TECHNICAL REPORT

On

COMPUTER NETWORKING

NAME : TRIDIB BHUNIYA

STREAM : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

CLASS ROLL NO : 04

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO : 10400316045

YEAR : 3rd

SEMESTER : 6th
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• I would like to take the opportunity to express my gratitude to those people

without whom this project report would not have seen the glory of success.

• I would like to thank my Technical Report Writing Lab teachers .They

gave me the liberty to choose a topic on my own and also the confidence
to make a report .

• I would also like to thank my Institution and faculty members of the ECE
department for helping me throughout. I would also like to extend my
gratitude to my family and well wishers.

TRIDIB BHUNIYA
 Institute of Engineering and Management

• CERTIFICATE

• This is to certify that TRIDIB BHUNIYA , student of 3rd YEAR , from

electronics and communication engineering(ECE) , has carried out
the topic “COMPUTER NETWORKING ” for technical report writing
under my supervision and guidance.

• Teacher’s signature
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. COMPUTER NETWORK
4. TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK
5. NETWORK COMPONENTS
6. TOPOLOGIES
7. PROTOCOLS
8. CONCLUSIONS
9. REFERENCES
 ABSTRACT
• A computer network is a group of computer systems and other
computing hardware devices that are linked together through
communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-
sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are commonly
categorized based on their characteristics.

• The concept of a network began in 1962 when a server at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology was connected to a server in
Santa Monica, California. Since that time the proliferation of computers
and computer networks has increased significantly. One of the most
significant challenges to networks is attacks on their resources caused by
inadequate network security.
 INTRODUCTION

• Computer Networks have become an essential tool in many aspects:

human communication, gathering, exchange and sharing of
information, distributed work environments, access to remote
resources (data and computing power) and many more

• This paper will give an introduction to the underlying ideas and

technologies. It will concentrate on the most commonly used network
technology today and give an introduction to the communication
mechanisms used.

• Also it covers identification of devices in network and different types of

internet protocols and brief idea of network troubleshooting.

• In this technical report I also draw some attentions towards different

types of cyber attack and how cryptography and cyber security are
essential to prevent unauthorized access of valuable information.
 COMPUTER NETWORK
 A computer network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to
share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each
other using connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established
over cable media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi.

 Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called
network nodes.[1] Nodes are generally identified by network addresses, and can
include hosts such as personal computers, phones, and servers, as well
as networking hardware such as routers and switches.

 Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to
exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct
connection to each other. In most cases, application-specific communications
protocols are layered (i.e. carried as payload) over other more general
communications protocols. This formidable collection of information
technology requires skilled network management to keep it all running reliably.

 Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and services such

as access to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use
of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use
of email and instant messaging applications as well as many others.

 Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their

signals, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network's
size, topology, traffic control mechanism and organizational intent. The best-known
computer network is the Internet.
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Types of area networks :

Local Area Network (LAN) –
LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computer and
workstations can share data, tools and programs. The group of computers and devices are
connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined
by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local
network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.Data
transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited. By definition, the
connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network
adapters and Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few
kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools,
etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair
cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area as
compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or
different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN
ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is costly and
may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the propagation delay
of MAN is moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can provide a
high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical area,
although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a connection
of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an
enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high
speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to design and
maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the
network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased distance and increased
number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second (Kbps) to
megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices
used for transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves and Satellites. Example of
a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is dial-
up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.

Different Types of Networks

• GPS - the Global Positioning System network uses satellites to transmit signals that cover the
globe. The smart phone can receive these signals and calculate the phone’s location to an accuracy
of within 10 meters.

• Wi-Fi – Wi-Fi transmitters and receivers located within the smart phone enable the phone to
connect to local networks and the Internet. In order to receive and send data on a Wi-Fi network,
the phone needs to be within the range of the signal from a wireless network access point. Wi-Fi
networks are usually privately owned but often provide guest or public access hotspots. A hotspot is
an area where Wi-Fi signals are available. Wi-Fi network connections on the phone are similar to the
network connections on a laptop computer.

• Bluetooth - A low-power, shorter range wireless technology that is intended to replace wired
connectivity for accessories such as speakers, headphones and microphones. Because Bluetooth
technology can be used to transmit both data and voice, it can be used to create small local
networks.

