they become

progressive experts making them extra efficient at their roles. The Toyota principle number 6 :

“Standardized tasks and processes are the foundation for continuous improvement and

employee empowerment” (Liker, 2014, p. 154). Toyota drives on the need to use constant

systems, worker ingenuity and exchange of knowledge to bring about efficiency (Liker, 2014).

ii. Authority: Managers have the duty to give commands because they have vested authority to do

so.

iii. Discipline: Organisations have guidelines that govern them and that it’s the responsibility of

workers t abide by these procedures. Discipline can be two-fold and that is self-induced and

command (Bhatia, 2013).

iv. Unity of Command: Workers must only get directives from only one supervisors. Uzuegbu and

Nnadozie (2015) further states that unity of command meant that employees were supposed to

accountable to only one manager and no two mangers could give orders to one person at the

same time.

v. Unity of Direction: Each department consisting of workers and one supervisor must follow only a

single strategy to direct them. Fayol assumed that by nature institutions have fundamental

resolutions that needed to be followed in order to achieve integrated objectives (Uzuegbu and

Nnadozie(2015).
 vi. Subordination of individual interests to the general Interest: The interests of the organisation are

prioritised above the interest of any employee or associated team within the organisation

(Uzuegbu and  Nnadozie ,2015).

vii. Remuneration: Fairness must be executed when it comes to giving workers their wages and this

must be in line with the services that they have delivered in the organisation.

viii. Centralization: This was meant to assess the extent to which subordinates included in decision

making within the organisation. The Toyota principle number 13: “ Make decisions slowly by

consensus, thoroughly considering all options; implement decisions rapidly” (Liker, 2014, p.248).

Toyota advocates that important decisions are agree and developed through consensus of

employees and other stakeholders a process that is seen as very slow by any organisation’s

standard (Liker 2014).

ix. Scalar Chain: This principle suggests in the organisation there must be hierarchical chain that

speaks to authority and communication being channelled from the top most in management right

down to the lowest level. (Bhatia,2013)

x. Order: Taylor emphases that workers and the tools that they were using whist undertaking their

work must be placed in an orderly manner in the correct place and at the correct time (Fayol,

1916). This is in line with the Toyota’s principle number 5 “Build a culture of stopping to fix

problems, to get quality right the first time” (Liker, 2014, p. 141) , who believe that immediately a

problem is detected in the production line, measures have to be put in place to quickly resolve

the issue and this can only be achieved if things are put in an orderly manner( Hino, 2015).

xi. Equity: Managers treat their subordinates fairly because this will bring about devotion and

retention (Bhatia, 2013).

xii. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Fayol (2016) advocates for an organisation to have a training

and recruitment strategy, that will cushion and vacancies in times of staff separations.
xiii. Initiative: Within their commands, managers must be able to encourage workers to be creative

and come up with executable plans that will increase the organisations productivity (Bhatia,

2013).

xiv. Esprit de Corps: Organisations must ensure that they encourage group spirit among all

employees (Fayol 1916), this is because teamwork coordinates different function that yield

greater results (Uzuegbu an Nnadozie ,2015). The Toyota principle number 14 “Become a

learning organization through relentless reflection and continuous improvement” (Liker, 2014,

p.261). This principle dwells on the ground that team spirit is important especially in the area of

learning. As employees exercise their duties they are bound to make mistakes and as such

require harmony among all team players in the organization, learning is a continuous process

and mangers are tasked to take pride in training and motivating their subordinates and

encourage team members to share best practices at all levels (Hino, 2015).

The administrative management principles do not go unopposed as there are authors that saw

limitations in some principles and among the early critics of Fayol was Henry Mintzberg (1973),

who believed that the classical school of management was only focused on managerial work

and the functional classifications of planning, organizing , coordination and controlling were not

beneficial because they could not be connected to particular events. Mintzberg (1979) further

urges against the principle of scalar chain of authority and communication exercised from top to

bottom as not being a reality in different departments of organisations. Brunsson (2008) argues

that not so many academicians and managers have challenged Fayol’ s general management of

scalar chain and this could have made great criticize to Fayol’s (Brusson,2008).

Bureaucratic Management
Wax Weber (1947) was German sociologist who pioneered to study the organizations and

created a theory of authoritative structures in managing an organization and saw this as the

ideal way. The theory was referred to as Bureaucracy, which meant that organisations needed to

follow an administrative system that could handle complex duties by methodically organizing

task to be undertaken (Bhatia, 2013). Similar to Taylors scientist theories, Weber also believed

in being level headed, certain, technical and commanding

(Robbins et al 2018). In his studies , Weber came up with Three legitimate authority and these

have been summarized by Cole and Kelly (2016) as follows;

 Rational - A leader with status because of the position they hold is accepted

 Traditional – Acknowledge those in authority by their customary status

 Charismatic – A leader is acknowledged by his strong personality that makes people

believe and trust them.

Bhatia (2013) summarizes the features of bureaucracy as follows:

1. Division of Labor - Weber believed that work which is mostly specialized in the organization

is divided into small steps and assigned to different individuals. This was so that the

organization was guaranteed of continuity and that each employee and a clear description of

wat was expected of them.

2. Administrative Class – This referred to having a set of defined activities that would guide

employees so that they could maintain efficiency. These included reward systems, selected

based on capabilities and that the length of stay in the organisation was according to laid

down regulations.

3. Hierarchy – Weber suggested that organisation needed to have a chain of authority that

ranked from top to bottom and that those at the top managed those at the bottom.
4. Official rules – The organisation need to have define rules that governed people

performance.

5. Interpersonal relationships – Formal positions in the organisation did not belong to any

individual and that any kind of attachments to the position was not acceptable.

6. Official record – Actions, decisions, and any other experienced by employees must be filled

in a system manner for future testimonials.

Google is seen as an organisation that practices some of Bureaucratic features probably

because of the size of the entity that requires more structures to be able to coordinate employees

(Robbin et al, 2018). According to Gupta (2016) as google continues to introduce more products

to the market it requires an increase in their staffing and this calls for more hierarchal levels

which is sees as some natural phenomena. He further states that Google has increase their

Span of control to 10, which means that more authority has been transferred to their employees

basically a measure to increase efficiency.

Appraisal of the Classical Approaches

According to Griffin (2006), the classical approaches made remarkable influences on theories of

management. Saker et al (2013) have summarized the classical approaches as follows; Taylors

scientific approach centered on the worker and their contribution to productivity of the

organisation. Fayol’s administrative theory was entirely skewed to the corporation and measures

to make it increasingly resourceful. Additional, Weber’s, Bureaucratic management centered in

making the companies more structured with defined set of rules, systems and positions that

guaranteed the company to survive even in the absence of managers. They further state that the
classical approaches divided company’s events from management events and in doing so this

promoted efficiency and productivity.

Leadership Theories and Styles discussed

In understanding the different theories and styles, we shall look at the leadership practices class

for the C.E.O and founder of Amazon and to relate some of his practices that have been adopted

from the early theorist of leadership into cotemporary leadership theories.

The Trait Theory

The traits approach emphases that a leader is naturally born and possess instinctive

personalities that include to have the character to drive, desire, lead, honesty and integrity, self-

confidence, intelligence, job relevant knowledge, extraversion and proneness to guilt (Lock et al,

1991), (Gerhart et al ,2002), (Flynn and Schaumberg, 2012). In their argument Amanchukwu et

al (2015) places interest in the establishing the explanation of individuals that possess those

characters but are not leaders. They further have seen researchers look for advanced

clarifications on the contradictions that arise in the correlation of leader character and efficacy. In

their discussion, Robbins et al (2018) suggest that there is still great doubts about what

separates the leader from the non-leader and no research as provided evidence on the traits that

makes a leader and not a follower. Khan et al (2016) in the study of Ekvall and Arvonen (1991)

did describe leadership traits according to Jenkins as being separated into two types namely

emergent and effectiveness traits. That emergent traits were mostly hereditary like intelligence

and self-confidence whereas effectiveness had more do to with education and proficiency like
charisma. Traits theory have been criticized for its failures to distinguish more essential traits

from less essential traits in determining who is considered to be an effective leader ( Bhatia,

2013). According to Brandt’s (2012), Jeff Bezos the founder of Amazon, depicts the

characteristics under the traits approach that include drive, energy and enthusiasm, which mostly

have been acquired from his childhood days. Jeff spent most of his childhood staying at his

grandfather’s farm every summer holiday until his was sixteen years old. It was at this farm that

he learnt several life skills that included machinal hands on, and it is believed this experience and

learning shaped Jeff into being the leader that has made a difference in internet innovation. With

this background of self-reliance leaned from his grandfather it demonstrates why Jeff had the

passion and drive to establish Amazon.

The Behavioral Theory

In the quest to establish the best definition of what makes an effective leader which the traits

theory falls short off, scholars trusted that the behavioral theories would make it more clear

(Robbins et al, 2018) . This is to say that behavioural theories attempt to recognize the

behaviours that separate efficacious leaders and non-efficacious leaders (Robbin et al , 2018).

The behavioural theories were extensively researched by the University of Michigan and Ohio

State University as far back as the 1950’s. Cole (1996) discusses that the Michigan studies

aimed to classify supervisors of high productive units and those of low productive units to

establish if this was related to leadership behaviours. He concludes that high productive units

supervised by leaders that were employee oriented and valued relationships and encouraged

their unites to take part in the affairs of the company. Amazon adopts some trends in this theory

because they expect their leaders to take full ownership of long term strategies of the

organisation and so the way they lead will impact on efficiency (Rivet ,2017). The supervisors in
the low productive units were more task oriented. He further discusses the Ohio studies which

came up with two types of behaviours namely, Consideration and Initiating Structure.

Consideration labelled behaviour as relationship oriented, considering the feelings, mutual trust

and respect for employees. The Initiating Structure labelled behaviour as creating roles and

systems that were to be used to attain a goal.

Lewin (1939) from the University of Iowa contributed to the studies of behavioural theories and

came up with three leadership styles:

a) Autocratic style - defines leaders that command work processes, makes autonomous

decisions does not encourage workers contributions. Jeff Bezos relates to this kind of

leadership style, because in 1997, when he sold only books, he wrote a letter to the

shareholders that contained important administration and decision-making methods

(Kantor and Streitfeld, 2015). This demonstrates that Jeff is autocratic as he did not make

any consultants to the procedure laid down and took full authority to implement these

procedures that still stand.

b) Laissez – faire style – defines leaders that are not concerned with way their workers

execute their task and encourage them to make their own choices.

c) Democratic style – defines leaders that are accommodating and open to employee

involvement and uses employee advice for training. The leadership style of Invent and

Simplify at Amazon requires that all teams have the capability create new technology that

are easy to follow and understand and that team members must reach beyond their

stations in search of this technology (Golding, 2017). Only an organisation with a

democratic mindset can give its workers the freedom to exercise intuitions.

The Skills Theory

Wolinski (2010) states the effective leadership is exercised and performed when leader learn the

necessary skills and knowledge on how to execute their duties. Robert L Katz attempted to

establish the type of skills that managers required, and he came up with three important skills

(Katz, 1974):

a) Technical skills – having knowledge only for a job and methods to perform the work duty

and this is critical for first line managers who supervise workers using hands on tools.

b) Interpersonal skills - having the capability to work in different teams within the

organisation and this skill cuts across all management levels.

c) Conceptual skills – managers critically summarise and conceptualize multifaceted

situations. The managers view organisation holistically in terms of relations and how

organisations integrate in the ecosystem. This skill is mostly exercised by top

management and Amazon’s general manager Mr Ian McAllister in a statement did

mention that effective managers recognised the entire industry, and this changes the

mindset of workers to create meaningful contributions that will add value to the

organisation

(McAlister, 2013).

The Situational Theory

This theory as explained by Amanchukwu et al (2015) that leaders will change their skills in

managing a group because they are influence by the surroundings in which they find themselves

in and basically are able to easily adapt in the environment they find themselves.
In 1994, when Jeff Bezos observed the increase in internet usage by 2300 % a month, he knew

that they was something extra ordinary that had happened he wanted to be a part of this growth

and left his fruitful jobs as a stock market researcher hedge fund manager on Wall Street to start

up Amazon.com internet site (Knight, 1996). This is a demonstration of a leader that took the

opportunities within his environment and made a success out it.

Contingency Theory

The latest approach to organisations today is the contingency theory and is very much possess

similar trends to the situational approach (Bhatia, 2013). This leadership ideology was created

by Fielder (1967) and it was referred to as the leadership contingency model and it meant that

leadership styles were matched to diverse situations. A style of managing a group could not be

used to manage a different group. Important to this theory was the emphasis on the character of

the leader and the environment in which they operated and defines leadership as belonging to

two classes namely, task oriented and relationship motivated (Northouse, 2007). Fielder (1967)

further defined environments in three dimensions:

a) Leader- member relations - the extent to which subordinates hold their leaders in high

esteem.

b) Task structure – the extent to which leaders influence job evaluation and ranking.

c) Position Power – the extent to which leaders influence recruitment and separation of

employees and including the criteria for reward systems.

In a dynamic changing environment, a leader like Jeff who are able to adapt to the opportunities

they see around them is an example of a contingent leader who is progressive and practical and

adaptive to shifting situational destitutions (Bhatia, 2013). Contingency theory has been criticised
for not being different from Fayol’s theories that principles of management need to be

interchanged depending on changes in the environment. (Bhatia, 2013).

Contemporary Theories in Leadership

Transactional Leadership

This theory is also known as the Leader – Member Exchange Theory (LMX). According to

Robbins et al (2018), LMX, leaders forms two types of teams with in organisation and these are

referred to as “in-group and out groups and those in the in- group will have higher performance

ratings, less turnover and greater job satisfaction”, (Robbin et al, p. 564). The survival of the

relationship between the leader and his teams is dependent on the exchange of rewards to those

that have strong ties with the leader, those with less ties are disciplined (Liden, et al, 1993). The

transactional style is categorised as Active and Passive Management by exception, where by

active becomes dominate when the leader seeks for error and destruction whereas passive is

when the leader only rises to the occasion when goals are not achieved (Avolio & Bass, 1997).

Transformational Leadership

These are leaders that identify the potential abilities that their supporters display in achieving a

desired result unlike transactional leadership that requires leaders can only motivate their

supporter to deliver set results on swapping of rewards (Bass and Riggio, 2006). Bass (1985)

further states that transactional and transformational leaders both drive productivity and must not

be viewed as conflicting methods. Transformational leadership goes beyond Charisma because

these leaders make efforts to impart in their supporters the character to challenge opinions of laid

down procedure and of the leader (Avolio & Bass, 1985).

Bass (1985), further defines transformational leaders to acquire behaviours that he categorised

as follows:

a) Idealised Influence Charisma – leaders that lead their supports by example by doing the

right things and are involved in completing agreed objectives.

b) Inspirational Motivation – The ability of the leader to inspire supporters to move them

into action to create a captivating vision that is aligned to agreed objectives.

c) Individualised Consideration – This is the leaders ability to connect with their supporters

and to be aware of the requirements and objectives of their supporters. The leader must

have the ability to identify and grow talent among his supporters. Amazon’s principle of

“Hire and Develop the best” is s clear practice that workers with special aptitudes are

transfered to areas where the best can be utilized (Rossman, 2016).

d) Intellectual Stimulation – leaders challenges their supporters to be creative, think

outside the box and come up with new ways of work. Amazon has adopted this culture

because they encourage their employees to be as innovative as possible, this led to the

invention of the drone in 2016. The drone is an electric device that flies in the skies not

exceeding 400 feet to deliver parcels purchase from Amazon it its customers. This is way

Amazon still stands as a very successful company because the drones sales alone check

in 90% of their trades (Robbins et al 2018).

Charismatic Leadership
Amanchukwu et al (2015) describe charismatic leaders as those that encourage enthusiasm in

their supporter and generally exert excitement in them to achieve higher heights. According to

House (1977) in his theory of Charismatic leadership, leaders possess certain qualities, actions

and strengths on their supporters. The qualities include; self-assurance, values of a certain

standard, quest for influence and leading. Actions are described as stimulating purposes,

analyse objectives with proficiency and lead by example. They believe in their supports must

believe in them, unchallenged recognition, respect, connect with their leaders and grow their self-

assurance. As already mentioned under the traits theory Jeff Bezos, CEO of Amazon as a

radiates energy, enthusiasm and drive (Vogelstein 2003) and this makes him a charismatic

leader. A Visionary leader that saw his dream come to reality in the early nineteen nineties when

he created Amazon, and this demonstrates his own confidence to build an empire in the internet

industry. His personality drives employees to behave in a confident manner (Robbins et al 2018).

Authentic Leadership (AL)

This leadership centres on the integrity that leader carry with them and has been define by Avolio

et al (2005) as leaders that are relatively conscious of their performance and reasoning and are

this is clearly observed by their followers who are also made cognizant of their skills, principles

and power. Robbins and Judge (2017), supports authentic leaders as those who know exactly

what they stand for and what they stand against and freely demonstrate these behaviours. AL

is looked at in four dimensions that basically describe the purpose.

a) Self-awareness – trusting in what one believes on.

b) Internalised moral perspective – guided by a set of principles to drive actions.

 c) Balances processing – impartial in the process of goal settings and accommodating

other people’s thoughts.

d) Relational transparency – a leader that is confident to share what he or she believes in

and is ready to take criticism.

The principle of “Are Right, A Lot” in Amazon (Rossman, 2016) gives demonstration that AL is

being practiced in organisations today, because they believe that leaders that are right a lot are

able to listen and change their minds a lot, do unnatural things and seek diverse viewpoints and

work to unsettle their views. Further, Jeff believes that his leader must continue to learn and

make mistakes which make them better. They must be willing to learn from their teams to

improve themselves.

Servant Leadership

This leadership was pioneers by Robert Greenleaf in 1977 focuses on a leader that serves the

people before the interest of the organisation. Leader are encouraging to be aware of external

environment that could possible influence the performance of the workers. The leader realises

that for their staff to be serve their customers with professionalism and integrity they need to be

properly taken care of by their supervisors. Leaders are not responsible for motivating their staff

but rather are responsible for creating an enabling environment that will encourage self-

motivation. The employee is seen as the most important in the business because they are the

ones that will eventually serve your customer. The servant leader needs to earn the moral

authority to lead workers to places that they never imagined they would have gone by

themselves. In the case of Amazon leaders insist on the highest standards and because
 customers are their key focus, they ensure that all their workers deliver quality work throughout

the value chain (Rossman, 2016).

Introduction:

 Start with a related quote to draw the reader’s attention. Write your thesis sentence and explain

in brief what you are about to examine further. Explain what is going to be discussed in more

detail. Your arguments and position should be stated in your introduction.

Main Body:

 Discussion of the first point. Begin with the topic sentence and provide an explanation and the

supporting evidences (facts, statistics, theories, reasons etc.) that can back up your views and

opinions.

Write the concluding sentence of your paragraph and provide a linking phrase or word so that

your writing has a logical flow.

 Discussion of the second point and support.

 Discussion of the third point and support.

Conclusion:

 Summarize. You should mention your thesis and how your evidences support it. Provide an

overall evaluation of the main points discussed and make a final statement. You should not

mention any new knowledge in your conclusion.

Important Note:

Do not include any subtitles in your essays. Your writing should indicate each paragraph’s purpose, so

the words introduction, main body or conclusion should be avoided. Also, you should avoid using

numbers, bullets or any kind of points that divide your writing. Use of linking words and phrases for an

easier flow is recommended.

References:

Amanchukwu, R.N , Stanley,G.J and Ololube,N.P. (2015) ‘A Review of Leadership Theories, Principles

and Styles and Their Relevance to Educational Management’, Management,5(1), pp.6-14. Research

Gate [Online]. Available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nwachukwu_Prince_Ololube/publication/283081945_A_Review_of

_Leadership_Theories_Principles_and_Styles_and_Their_Relevance_to_Educational_Management/lin

ks/56292c3408ae04c2aeaee901/A-Review-of-Leadership-Theories-Principles-and-Styles-and-Their-

Relevance-to-Educational-Management.pdf (Accessed: 17 June 2019).

Avolio, B.J and Gardner, W.L (2005) Authentic leadership development : Getting to the root of positive

forms of leadership. Leadership Quarterly , 16(3),315-338

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1985) Transformational Leadership, Charisma, and Beyond : Working

paper , School of Management, State University of New York, Binghamton.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1997) Full range leadership development: manual for the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire, Mindgarden, Palo Alto, Calif.

Bass, B.M and Riggio, R.E (2006) , Transformational Leadership, 2 nd edn. Mawwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates , Inc

Bass, B.M (1985), Leadership : Good, Better Best , Organizational Dynamics, Winter ,pp26-40

Batten, J.D. (1989) Tough-minded Leadership. New York: AMACOM.

Bennis, W. (1989) On Becoming a Leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

Brandt, R.L (2012), Birth of a Salesman, Wall Street Journal . Available at

:https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203914304576627102996831200 (Accessed : 22

June 2019).

Braverman, H. (1974) Labor and monopoly capital: the degradation of work in the

twentieth century. New York: Monthly Review Press.

Brech, E.F.L. (1976) The Principles and Practice of Management, Revised Edition. Addison-Wesley

Longman Ltd.
Cole, G.A. and Kelly . P.(2016) Management Theory and Practice. Custom edn . Cengage Learning-

M.U.A . University of South Wales . My bookshelf. [Download]. Available at:

https://www.dawsonera.com/abstract/9781473728387. (Accessed: 20 June 2019).

Wren, D.A. (2011). The Centennial of Frederick W. Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management: A

Retrospective Commentary. Journal of Business and Management, 17(1): 11-22.

Fallen, N (2015) ‘35 Inspiring Leadership Quotes’, Business News Daily, 9 September. Available at:

https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/7481-leadership-quotes.html. (Accessed: 19 June 2019).

Fayol, H. (1916) Industrial and General Administration , Paris : Dunod.

Fielder, F.E, (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill.

George, Jr, C.S. (1972) The History of Management Thought. 2nd edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice

Hall.

Golding, I .(2017) The 14 Leadership Principles that Drive Amazon. Available at :

http://customerthink.com/the-14-leadership-principles-that-drive-amazon/( Accessed: 21 June 2019).

Greenleaf, R.K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power & greatness.

Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.

Griffin, R.W.(2006) Management.8th edn. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Gupta, A. (2016), Practical-Management - Transforming Theories into Practice. Research Gate [Online].

Available at : http://www.practical-management.com/Leadership/Analysis-of-Google-s-Organizational-

Design.html (Accessed : 21/06/2016).

Hino, S. (2005) Inside the Mind of Toyota: Management Principles for Enduring Growth. University

Park, IL: Productivity Press.

DeRue, D.S, Nahrgang, N.W and Humprey, S.E., Traits and Behavioural Theories of Leadership : An

Integration and Meta -Analytic Test of their Relevance Validity.

Hurley-Hanson, A .E and Giannantonio, C.M.(2011) ‘Frederick Winslow Taylor: Reflections on the

Relevance of The Principles of Scientific Management 100 Years Later’, Journal of Business and

Management,17(1). Chapman University’s Argyros School of Business and Economics [Online].

Available at : https://www.chapman.edu/business/_files/journals-and-essays/jbm-editions/jmb-vol-17-

01.pdf ( accessed : 21 June 2019).

Jaques, E. and Clement, S.D. (1994) Executive Leadership: a practical guide to managing complexity.

Cambridge, MA: Carson-Hall & Co. Publishers.

Kantor, J and Streitfeld, D (2015) ‘Inside Amazon: Wrestling Big Ideas in a Bruising Workplace’, The

New York Times . Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/16/technology/inside-amazon-

wrestling-big-ideas-in-a-bruising-workplace.html ( Accessed; 18 June 2019).

Katz, R,L (1974) ‘Skills of an Effective Leader’ ,Harvard Business Review, p 90-102
Knight, G.B (1996) How wall Strret Whiz Found a Niche selling Books on the Internet. Wall Street

Journal.May 15, 1996

Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York, NY: Free

Press.

Liker, J.K. (2004) The Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the World's Greatest Manufacturer.

New York : McGraw-Hill.

Liden, R.C., Wayne’s and Stilwell, D. A (1993), Longitudinal Study of the Early Development of Leader

– Member, Journal of Applied Psychology , august 1993, pp 662-674

Mayers, C.S. (1920). Mind and work: the psychological factors in industry and commerce.

London: University of London Press.

Mayowa , A. (2009) ‘Leadership Definitions by Scholars’ 13 April. Available at :

http://adeoyemayowaleadership.blogspot.com/2009/04/definitions-of-leadership-by-scholars.html

(Accessed : 19 June 2019).

McAlister, I (2013) What does it take to be a Great General Manager for a Web Company [Online]

Available at : www.forbes.com.

Northouse, P.G. (2007). Leadership Theory and Practice .3rd edn. Thousand Oak: Sage Publications.
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice. 5th edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE

Publications.

Rivet, D.J (2017) Amazon 's Superior Innovation: A Study of Amazon ' s corporate structure, CEO, and

reasons behind why it has become the most innovative company in today ' s market. Available at:

https://scholars.unh.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1347&context=honors (Accessed 15 June 2019).

Robbins, S.P and Coulter, M. (2018) Management. 14th edn. Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

Robbins, S.P and Judge, T.A. (2017) Organisational Behaviour. 17th edn. United Kingdom: Pearson

Education Limited.

Rossman, J. (2016). The Amazon Way : 14 Principles behind the World’s most Disruptive

Company . Revised 2nd edn. Washington: Clyde Hill Publishing LLC.

Sarker, S.I and Khan ,M.R. (2014) ‘Classical and neoclassical approaches of management : An

overview’ Journal of Business and Management , 14 (6) [Online]. Available at :

http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/papers/Vol14-issue6/A01460105.pdf ( Accessed 20 May 2019).

Taylor, F. W. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper.

Uzuegbu, C. P and Nnadozie, C. O. (2015). “Henry Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management: Implications

for Libraries and Information Centres’, Journal of Information Science Theory and Practice, 3 (2), 58-

72[Online]. Available at :

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281801296_Henry_Fayol's_14_Principles_of_Management_I

mplications_for_Libraries_a ( Accessed : 21 June 2019).

Vidya-mitra (2017) Human Resource Management.

Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B28ipvdbf-U (Accessed: 18 June 2019).

Vidya-mitra (2017) Theories of Leadership

Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B28ipvdbf-U (Accessed: 19 June 2019).

Vogelstein, F (2003) Mighty Amazon , Fortune pp 60-74

Wajdi, M.B.N and Nganjuk, S.M.U. (2017) ‘The Differences Between Management and Leadership’,

Sinergi , 7. Research Gate [Online]. Available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318597967_The_Differences_Between_Management_And_L

eadership (Accessed : 17 June 2019).

Wolinski, S. (2010). Leadership Theories. Retrieved June 14, 2014,

fromhttp://managementhelp.org/blogs/leadership/2010/04/21/leadership-theories/.

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Kotter, J. P. (1987), The Leadership Factor, The Free Press: New York, NY. K motter, J. P. (1990a).

What leaders really do. Harvard Business Review, 68, 103-111.

Mintzberg, H. 1973. The Nature of Managerial Work. New York: Harper & Row.

Mintzberg, H. 1979. The Structuring of Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300048689_Change_Leadership_and_Change-

Oriented_Leadership_Theories_in_Highe