I. Modes of Nutrition in Plants
Chemical digestion
and Animals.
Autotrophic Nutrition
1. Photoautotrophic nutrition
- Light energy is used to convert
simple substances to complex
organic compounds. (green
plants, photosynthesizing algae)
2. Chemoautotrophic nutrition
- The oxidation of inorganic
compounds is used as an energy
source for the conversion of
simple inorganic compounds to
complex organic compounds.
(nitrogen-fixing bacteria, sulfur-
oxidizing bacteria, ironoxidizing
bacteria)
Autotrophs – producers in the
ecosystem (photosynthesis)
Heterotrophic Nutrition
1. Parasitic organisms or
parasites live on or inside other
living organisms called hosts
and obtain their food from
them. The host does not benefit
from the parasite. (e.g.,
hookworms, tapeworms, and
leeches)
2. Saprophytic organisms or
saprophytes obtain food from
dead organisms. They secrete
enzymes that are released on
the food material outside their
body. These enzymes break
down complex food into simple
forms. (e.g., fungi and bacteria)
3. Holozoic organisms ingest
food that is mechanically broken
down and is subsequently
digested by enzymes produced
within the organism. Digested
food is absorbed into the body
and the undigested product is
egested (expelled). (e.g.,
amoeba and humans)
Holozoic Nutrition: Digestion
-Holozoic nutrition in humans is
called digestion, the breaking
down of food into parts that can
be utilized by the body.
Digestion takes place in the
different organs of the digestive
system.
Basic stages of digestive
process:
 Ingestion
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Elimination
Bulk feeders, which include
most animals including humans,
eat large pieces of food.
Two classification of bulk
feeders:
1. Mechanical digestion
2. Chemical digestion
------------------------------------------
1. Mechanical digestion
- refers to the breaking down of
food into small pieces as when
food is chewed and ground by
the teeth. This type of digestion
does not alter the chemical
composition of food. It simply
increases the surface area upon
which chemicals of digestion
can act.
2.
- usually involves enzymes in
breaking down food into simpler
molecules like glucose and
amino acids that can be
absorbed or stored by the cells.
- Amylase in the saliva and other
enzymes in the gastric
(stomach) juice are some of the
important enzymes in digestion.
This type of digestion alters the
chemical composition of food.
- Nutrients from digested food
are then absorbed into the
bloodstream through the
capillaries that straddle the
walls of the small intestine. The
small intestine has finger-like
projections called villi which in
turn have microscopic
projections called microvilli.
These projections give
enormous amount of surface
area for a more efficient
absorption of nutrients. Excess
water is absorbed in the walls of
the large intestine, while
undigested materials undergo
elimination as feces.
Cellular Respiration
– To obtain energy from sugar,
including the sugar from the
photosynthesis of plants,
organisms process sugar
through cellular respiration, a
three-step metabolic pathway
that converts sugar or an energy
molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which cells
use for all their processes.

The three metabolic pathways
of cellular respiration are:
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle/ Krebs cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
------------------------------------------
II. Reproductive Strategies
Reproduction
Asexual/Sexual Reproduction
Individual organisms do not live
forever.
• Therefore the continuity of a
species relies on individuals
reproducing.
• There are two types of
reproduction: asexual
reproduction and sexual
reproduction.
Ways of Reproducing Asexually
• There are several ways an
organism may reproduce
asexually:
• Fission and Budding
• Fragmentation
• Spore Formation
• Vegetative Reproduction
• Parthenogenesis
------------------------------------------
Fission and Budding
• Fission is common among
unicellular organisms such as
bacteria.
• Fission occurs after the mitotic
division of the nucleus when the
parent cell splits into two
equally sized daughter cells Vegetative Reproduction
forming a new organism.
• Many plants are capable of
• Budding is similar to fission vegetative reproduction which
except that the division of the is the separation of one plant to
cytoplasm is unequal. The new form a new, independent plant.
individual arises from an
• Vegetative reproduction may
outgrowth, or bud, from the
arise from many parts of a plant
parent.
including the leaves and
• Budding can also be seen in underground stems.
small multicellular animals
• Rhizomes are underground
Fragmentation stems that branch and give rise
• Fragmentation occurs in to new shoots and roots
multicellular organisms when
• Note that these plants can also
the body of the organism breaks
reproduce sexually. Asexual
into two or more parts each of
reproduction is however faster
which will form a new organism.
and may allow the plant to out-
• This form of reproduction is compete neighbouring species
common in flatworms, marine of plant wanting the same
worms, and echinoderms resources and space.
(starfish).
Parthenogenesis
• With worms and new
• Parthenogenesis is the
individual may form when the
development of an unfertilised
worm gets so long that it simply
egg into a new individual that is
falls apart forming new
a clone of the parent.
organisms.
• In order to obtain the needed
Spore Formation
diploid set of chromosomes the
• Spores are formed by fungi egg will often duplicate by
and are often contained within mitosis and then fuse to give the
a structure known as a egg two sets of chromosomes.
sporangium which will
• Animals that are
disintegrate releasing the
parthenogenetic include bees,
spores into the environment.
wasps, ants, and some species
• When a spore lands in a of birds and lizards.
suitable environment it will
germinate forming a new
fungus.
• Spores are formed by budding.
Advantages and Benefits of
Asexual Reproduction
• No need to spend time and
energy finding a mate
• No need to use energy
resources producing eggs and
sperm that potentially would
never be used
Disadvantages and Costs of
Asexual Reproduction
• Lack of variation within the
population means the species is
less likely to survive after
environmental change
Sexual Reproduction
• Most multicellular organisms
reproduce sexually.
• Sexual reproduction involves
male and female gametes
(sperm and eggs) uniting to
form a zygote. This zygote is a
unique new individual
introducing variation into a
population.
• The cells of multicellular
organisms can be divided into
two broad categories:
• Germ cells which give
rise to the gametes. Gametes
are the cells that combine in
sexual reproduction to form a
new organism.
• Somatic cells are all
cells of the body with the
exception of the germ cells.
• Sexual reproduction usually
involve two parents but there
may be only one.
• Some worms such as
tapeworms are hermaphrodites
meaning they have both male
and female reproductive
organs.
• Hermaphrodites do not self-
fertilise as a first option but
when they do they produce
genetically different offspring.
Advantages and Benefits of
Sexual Reproduction
• The genetic diversity
introduced by sexual
reproduction can allow a
species to survive changing
environmental conditions. This
is a major benefit to the survival
of the species.
Disadvantages and Costs of
Sexual Reproduction
• The organism must use energy
to produce germ cells
• The organism may have to
change its usual pattern of
activity to ensure these gametes
are brought together at the
right time of the year.
• Some reproductive behaviours
may attract predators not only a
reproductive mate.
• Reproduction in some species
leads to deadly competition
between males.
• The costs of sexual
reproduction however clearly
outweigh the costs as reflected
by the fact that nearly all
eukaryotic organisms reproduce
sexually.
III. Transport in Plants and
Animals
Transport System in Plants
Plants need plenty of water to
manufacture their own food
and grow. Roots take up water
and minerals from the soil which
are transported throughout the
body of plants by a special
conduction tissue called xylem.
The upward movement of water
and minerals through the xylem,
even if it is against the force of
gravity, is due to transpiration
pull.
Transpiration is the process
through which water
evaporates from the stomata or
the pores on the surface of
leaves. This evaporation process
creates a kind of vacuum in the
conduction tissues and pulls up
water through the xylem.
Sugars and other food
molecules synthesized in the
leaves are transported to other
parts of the plant through a
specialized tissue called
phloem.
The movement of food
materials from leaves to others
parts of the plant is called
translocation.
Transport System in Animals
The Circulatory System: Blood
Circulation
The amount of water the cup
holds represents the amount of
blood your heart pumps each
time it beats.
 It takes your heart about one
minute to pump 5L of blood.
Mammalian heart is one of the
wonders of our evolution. The
average stroke volume of
human heart is about 70 mL and
the average heart rate is 72
beats per minute.
Human heart is a muscular
organ that is about the size of a
clenched fist.
Two upper chambers called
atria
Two lower chambers called
ventricle
Two primary loops of
circulatory system:
1. Pulmonary loop carries
deoxygenated blood from the
right chambers of the heart to
the lungs to pick up oxygen and
return to the left chambers of
the heart
2. Systemic loop carries
oxygenated blood from the left
chambers of the heart to the
different tissues of the body.
Respiratory System: Exchange
and Transport of Gases
Breathing or Respiration is the
process of inhaling and exhaling
air.
The respiratory system is
concerned with the taking in of
oxygen and giving off of carbon
dioxide.
– As part of the continuous
metabolism of food, cells also
produce by-products and
wastes.
– Wastes, as well as excess
water, are collected by the
blood and filtered by the kidney
in the excretory system,
particularly in the urinary
system.
– Wastes in the blood are mainly
composed of excess water,
mineral salts, other metabolic
wastes, and urea.
– Urea is produced in the liver as
a product of the removal of
excess amino acids.
IV. Regulation of Life Processes:
Nervous Control
Functions of the Nervous
System
1. Nervous system and
endocrine system are the chief
control centers in maintaining
body homeostasis.
2. Nervous system uses
electrical signals (nerve
impulses) which produce
immediate (but short- lived)
responses; endocrine system
uses chemical signals
(hormones) that produce
slower (but long lasting)
responses.
3. Nervous system has 3 major
functions:
Sensory input – sensory or
afferent neutron detect internal
or external changes (stimuli)
and send the message to the
brain or spinal cord.
Integration – interneurons in
the brain or spinal cord process
and interpret the message from
the sensory neurons, and relay
the message back to body parts.
Motor output – motor or
efferent neurons receive the
message from interneuron and
produce a response at the
effector organ (a muscle or a
gland).
Divisions of the Nervous
System
1. The human nervous system
consists of the Central Nervous
System (CNS) and the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS).
2. CNS is composed of the brain
(located in the cranial cavity)
and the spinal cord (located in
the vertebral cavity), which
serve as the main control
centers for all body activities.
3. PNS is composed of nerves
derived from the brain and
spinal cord (12 pairs of cranial
nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves), which serve as linkage
between the CNS and the body.
4. PNS can be subdivided into
Sensory (afferent) nerves and
Motor (efferent) nerves.
Sensory nerves send nerve
impulse from the body to CNS,
while motor nerves send
impulse from CNS to effector
organs.
5. Motor nerves are divided into
the Somatic Nervous system
(SNS) which regulates the
voluntary contraction of skeletal
muscles and autonomic
nervous system (ANS) which
regulates the involuntary
control of smooth, cardiac subarachnoid space, between bodies and synapses but no
muscles and glands. the arachnoid mater and the myelin.
6. Finally, the ANS can be pia mater. – The cortex (thin layer of
divided into Sympathetic and tissue) is gray because nerves in
Parasympathetic branches, Regions of the Brain this area lack the insulation or
where in general sympathetic -Cerebellum white fatty myelin sheath that
nerves stimulate activities of – Coordination of movement makes most other parts of the
the effector organs (except and aspects of motor learning brain appear to be white.
digestive organs), and -Cerebrum – The cortex covers the outer
parasympathetic nerves inhibit – Conscious activity including portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the
activities of the effector organs perception, emotion, thought, cerebrum and cerebellum
(except digestive organs) and planning – The cortex consists of folded
-Thalamus bulges called gyri that create
Central Nervous System
– Brain’s switchboard deep furrows or fissures called
– Brain
–filters and then relays sulci
o Brain stem – medulla, pons,
information to various brain – The folds in the brain add to its
midbrain
regions surface area which increases the
o Diencephalon – thalamus &
Medulla – vital reflexes as heart amount of gray matter and the
hypothalamus
beat and respiration quantity of information that can
o Cerebellem
Brainstem – medulla, pons, and be processed
o Cerebrum
midbrain (involuntary – Medullary body
– Spine
responses) and relays * is the white matter of the
o Spinal Cord
information from spine to upper cerebrum and consists of
brain myelinated axons
Meninges
Hypothalamus– involved in – Commissural fibers
Meninges are the three
regulating activities internal * conduct impulses between the
coverings around the brain &
organs, monitoring information hemispheres and form corpus
spine and help cushion, protect,
from the autonomic nervous callosum
and nourish the brain and spinal
system, controlling the pituitary – Projection fibers
cord.
gland and its hormones, and * conduct impulse in and out of
• Dura mater is the most outer
regulating sleep and appetite the cerebral hemispheres
layer, very tough
– Association fibers
• Arachnoid mater is the middle
Cerebrum * conduct impulses within the
layer and adheres to the dura
– Is the largest portion of the hemispheres
mater and has weblike
brain encompasses about two- – Basal ganglia
attachments to the innermost
thirds of the brain mass - * masses of gray matter in each
layer, the pia mater
• It consists of two hemispheres hemisphere which are involved
• Pia mater is very thin,
divided by a fissure – corpus in the control of voluntary
transparent, but tough, and
callosum muscle movements
covers the entire
• It includes the cerebral cortex,
brain,cfollowing it into all its
the medullary body, and basal
crevices (sulci) and spinal cord
ganglia
• Cerebrospinal fluid, which
–Cerebral cortex is the layer of
buffers, nourishes, and
the brain often referred to as
detoxifies the brain and spinal
gray matter because it has cell
cord, flows through the
Lobes of the Cerebrum
– Frontal
– motor area involved in
movement and in planning &
coordinating behavior
– Parietal
– sensory processing, attention,
and language
– Temporal
– auditory perception, speech,
and complex visual perceptions
– Occipital
– visual center
– plays a role in processing
visual information
Brain Waves
– Brain waves are rhythmic
fluctuation of electric potential
between parts of the brain as
seen on an
electroencephalogram (EEG).
• To measure brain waves
electrodes are placed onto the
scalp using the EEG.
• There are four types of
brainwaves:
o Beta – Awake, Normal
Consciousness
o Alpha – Relaxed, Calm,
Creative visualization
o Theta – Deep Relaxation
o Delta – Deep dreamless sleep
Peripheral Nervous System
– Cranial nerves
• 12 pair
• Attached to undersurface of
brain
– Spinal nerves
• 31 pair
• Attached to spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System
(Voluntary)
Relays information from skin,
sense organs & skeletal muscles
to CNS.
Brings responses back to
skeletal muscles for voluntary
responses.
Autonomic Nervous System
(involuntary)
– Regulates bodies involuntary
responses
– Relays information to internal
organs
– Two divisions
o Sympathetic nervous system
– in times of stress
- Emergency response
- Fight or flight
o Parasympathetic nervous
system
– When body is at rest or with
normal functions
- Normal everyday conditions
V. Regulation of Life Processes:
Chemical Control
Regulation of Processes in
Plants
– Plants do not possess an
endocrine system, but are able
to regulate different processes
such as the ripening of fruits
through plant hormones. Plant
hormones, also called
phytohormones, are chemicals
that regulate metabolic
processes in plants. There are
five major groups of plant
hormones: auxin, gibberellin,
cytokinin, abscisic acid, and
ethylene.
Plant Hormones
1. Auxin
• Stimulates cell elongation in
stems.
• Plays a role in apical
dominance, the control of the
shoot tip over axillary bud
outgrowth.
• Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a
naturally occurring auxin, but
synthetic auxins are also
available in the market.
2. Gibberellin
• Signals stem elongation
and, in some plants, enhances
other processes such as seed
germination and fruit set.
• Gibberellic acid (GA) is one
of more than 60 naturally
occurring gibberellins.
• Gibberellin causes some
similar effects in plants as
auxin, but it is a very different
hormone.
• Gibberellins were
discovered originally in
Japan.
• A fungus called Gibberella
fujikuroi infected rice plants
and caused them to grow too
tall and fall over.
• The infectious fungus
produced a chemical that
stimulated the growth in rice
plants.
• The chemical was isolated and
named Gibberellin after the
fungus.
• It was later found that plants
naturally produce variations of
these chemicals!
• The infectious fungus
produced a chemical that
stimulated the growth in rice
plants.
• Gibberellins promote stem
elongation between nodes on
the stem.
• A node is a place on a stem
where a leaf attaches, so
gibberellins elongate the
internodes.
• It is easiest to see the absence
of gibberellin in dwarf plants
and rosette plants – there is
very little space between nodes
on a stem and the leaves are
clustered toward the base of the
plant.
• Biologists can prevent plants
in a greenhouse from making
gibberellins to keep them a
manageable size.
• Or what if you’re a farmer and
your business is something that
comes from the stem of a plant?
• Longer stems would mean
more profit for you.
• Gibberellins sprayed on sugar
cane in Hawaii elongate the
stem between the nodes.
Longer stems mean more stored
sugar. More sugar to sell means
more coin! Knowing about plant
hormones just makes cents!
2. Cytokinin
• Stimulates cell division.
• Causes cell enlargement and
regulation of senescence.
• Zeatin was the first naturally
occurring
cytokinin to be identified in
plants.
• Who knew that fish could play
a role in the discovery of a plant
hormone?
• Aged herring sperm DNA can
promote cell division.
• The molecule that is
responsible for this was named
kinetin.
• Soon after, a substance that
had the same biological effect as
kinetin was found in plants, it
stimulated plant cells to divide
when in culture with auxin.
• The substance was named
cytokinin and it is involved in cell
division and in the making of
new plant organs, like a root or
a shoot.
• Cytokinins are produced in the
root apical meristems (very tip
of the roots) and travel upward
hitching a ride with water and
traveling up the stem through
the xylem.
• Cytokinins are like the
fountain of youth in plants.
• They delay senescence or the
natural aging process that leads
to death in plants.
• In the cell cycle, cytokinins
promote the movement from
the G2 phase to the M phase.
In other words, they encourage
cells to divide!
4. Abscisic acid
• Abscisic acid or ABA inhibits,
rather than stimulate, any
physiological functions.
• The effects of ABA include
closure of the stomata,
dormancy of axillary buds,
abscission of certain fruits, and
inhibition of seed germination.
• When our bodies need water
we feel thirsty.
The “thirst signal” signifies that
we’re dehydrated and we need
a drink of water.
• When a plant needs water, for
example during a drought, it
doesn’t have too many options.
• Plants produce a chemical
messenger, called abscisic acid,
to alert the rest of the plant that
it is water stressed.
• Abscisic acid is made in
droughted leaves, droughted
roots, and developing seeds and
it can travel both up and down
in a plant stem in the xylem or
phloem sounding the alarm.
5. Ethylene
• Stimulates fruit ripening,
accelerates senescence, and
alters other processes, such as
bud growth in pea seedlings.
• Ethylene moves readily
through the plant by diffusion.
• Have you ever noticed that if
you put a really ripe, brown
banana right next to a bunch of
green bananas, the unripe
bananas will ripen and turn
yellow much faster? How does
that happen?
• Well, the brown banana is
communicating with the green
bananas using a hormone called
ethylene.
• Ethylene is a plant hormone
that affects ripening and rotting
in plants.
• It is a particularly interesting
plant hormone because it exists
as a gas.
• No other plant hormone is
gaseous!
• Ethylene can be produced in
almost any part of a plant, and
can diffuse through the plant’s
tissue, outside the plant, and
travel through the air to affect a
totally different plant.
Endocrine System In Humans
– Regulation of body activities in
the human body is controlled by
the endocrine and nervous
systems. Glands are grouped in
an organ system called the
endocrine system. The
endocrine glands produce
chemical messengers that
influence a wide range of
activities such as growth,
development, and metabolic
activities.
– These chemical messengers
called hormones regulate
processes at a slower rate.
What is the Endocrine System?
– The endocrine system is made
up of glands that produce and
secrete hormones, chemical
substances produced in the manages estrogen in women
body that regulate the activity and testosterone in men.
of cells or organs. These
Pineal Gland
hormones regulate the body's
growth, metabolism (the –The pineal body, or pineal
physical and chemical processes gland, is located in the middle of
of the body), and sexual the brain. It secretes a hormone
development and function. The called melatonin, which may
hormones are released into the help regulate the wake-sleep
bloodstream and may affect one cycle of the body.
or several organs throughout
Thyroid Gland
the body.
– This gland makes thyroid
– The major glands of the
hormone, which controls your
endocrine system are the
metabolism. If this gland
hypothalamus, pituitary,
doesn't make enough (a
thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals,
condition called
pineal body, and the
hypothyroidism), everything
reproductive organs (ovaries
happens more slowly. Your
and testes). The pancreas is also
heart rate might slow down. You
a part of this system; it has a role
could get constipated. And you
in hormone production as well
might gain weight. If it makes
as in digestion.
too much (hyperthyroidism),
Endocrine Gland – Hormones everything speeds up. Your
heart might race. You could
(SLIDES 126 – 127)
have diarrhea. And you might
Hypothalamus lose weight without trying.
–This organ connects the Parathyroid Glands
endocrine system with the
–This is a set of four small glands
nervous system. Its main job is
behind your thyroid. They are
to tell the pituitary gland to start
important for bone health. The
or stop making hormones
glands control your levels of
Pituitary Gland calcium and phosphorus.
– This is the "master" gland of Thymus Gland
the endocrine system. It uses
–This gland makes white blood
information it gets from the
cells called lymphocytes that
brain to "tell" other glands in
fight infection and are crucial as
the body what to do. It makes
a child's immune system
many different important
develops. The thymus starts to
hormones, including growth
shrink after puberty.
hormone; prolactin, which helps
breastfeeding moms make milk;
and luteinizing hormone, which
Adrenal Glands
– The two adrenal glands are
triangular-shaped glands
located on top of each kidney.
The adrenal glands are made up
of two parts. The outer part is
called the adrenal cortex, and
the inner part is called the
adrenal medulla. The outer part
produces hormones called
corticosteroids, which regulate
the body's metabolism, the
balance of salt and water in the
body, the immune system, and
sexual function.
– The inner part, or adrenal
medulla, produces hormones
called catecholamines (for
example, adrenaline). These
hormones help the body cope
with physical and emotional
stress by increasing the heart
rate and blood pressure
Pancreas
– The pancreas is an elongated
organ located towards the back
of the abdomen behind the
stomach. The pancreas has
digestive and hormonal
functions. One part of the
pancreas, the exocrine
pancreas, secretes digestive
enzymes. The other part of the
pancreas, the endocrine
pancreas, secretes hormones
called insulin and glucagon.
These hormones regulate the
level of glucose (sugar) in the
blood.
Reproductive Glands –Positive feedback loop
amplifies the starting signals.
– The reproductive glands are
the main source of sex
hormones. In males, the testes,
located in the scrotum, secrete
hormones called androgens; the
most important of which is
testosterone. These hormones
affect many male characteristics
(for example, sexual
development, growth of facial
hair and pubic hair) as well as
sperm production.
– In females, the ovaries,
located on both sides of the
uterus, produce estrogen and
progesterone as well as eggs.
These hormones control the
development of female
characteristics (for example,
breast growth), and they are
also involved in reproductive
functions (for example,
menstruation, pregnancy).
Homeostasis
– An important role of
hormones is to regulate he
internal body environment of an
organism and to maintain
equilibrium amidst changing
environments. The tendency of
a system to resist change and
maintain a stable environment
is called homeostasis.
– This process involves systems
of feedbacks controls, whether
they are negative or positive
feedback loops.
–Negative feedback loop keeps
target values to a specific idea
level.