• NFC – NFC stands for Near Field Communications. NFC is a wireless communication
technology that enables data to be exchanged by devices that are in very close proximity to each
other, usually less than a few centimeters.

NETWORK COMPONENTS
Computer networks share common devices, functions, and features including servers, clients,
transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware and software resources,
network interface card(NIC), local operating system(LOS), and the network operating system (NOS).
Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating system.
Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are many
different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example, there are file
servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers, fax servers and web
servers, to name a few.
Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources.
Client computers are basically the customers(users) of the network, as they request and receive
services from the servers.
Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers in a
network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are
sometimes called channels, links or lines.
Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data files, printer
access programs and e-mail.
Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware resources
provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers,
software, or any other items used by clients on the network.
Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called a network
interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares(formats) and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow
between the computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes frames of data on to
the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link. On the receiver's side, the NIC
processes bits received from the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.
Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to access files, print to
a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer.
Examples are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows XP etc.
Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on computers
and servers, and allows the computers to communicate over the network.
Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution center. When a computer requests information from a network or a specific computer,
it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to
the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out whether the broadcast
data is for them or not.
Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components.
Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each
incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.
Router - When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used to connect
a LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have two distinct networks (LANs) or
want to share a single internet connection to multiple computers, we use a Router. In most cases,
recent routers also include a switch which in other words can be used as a switch.
LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as data cable or Ethernet cable which is a wired
cable used to connect a device to the internet or to other devices like other computer, printers, etc.
 TOPOLOGIES

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses
CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue.

Star Topology All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device,
using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts
and hub.
Ring Topology In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a
host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one
more host in the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
Mesh Topology In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology
has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in
point-to-point connection to few hosts only.
Tree Topology Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties
of bus topology.

Hybrid Topology A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
 PROTOCOLS
A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network
devices. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with
each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into sent and received
messages. Some protocols also support message acknowledgment and data compression designed
for reliable and/or high-performance network communication.

Modern protocols for computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to send
and receive messages in the form of packets — messages subdivided into pieces that are collected
and reassembled at their destination. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been
developed, each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Internet Protocols
The Internet Protocol (IP) family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used) network
protocols. Beside Internet Protocol itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all
integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols
like ARP and ICMP also coexist with IP. In general, higher-level protocols in the IP family interact
more closely with applications like web browsers, while lower-level protocols interact with network
adapters and other computer hardware.
Wireless Network Protocols

Thanks to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and LTE, wireless networks have become commonplace. Network
protocols designed for use on wireless networks must support roaming mobile devices and deal with
issues such as variable data rates and network security.

Network Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers on
the internet. A routing protocol can identify other routers, manage the pathways
(called routes) between sources and destinations of network messages, and make dynamic routing
decisions. Common routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP.

How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems contain built-in software services that implement support for
some network protocols. Applications like web browsers contain software libraries that support the
high-level protocols necessary for that application to function. For some lower-level TCP/IP and
routing protocols, support is implemented in direct hardware (silicon chipsets) for improved
performance.

Each packet transmitted and received over a network contains binary data (ones and zeros that
encode the contents of each message). Most protocols add a small header at the beginning of each
packet to store information about the message's sender and its intended destination.

CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, a network is two or more computers connected together using a telecommunication
system for the purpose of communicating and sharing resources. Without having a network,
Companies would not be able to share resources and increase productivity more effectively. The WAN
network allowed companies to use the Internet over large areas. This provided the company tohave
meetings overseas by video conferencing and sharing data over the network. As you can see, Networks
have many benefits to the end user. Weather your Network is Wired or Wireless, Networks arean
important part of technology.

Network security is an important field that is getting more and more attention as the internet
expands. The security threats and internet protocol should be analyzed to determine the necessary
security technology. The security technology consists of mostly software based, as well as various
hardware devices. In addition network Security consists of the provisions made in an underlying
computer network infrastructure, policies adopted by the network administrator to protect the
network and the network-accessible resources from unauthorized access and the effectiveness (or
lack) of these measures combined together.
 REFERENCES

www.google.com

www.cisco.com

www.coursera.org

Wikipedia

Goleniewski, L. (2006) Telecommunications Essentials, Addison Wesley Professional.

(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare
at CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Ogletree, T.W. and M.E. Soper (2006) Upgrading and Repairing Networks, Que.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare
at CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )