Chapter – I

Introduction

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 Chapter – I Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definitions of Parenting

1.3 Parenting Style

1.3.1 Definitions

1.3.2 Authoritative Parenting

1.3.2.1 Traits of Authoritative Parenting

1.3.2.2 Characteristics of the Authoritative Parenting Style

1.3.2.3 The Effects of the Authoritative Parenting Style

1.3.2.4 Authoritative Parenting Works

1.3.3 Authoritarian Parenting

1.3.3.1 Traits of Authoritarian Parenting

1.3.3.2 Characteristics of the Authoritarian Parenting Style

1.3.3.3 The Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

1.3.3.4 Understanding Authoritarian Parenting

1.3.4 Permissive Parenting

1.3.4.1 Traits of Permissive Parenting

1.3.4.2 Characteristics of the Permissive Parenting Style

1.3.4.3 The Effects of Permissive Parenting

1.3.4.4 Understanding Permissive Parenting

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 1.3.5 Uninvolved Parenting

1.3.5.1Traits of Uninvolved Parenting

1.3.5.2 Characteristics of the Uninvolved Parenting Style

1.3.5.3 The Effects of Uninvolved Parenting

1.3.5.4 Understanding Uninvolved Parenting

1.4 The Impact of Parenting Styles

1.5 Why Do Parenting Styles Differ?

1.6 Parental Involvement

1.6.1 Definition

1.6.2 Outcomes of Parental Involvement

1.6.3 Recommendations for Increasing Parental Involvement

1.6.4 Six Types of Parental Involvement

1.6.4.1 Parenting

1.6.4.2 Communicating

1.6.4.3 Volunteering

1.6.4.4 Learning at Home

1.6.4.5 Decision Making

1.6.4.6 Collaborating with Community

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1.1 Introduction

The role of parents play in child development is commonly referred

to as socialization (Holden, 2010). Socialization can be defined as “the
process whereby an individuals are taught the skills, behavior patterns,
values and motivation needed for competent functioning in the culture in
which the child is growing up” (Maccoby, 2007). Personal relationships,
continuing controversies and chronic social problems are just three
examples indicating that parenting is central to all of our lives. Not
surprisingly, researchers from variety of disciplines are investigating
questions related to child rearing (Holden, 2010). Psychologists are now
joined in their research efforts by sociologists, anthropologists, biologists,
geneticists, physician, nurses, economists and investigators from other
disciplines. Consequently, links between child rearing and child outcomes
are appearing in scientific journals with unprecedented frequency.

1.2 Definitions of Parenting

The word “parenting” is derived from the Latin verb parere, a

word defined as “to bring forth or produce” (My Etymology, 2008)

Parenting is a performing a role of a parent by care-giving,

nurturance and protection of the child by a natural or substitute parent.
The parent supports the child by exercising authority and through
consistent, empathic, appropriate behavior in response to the child’s
needs. Parenting differs from child rearing. In the child rearing emphasis
is on the act of training or bringing up the children and the interaction
between the parents and child, while parenting emphasizes the
responsibilities and qualities of exemplary behavior of the parent.

“Parenting is the process of promoting and supporting the physical,

emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to
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adulthood. Parenting refers to the activity of raising a child rather than the
biological relationship.” (en.wikipedia.org/wiki)

In the case of humans, it is usually done by the biological parents

of the child in question, although governments and society take a role as
well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental
care from non-parent blood relations. Others may be adopted, raised by
foster care, or be placed in an orphanage.

The goals of human parenting are debated. Usually, parental

figures provide for a child's physical needs, protect them from harm, and
impart in them skills and cultural values until they reach legal adulthood,
usually after adolescence. Among non-human species, parenting is
usually less lengthy and complicated, though mammals tend to nurture
their young extensively. The degree of attention parents invest in their
offspring is largely inversely proportional to the number of offspring the
average adult in the species produces.

Although race may be a significant contributing factor, social class,

wealth, and income have the strongest impact on what methods of child
rearing are used by parents. Lack of money is found to be the defining
factor in the style of child rearing that is chosen, and minorities are more
likely to have less wealth or assets available for use in their children's
upbringing. Societal values and norms of a generation also have an effect,
as in the United States where authoritarian parenting was the most
popular until the 1960s when a backlash made permissive parenting the
most popular in the 1970s.

1.3 Parenting Style

Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how

parents impact child development. However, finding actual cause and
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effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of
children is very difficult. Some children raised in dramatically different
environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities.
Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same
environment can grow up to have astonishingly different personalities
than one another.

Despite these challenges, researchers have uncovered convincing

links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on
children. During the early 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind
conducted a study on more than 100 preschool age children (Baumrind,
1967). Using naturalistic observation, parental interviews and other
research methods, she identified four important dimensions of parenting.

 Disciplinary Strategies
 Warmth and Nurturance
 Communication Styles
 Expectations of Maturity and Control

Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority

of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Further research
by also suggested the addition of a fourth parenting style (Maccoby &
Martin, 1983).

1.3.1 Definitions

Parenting styles are the manner in which parents rear their children.
Parenting is a complex activity that includes many specific behaviors that
work individually and together to influence child outcomes. Although
specific parenting behaviors, such as spanking or reading aloud, may
influence child development, looking at any specific behavior in isolation
may be misleading. Many writers have noted that specific parenting
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practices are less important in predicting child well-being than is the
broad pattern of parenting. Most researchers who attempt to describe this
broad parental milieu rely on Diana Baumrind's concept of parenting
style. The construct of parenting style is used to capture normal variations
in parents' attempts to control and socialize their children (Baumrind,
1991). Two points are critical in understanding this definition. First,
parenting style is meant to describe normal variations in parenting. In
other words, the parenting style typology Baumrind developed should not
be understood to include deviant parenting, such as might be observed in
abusive or neglectful homes. Second, Baumrind assumes that normal
parenting revolves around issues of control. Although parents may differ
in how they try to control or socialize their children and the extent to
which they do so, it is assumed that the primary role of all parents is to
influence, teach, and control their children.

Parenting style captures two important elements of parenting:

parental responsiveness and parental demandingness (Maccoby & Martin,
1983). Parental responsiveness (also referred to as parental warmth or
supportiveness) refers to the extent to which parents intentionally foster
individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned,
supportive, and acquiescent to children's special needs and demands
(Baumrind, 1991). Parental demandingness (also referred to as behavioral
control) refers to the claims parents make on children to become
integrated into the family whole, by their maturity demands, supervision,
disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys
(Baumrind, 1991).

A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard

strategies that parents use in their child rearing. There are many differing
theories and opinions on the best ways to rear children, as well as

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differing levels of time and effort that parents are willing to invest.
Parental investment starts soon after birth. This includes the process of
birth, breast-feeding, affirming the value of the baby’s cry as the parent.

Many parents create their own style from a combination of factors,

and these may evolve over time as the children develop their own
personalities and move through life's stages. Parenting style is affected by
both the parents' and children's temperaments, and is largely based on the
influence of one’s own parents and culture. "Most parents learn parenting
practices from their own parents some they accept, some they discard."
(Santrock, 2007) The degree to which a child's education is part of
parenting is a further matter of debate.

One of the best known theories of parenting style was developed

by Diana Baumrind. (Santrock, 2007) She proposed that parents fall into
one of three categories: authoritarian (telling their children exactly what
to do), indulgent (allowing their children to do whatever they wish), or
authoritative (providing rules and guidance without being overbearing).
The theory was later extended to include negligent parents (disregarding
the children, and focusing on other interests).

The intensity of parental involvement remains a matter of debate.

At opposite extremes are Slow parenting in which parents stand back,
merely supporting their children in doing what they want to do as
independent individuals (but guiding them when the children are not
developing healthy attitudes), versus Concerted cultivation in which
children are driven to attend a maximum number of lessons and
organized activities, each designed to teach them a valuable skill which
the parent has decided for them.

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 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how
children represent and reason about the world (White et al., 2005). This is
a developmental stage theory that consists of a sensorimotor stage,
preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational
stage. Piaget was a pioneer in the field of child development and
continues to influence parents, educators and other theorists.

Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, proposed eight life

stages through which each person must develop. In each stage, they must
understand and balance two conflicting forces, and so parents might
choose a series of parenting styles that helps each child as appropriate at
each stage. The first five of his eight stages occur in childhood. The
virtue of hope requires balancing trust with mistrust, and typically occurs
from birth to one year old. Will balances autonomy with shame and doubt
around the ages of two to three. Purpose balances initiative with guilt
around the ages of four to six years. Competence balances industry
against inferiority around ages seven to 12. Fidelity contrasts identity
with role confusion, in ages 13 to 19. The remaining adult virtues are
love, care and wisdom.

Rudolf Dreikurs believed that pre-adolescent children's

misbehavior was caused by their unfulfilled wish to be a member of a
social group. He argued that they then act out a sequence of four mistaken
goals: first they seek attention. If they do not get it, they aim for power,
then revenge and finally feel inadequate. This theory is used in education
as well as parenting, forming a valuable theory upon which to manage
misbehavior. Other parenting techniques should also be used to
encourage learning and happiness.

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 Demanding Undemanding

Responsive Authoritative Indulgent/ Permissive

Unresponsive Authoritarian/Totalitarian Neglectful

1.3.2 Authoritative Parenting

During the 1960s, developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind

described three different types of parenting styles based on her researcher
with preschool-age children. One of the main parenting styles identified
by Baumrind is known as the authoritative parenting style. This style of
parenting is sometimes referred to as "democratic" and involves a child-
centric approach in which parents hold high expectations for their
children.

This parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative

parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions.
When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more
nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing. Baumrind suggests that
these parents monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s
conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their
disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. Parents want
their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-
regulated as well as cooperative. (Baumrind, 1991)

The authoritative parenting style was Diana Baumrind's clear

favorite and today it remains the recommended parenting style by most
traditional, mainstream, western parenting experts.

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 According to Diana Baumrind's studies, and many parenting
studies made since then, authoritative parenting is the parenting style that
has been most consistent terms of being associated with positive
outcomes for children, high level of self esteem, good academic
performance, well-developed social skills, good emotional control etc.

As a parenting style, authoritative parenting is characterized by

high behavior control (demandingness) and high parental responsiveness
(warmth).

1.3.2.1 Traits of Authoritative Parenting Style

Traits of authoritative parenting style are as below:

 A child discipline strategy that includes demands for children such

as assigning house chores.
 Children are basically expected to as they are told. Thus they are
raised in a spirit of disciplined conformity, general obedience and
sticking to the rules.
 Authoritative parents have a relatively flexible mind where they
make use of what may be termed rational control: There are rules
but they have to logical sense.
 Relative freedom of choice. This parenting style encourages
independent thinking and give and take discussions. However, the
parents will typically always have the last say.
 Being warm, responsive and striving towards meeting the
children's physical as well as emotional needs.
 The parent is demanding and responsive. When this style is
systematically developed, it grows to fit the descriptions
propagative parenting and concerted cultivation.

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 Authoritative parenting, also called 'assertive democratic
(Parenting style.co.uk) or 'balanced' parenting is characterized by a child-
centered approach that holds high expectations of maturity. Authoritative
parents can understand how their children are feeling and teach them how
to regulate feelings. They often help their children to find appropriate
outlets to solve problems. Authoritative parents encourage children to be
independent but still places controls and limits on their actions. (Santrock,
2007) Extensive verbal give-and-take is not refused, and parents try to be
warm and nurturant toward the child. Authoritative parents are not
usually as controlling as authoritarian parents, allowing the child to
explore more freely, thus having them make their own decisions based
upon their own reasoning. Often, authoritative parents produce children
who are more independent and self-reliant. ("All about the authoritative
parenting style". Page wise.
http://mama.essortment.com/authoritativepa_tvxe.htm. Retrieved 2007-
09-23).

An authoritative parenting style mainly results when there is high

parental responsiveness and high parental demands. Authoritative parents
will set clear standards for their children, monitor the limits that they set,
and also allow children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature,
independent, and age-appropriate behavior of children. Punishments for
misbehavior are measured and consistent, not arbitrary or violent
(Santrock, 2007). Authoritative parents set limits and demand maturity,
but when punishing a child, the parent will explain his or her motive for
their punishment. They are attentive to their children’s needs and
concerns, and will typically forgive and teach instead of punishing if a
child falls short. ("Parent-Child Relationships: Information and Much
More from Answers.com". Retrieved 2007-09-23). This is supposed to

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result in children having a higher self esteem and independence because
of the give-take nature of the authoritative parenting style. This is the
most recommended style of parenting by child-rearing experts.

1.3.2.2 Characteristics of the Authoritative Parenting Style

Authoritative parents listen to their children, encourage independence,

place limits, consequences and expectations on their children's behavior,
express warmth and nurturance, allow children to express opinions,
encourage children to discuss options, administer fair and consistent
discipline. People with authoritative parenting styles want their children
to utilize reasoning and work independently, but they also have high
expectations for their children. When children break the rules, they are
disciplined in a fair and consistent manner. Authoritative parents are also
flexible. If there are extenuating circumstances, they will allow the child
to explain what happened and adjust their response accordingly.

1.3.2.3 The Effects of the Authoritative Parenting Style

Child development experts generally identify the authoritative parenting

style as the "best" approach to parenting. Children raised by authoritative
parents tend to be more capable, happy and successful. According to
Baumrind, children of authoritative parents tend to have a happier
dispositions, have good emotional control and regulation, develop good
social skills, are self-confident about their abilities to learn new skills.
The authoritative parenting style, more than any other, aids in ensuring
healthy development, because children are taught to follow rules, ask
questions and have their own opinions. Research conducted by Betsy
Garrison and colleagues for Louisiana State University on how parenting
styles influence cognitive ability found authoritative parenting in both
fathers and mothers to be positively correlated with cognitive

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development in children. Social development also benefits from this
parenting style, because communication is welcomed and children feel
more comfortable with peers and in other social situations.
(http://www.livestrong.com/article/541560-the-impact-of-parenting-
styles-on-childrens-development/)

1.3.2.4 Authoritative Parenting Works

Because authoritative parents act as role models and exhibit the same
behaviors they expect from their children, kids are more likely to
internalize these behaviors. Consistent rules and discipline allow children
to know what to expect.

Because parents exhibit good emotional understanding and control,

children also learn to manage their own emotions and learn to understand
others as well. Authoritative parents also allow children to act
independently, which teaches kids that they are capable of accomplishing
things on their own, helping to foster strong self-esteem and self-
confidence.

1.3.3 Authoritarian Parenting

The authoritarian parenting style is the parenting style that Diana

Baumrind (and other child experts) has linked with the most unfortunate
consequences for children's healthy social and emotional development.

As a parenting style, authoritarian parenting is characterized by

high behavior control (demandingness) and low parental responsiveness
(warmth).

In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict

rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually
results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning

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behind these rules. If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply,
"Because I said so." These parents have high demands, but are not
responsive to their children. According to Baumrind, these parents "are
obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed
without explanation" (Baumrind, 1991).

In Authoritarian parenting the parent is demanding but not

responsive. Elaborate becomes totalitarian parenting. Authoritarian
parenting, also called strict, is characterized by high expectations of
conformity and compliance to parental rules and directions, while
allowing little open dialogue between parent and child. "Authoritarian
parenting is a restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child
to follow their directions and to respect their work and effort" (Baumrind,
1991). Authoritarian parents expect much of their child but generally do
not explain the reasoning for the rules or boundaries. Authoritarian
parents are less responsive to their children’s needs, and are more likely
to spank a child rather than discuss the problem. Children with this type
of parenting may have less social competence as the parent generally tells
the child what to do instead of allowing the child to choose by him or
herself. Nonetheless, researchers have found that in some cultures and
ethnic groups, aspects of authoritarian style may be associated with more
positive child outcomes than Baumrind expects. "Aspects of traditional
Asian child-rearing practices are often continued by Asian American
families. In some cases, these practices have been described as
authoritarian." If the demands are pushed too forcefully upon the child,
the child will break down, rebel, or run away.

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 1.3.3.1 Traits of Authoritarian Parenting Style

Traits of authoritative parenting style are as below:

 A value and belief system characterized by predictability and

conservatism
 Adhering to a strict family hierarchy of authority and
submissiveness
 Consistent upholding of rules and no parent child discussions
 The parents encourage suppression of emotions while at the same
time being aggressive and having a short fuse.
 A mental mindset that is characterized by rigidity and black and
white world view.
 Harshness and insensitivity in social relations.
 Rules, order, punishment and strict discipline.

Authoritarian parents have high expectations of their children and

have very strict rules that they expect to be followed unconditionally.
According to Baumrind, these parents "are obedience- and status-
oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation."
People with this parenting style often utilize punishment rather than
discipline, but are not willing or able to explain the reasoning behind their
rules.

Authoritarian parenting, also called strict parenting, is

characterized by high expectations of conformity and compliance to
parental rules and directions, while allowing little open dialogue between
parent and child. Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punitive
parenting style in which parents make their children to follow their
directions and to respect their work and effort. (Santock, 2007)
Authoritarian parents expect much of their child but generally do not

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explain the reasoning for the rules or boundaries. Authoritarian parents
are less responsive to their children’s needs, and are more likely to
ground their child rather than discuss the problem. Authoritarian
parenting deals with low parental responsiveness and high parental
demand, the parents tend to demand obedience without explanation and
focus on status. Children resulting from this type of parenting may have
less social competence because the parent generally tells the child what to
do instead of allowing the child to choose by him or herself.
Nonetheless, researchers have found that in some cultures and ethnic
groups, aspects of authoritarian style may be associated with more
positive child outcomes than Baumrind expects. "Aspects of traditional
Asian child-rearing practices are often continued by Asian American
families. In some cases, these practices have been described as
authoritarian.(Santrock, 2007) If the demands are pushed too forcefully
upon the child, the child may break down, rebel, or run away.

1.3.3.2 Characteristics of the Authoritarian Parenting Style

Authoritarian parents have strict rules and expectations very

demanding, but not responsive, don't express much warmth or nurturing,
utilize punishments with little or no explanation and don't give children
choices or options.

1.3.3.3 The Effects of Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting styles have been associated with a variety of child

outcomes including social skills and academic performance. The children
of authoritarian parents tend to associate obedience and success with
love, some children display more aggressive behavior outside the home,
others may act fearful or overly shy around others, often have lower self-
esteem and have difficulty in social situations.

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Parents that practice authoritarian parenting demand total cooperation
from their children and have no tolerance for questions or breaking rules.
This parenting style expects high degrees of maturity from the child with
low levels of parent-child communication. Children disciplined by
authoritarian parents stay out of trouble and make good grades, but their
social development is negatively affected due to not being encouraged to
have opinions, being shy and constantly worrying about disappointing
their parents. (http://www.livestrong.com/article/541560-the-impact-of-
parenting-styles-on-childrens-development/)

1.3.3.4 Understanding Authoritarian Parenting

Because authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience, children

raised in such settings are typically very good at following rules.
However, they may lack self-discipline. Unlike children raised by
authoritative parents, children raised by authoritarian parents are not
encouraged to explore and act independently, so they never really learn
how to set their own limits and personal standards.

While developmental experts agree that rules and boundaries are

important for children to have, most believe that authoritarian parenting is
too punitive and lacks the warmth, unconditional love and nurturing that
children need.

1.3.4 Permissive Parenting

The consequences of the permissive parenting style are seen as less

severe than the authoritarian but not as ideal as the authoritative parenting
style. Typical objections to the permissive parenting style is that it may
lead to spoiled or bossy children, who act like this because they feel
insecure as they have never learnt any boundaries and have never had any
demands. Other research studies claim that children of permissive parents
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tend to engage more in problematic experimentative behavior as teens
and young adults. As a parenting style, permissive parenting is
characterized by low behavior control (demandingness) and high parental
responsiveness (warmth).

Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents,

have very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely
discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of
maturity and self-control. According to Baumrind, permissive parents
"are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional
and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-
regulation, and avoid confrontation. (Baumrind, 1991) Permissive parents
are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often
taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent.

Based on her research with preschool-age children, developmental

psychologist Diana Baumrind described three major parenting styles. In
later years, researchers would continue to investigate the different styles
of parenting and even add a fourth major style. Permissive parenting is
one of the original parenting styles described by Baumrind. Permissive
parenting is sometimes known as indulgent parenting. Parents who
exhibit this style make relatively few demands upon their children.
Because these parents have low expectations for self-control and
maturity, they rarely discipline their children. According to Baumrind,
permissive parents "are more responsive than they are demanding. They
are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow
considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation.

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 1.3.4.1 Traits of Permissive Parenting Style

Traits of permissive parenting style are as below:

 Advocate of free development and encouragement of independent

thinking.
 Practicing a flat family hierarchy structure and relative role
equality between parents and child.
 Meeting needs and being warm, responsive and caring.
 Do not favor overt control techniques and punishments but are
more subtle and uses manipulative control measures such as
bribery and praise.
 Tends to be evasive of conflicts, harmony orientated and
encourages give and take discussions.
 Non-restrictive child discipline strategy.

The parent is responsive but not demanding. Indulgent parenting,

also called permissive, nondirective or lenient, is characterized as having
few behavioral expectations for the child. "Indulgent parenting is a style
of parenting in which parents are very involved with their children but
place few demands or controls on them. (Santrock, 2007)

Parents are nurturing and accepting, and are very responsive to the
child's needs and wishes. Indulgent parents do not require children to
regulate themselves or behave appropriately. This may result in creating
spoiled brats or "spoiled sweet" children depending on the behavior of the
children.

Children of permissive parents may tend to be more impulsive, and

as adolescents, may engage more in misconduct, and in drug use.
Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to
get their way (Santrock, 2007). But in the better cases they are
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emotionally secure, independent and are willing to learn and accept
defeat. They mature quickly and are able to live life without the help of
someone else.

1.3.4.2 Characteristics of the Permissive Parenting Style

Permissive parents have few rules or standards of behavior, when

there are rules, they are often very inconsistent, are usually very nurturing
and loving towards their kids, often seem more like a friend, rather than a
parent and may use bribery such as toys, gifts and food as a means to get
child to behave

1.3.4.3 The Effects of Permissive Parenting

Children raised by permissive parents lack self-discipline,

sometimes have poor social skills, may be self-involved and demanding
and may feel insecure due to the lack of boundaries and guidance.
Indulgent, or permissive, parents focus more on being their child’s friend
than a disciplinary figure. There is an extensive amount of parent-child
communication, but very low levels of maturity and demands required of
the child. Children raised by indulgent parents have higher self-esteem,
better social skills and lower levels of depression, which aids in positive
social development. The decreased maturity and independence associated
with parental indulgence harms a child’s emotional development because
he is not required to grow in these areas.
(http://www.livestrong.com/article/541560-the-impact-of-parenting-
styles-on-childrens-development/)

1.3.4.4. Understanding Permissive Parenting

In a recent study, permissive parenting was linked to underage

alcohol use; teens with permissive parents were three times more likely to

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engage in heavy drinking. Researchers also suggest that permissive
parenting is linked to other risky behaviors such as drug use and other
forms of misconduct.

Because permissive parenting involves a lack of demands and

expectations, children raised by parents with this style tend to grow up
without a strong sense of self-discipline. They may be more unruly in
school due to the lack of boundaries in the home, and may be less
academically motivated than many of their peers.

Since these parents have few requirements for mature behavior,

children may lack skills in social settings. While they may be good at
interpersonal communication, they lack other important skills such as
sharing.

1.3.5 Uninvolved Parenting

Maccoby and Martin later added a fourth dimension to the

parenting styles already defined by Diana Baumrind. Apparently they did
this so they could complete the picture of control and responsiveness.
Thus the uninvolved parenting style is thus characterized by low behavior
control (demandingness) and low parental responsiveness (warmth).

An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands,

low responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill
the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life.
In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of
their children. During the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind described
three different parenting styles based on her research with preschool-age
children: authoritarian, authoritative and permissive parenting. In later
years, researchers added a fourth style known as uninvolved parenting.
Uninvolved parenting, sometimes referred to as neglectful parenting, is a
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style characterized by a lack of responsiveness to a child's needs.
Uninvolved parents make few to no demands of their children and they
are often indifferent, dismissive or even completely neglectful. These
parents have little emotional involvement with their kids. While they
provide for basic needs like food and shelter, they are uninvolved in their
children's lives. The degree of involvement may vary considerably. Some
uninvolved parents may be relatively hands-off with their kids, but may
still have some basic limits such as curfews. Others may be downright
neglectful or even reject their children outright.
(http://psychology.about.com/od/childcare/f/uninvolved-parenting.htm)

1.3.5.1 Traits of uninvolved parenting style

Traits of uninvolved parenting style are as below:

 Meeting physical needs but neglecting emotional needs.

 Being mentally distant and disengaged in their children and in their
lives.

An uninvolved parenting style is characterized by few demands,

low responsiveness and little communication. While these parents fulfill
the child's basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life.
In extreme cases, these parents may even reject or neglect the needs of
their children.

Neglectful parenting is also called uninvolved, detached,

dismissive or hands-off. The parents are low in warmth and control, are
generally not involved in their child's life, are disengaged, undemanding,
low in responsiveness, and do not set limits. Neglectful parenting can also
mean dismissing the children's emotions and opinions. Parents are
emotionally unsupportive of their children, but will still provide their
basic needs. Provide basic needs meaning: food, housing, and toiletries or
23
money for the prementioned. ("Neuroscience, Psychoanalysis &
Psychopharmacology: [Meeting] #40". NPSA: Neuropsychoanalysis.
http://www.neuro-psa.org.uk/download/Nov_05_2005.pdf. Retrieved
2007-09-23.). Neglectful parenting can stem from a variety of reasons;
this includes the parent's prioritizing themselves, lack of encouragement
on the parent's parts, financial stresses, lack of support and addiction to
harmful substances.

Children whose parents are neglectful develop the sense that other
aspects of the parents’ lives are more important than they are. Many
children of this parenting style often attempt to provide for themselves or
halt depending on the parent to get a feeling of being independent and
mature beyond their years (Santrock, 2007). Parents, and thus their
children, often display contradictory behavior. Children become
emotionally withdrawn from social situations. This disturbed attachment
also impacts relationships later on in life. In adolescence, they may show
patterns of truancy and delinquency (Santrock, 2007).

1.3.5.2 Characteristics of the Uninvolved Parenting Style

Uninvolved parents are emotionally distant from their children,

offer little or no supervision, show little warmth, love and affection
towards their children, have few or no expectations or demands for
behavior, don't attend school events and parent-teacher conferences, may
intentionally avoid their children and are often too overwhelmed by their
own problems to deal with their children

1.3.5.3 The Effects of Uninvolved Parenting

Children raised by uninvolved parents must learn to provide for

themselves, fear becoming dependent on other people, are often
emotionally withdrawn, tend to exhibit more delinquency during
24
adolescence, feel fear, anxiety or stress due to the lack of family support
and have an increased risk of substance abuse.

Parents who are ambivalent to their child’s wants and needs are
considered uninvolved parents. Often, this parenting style is associated
with neglect and abuse. While there are no demands or rules to follow for
the child, there is also no communication and no encouragement from the
parent. When parents are psychologically or physically unavailable to
their children, all elements of development are negatively affected. Social
development is stunted because the child is never taught how to act
around people and, therefore, feels awkward in social situations. Because
of the lack of emotional and psychological connections between the
parent and child, cognitive development also suffers.
(http://www.livestrong.com/article/541560-the-impact-of-parenting-
styles-on-childrens-development/)

1.3.5.4 Understanding Uninvolved Parenting

Researchers associate parenting styles with a range of child

outcomes in areas such as social skills and academic performance. The
children of uninvolved parents generally perform poorly in nearly every
area of life. These children tend to display deficits in cognition,
attachment, emotional skills and social skills.

Due to the lack of emotional responsiveness and love from their

caretakers, children raised by uninvolved parents may have difficulty
forming attachments later in life. The complete lack of boundaries in the
home makes it difficult to learn appropriate behaviors and limits in school
and other social situations, which is why children with uninvolved
parents are more likely to misbehave.

25
 Parents who exhibit an uninvolved parenting style were often
themselves raised by uninvolved and dismissive parents. As adults, they
may find themselves repeating the same patterns they were raised with.
Other parents who display this style may simply be so caught up in their
busy lives that they find it easier to take a hands-off approach to dealing
with their children.

In some cases, parents may be so wrapped up in their own

problems (i.e., being overworked, coping with depression, struggling with
substance abuse) that they actually fail to see how uninvolved they are
with their children or are simply unable to provide the emotional support
their children need.

1.4 The Impact of Parenting Styles

What effect do these parenting styles have on child development

outcomes? In addition to Baumrind's initial study of 100 preschool
children, researchers have conducted numerous other studies than have
led to a number of conclusions about the impact of parenting styles on
children.

Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are

obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social
competence and self-esteem.

Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are

happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992).

Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in

happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to
experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.

26
 Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains.
These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem and are less
competent than their peers.

1.5 Why Do Parenting Styles Differ?

After learning about the impact of parenting styles on child

development, you one may wonder why all parents simply don't utilize an
authoritative parenting style. After all, this parenting style is the most
likely to produce happy, confident and capable children. What are some
reasons why parenting styles might vary? Some potential causes of these
differences include culture, personality, family size, parental background,
socioeconomic status, educational level and religion.

Of course, the parenting styles of individual parents also combine

to create a unique blend in each and every family. For example, the
mother may display an authoritative style while the father favors a more
permissive approach. In order to create a cohesive approach to parenting,
it is essential that parents learn to cooperate as they combine various
elements of their unique parenting styles.

1.6 Parental Involvement

Parent involvement is important to the educational success of a

young adolescent and yet generally declines when a child enters the
middle grades (Epstein, 2005; NMSA, 2003). Parent involvement is
defined as having an awareness of and involvement in schoolwork,
understanding of the interaction between parenting skills and student
success in schooling, and a commitment to consistent communication
with educators about student progress. The term “parents” refers to
biological parents, adoptive and stepparents, and primary caregivers (e.g.,
grandmother, aunt, brother).
27
 1.6.1 Definition

The term “parental involvement” means the participation of parents

in regular, two-way, meaningful communication involving student
academic learning and other school activities, including ensuring, parents
play an integral role in assisting their child’s learning, parents are
encouraged to be actively involved in their child’s education at school,
parents are full partners in their child’s education and are included, as
appropriate, in decision-making and on advisory committees to assist in
the education of their child and the carrying out of other activities.

The research on parent involvement in the education of young

adolescents addresses parents’ activities in support of learning at home, in
school, and in the community. Joyce Epstein, a leading researcher in the
field of parent involvement, identified and studied multiple measures of
parent involvement in the middle grades (Epstein, 1995; Epstein, Sanders,
Simon, Salinas, Jansorn, & Van Voorhis, 2002). As a result of this
research, Epstein and her colleagues developed a framework of six types
of involvement with associated activities, challenges, and expected
results. Similarly, Fan and Chen (2001) examined multiple measures of
parent involvement. Using the methodology of meta-analysis (analyzing
multiple research studies), the researchers identified three constructs of
parent involvement: (1) communication, (2) supervision, and (3) parental
expectations and parenting style. Communication refers to parents’
frequent and systematic discussions with their children about schoolwork.
Supervision includes monitoring when students return home from school
and what they do after school, overseeing time spent on homework and
the extent to which children watch television. Parental expectations and
parenting style were found to be the most critical of the three. These
include the manner and extent to which parents communicate their

28
academic aspirations to their children. Fan and Chen found that high
expectations of parents and student perceptions of those expectations are
associated with enhanced achievement. As Fan and Chen (2001) found in
their research, parenting styles, as a critical measure of parent
involvement, have been linked to student performance. Authoritarian,
permissive, and authoritative are three styles of parenting (Baumrind,
1991). Authoritative, identified as the preferred style, includes parental
warmth, inductive discipline, nonpunitive punishment practices,
consistency in child rearing, and a clear communication of interest in the
day-to-day lives of children (Rosenau, 1998). According to Rosenau, the
authoritative parenting style has a strong correlation with student
behavior and classroom management. Van Voorhis (2003) examined the
effects of involving parents in interactive homework assignments (family
homework assignments rather than student-inisolation homework
assignments) using the Interactive Homework program, a spin-off of the
Teachers Involving Parents in School (TIPS) program developed at Johns
Hopkins University. TIPS offers parents guidelines for collaborating with
their children on homework activities, as well as information about
school curricula (Epstein, 2005). In the evaluation study, in comparison
to students engaged in traditional homework assignments, students who
participated in the TIPS Interactive Homework program received better
scores on homework and on report cards, and parents were more involved
with homework.

1.6.2 Outcomes of Parental Involvement

Outcomes of parental involvement are as below:

 Parental involvement leads to improved educational performance.

 Parental involvement fosters better student classroom behavior.

29
 Parents who participate in decision making experience greater
feelings of ownership and are more committed to supporting the
school’s mission.
 Parental involvement increases support of schools.
 Parental involvement improves school attendance.
 Parental involvement creates a better understanding of roles and
relationships between and among the parent-student-school triad.
 Parental involvement improves student emotional well-being.
 Types of parental involvement and quality of parent involvement
affect results for students, parents, and teachers.

1.6.3 Recommendations for Increasing Parental Involvement

 Conduct a needs assessment identifying what the concerns and

issues are surrounding parent involvement in the education of their
children.
 Develop, in collaboration with parents, shared goals and missions
concerning young adolescents’ learning and development (Rubel,
2001).
 Develop a long-range parent involvement plan. “Parental
involvement may be implemented as a stand-alone program or as a
component in comprehensive school-based programs”.
(Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center, 2005).
 Engage in parent professional development (Comprehensive
School Reform Quality Center, 2005; Marzano, 2003). First,
conduct a needs assessment to identify focus areas for parent
professional development. Use this needs assessment to guide the
development of a balanced, comprehensive program of
partnership.For example, parent professional development might
include one- to two-hour free, weekly sessions held at night, or as a

30
 series of minicourses. The professional development could discuss
specific parent behaviors and be used as a vehicle to involve
parents in other aspects of the school (Marzano, 2003).
 Identify a family-school liaison who actively works to engage
parents (Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center, 2005).
 Create a resource inventory to identify strengths, skills, and
cultural and contextual knowledge of both parents and faculty
members.
 Develop a repertoire of strategies (e.g., interactive homework,
student-led conferences) designed to increase parent involvement
at school and at home.
 Establish and maintain respectful and productive relationships with
families and to support the interaction of ideas and experiences
centered on the learning of young people. (Nesin & Brazee, 2005).
 Establish open and two-way lines of communication
(Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center, 2005; Epstein et
al., 2002; NMSA, 2003) for thoughtful and reflective conversation.
 Use a variety of meeting spaces (NMSA, 2003) for equitable
access and non-threatening environments.

1.6.4 Six Types of Parent Involvement

Epstein (2002) suggested six types of parental involvement

including sample practices, challenges, redefinitions, and expected results
as below.
(http://www.unicef.org/lac/Joyce_L._Epstein_s_Framework_of_Six_Typ
es_of_Involvement(2).pdf)

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 1.6.4.1 Parenting

Parenting Activities are designed to help families understand

young adolescent development, acquire developmentally appropriate
parenting skills, set home conditions to support learning at each grade
level, and help schools obtain information about students. Help all
families establish home environments to support children as students.

Suggestions for home conditions that support learning at each

grade level. Workshops, videotapes, computerized phone messages on
parenting and child rearing at each age and grade level. Parent education
and other courses or training for parents (e.g., GED, college credit, family
literacy.) Family support programs to assist families with health,
nutrition, and other services.

Home visits at transition points to pre-school, elementary, middle,

and high school. Neighborhood meetings to help families understand
schools and to help schools understand families.

Challenges

 Provide information to all families who want it or who need it, not
just to the few who can attend workshops or meetings at the school
building.
 Enable families to share information with schools about culture,
background, children's talents and needs.
 Make sure that all information for and from families is clear,
usable, and linked to children's success in school.

Redefinitions

"Workshop" to mean more than a meeting about a topic held at the

school building at a particular time. "Workshop" may also mean making

32
information about a topic available in a variety of forms that can be
viewed, heard, or read anywhere, anytime, in varied forms.

Results for Students

 Awareness of family supervision; respect for parents.

 Positive personal qualities, habits, beliefs, and values, as taught by
family.
 Balance between time spent on chores, on other activities, and on
homework.
 Good or improved attendance.
 Awareness of importance of school.

Results for Parents

 Understanding of and confidence about parenting, child and

adolescent development, and changes in home conditions for
learning as children proceed through school.
 Awareness of own and others' challenges in parents.
 Feeling of support from school and other parents.

Results for Teachers

 Understanding families' background, cultures, concerns, goals,

needs, and views of their children.
 Respect for families' strengths and efforts.
 Understanding of student diversity.
 Awareness of own skills to share information on child
development.

33
 1.6.4.2 Communicating

Communicating Activities focus on keeping parents informed

through such things as notices, memos, report cards, conferences about
student work, and school functions. Design effective forms of school-to-
home and home-to-school communications about school programs and
children's progress.

Sample Practices

 Conferences with every parent at least once a year, with follow-ups

as needed.
 Language translators to assist families as needed.
 Weekly or monthly folders of student work sent home for review
and comments.
 Parent/student pickup of report card, with conferences on
improving grades.
 Regular schedule of useful notices, memos, phone calls,
newsletters, and other communications.
 Clear information on choosing schools or courses, programs, and
activities within schools.
 Clear information on all school policies, programs, reforms, and
transitions.

Challenges

 Review the readability, clarity, form, and frequency of all memos,

notices, and other print and non print communications.
 Consider parents who do not speak English well, do not read well,
or need large type.
 Review the quality of major communications (newsletters, report
cards, conference schedules, and so on).
34
  Establish clear two-way channels for communications from home
to school and from school to home.

Redefinitions

"Communications about school programs and student progress" to

mean two-way, three-way, and many-way channels of communication
that connect schools, families, students, and the community.

Results for Students

 Awareness of own progress and of actions needed to maintain or

improve grades.
 Understanding of school policies on behavior, attendance, and
other areas of student conduct.
 Informed decisions about courses and programs.
 Awareness of own role in partnerships, serving as courier and
communicator.

Results for Parents

 Understanding school programs and policies.

 Monitoring and awareness of child's progress.
 Responding effectively to students' problems.
 Interactions with teachers and ease of communication with school
and teachers.

Results for Teachers

 Increased diversity and use of communications with families and

awareness of own ability to communicate clearly.
 Appreciation for and use of parent network for communications.

35
  Increased ability to elicit and understand family views on children's
programs and progress.

1.6.4.3 Volunteering

Volunteering Activities incorporate strategies to improve volunteer

recruiting, training, and scheduling.

Sample Practices

 School and classroom volunteer program to help teachers,

administrators, students, and other parents.
 Parent room or family center for volunteer work, meetings, and
resources for families.
 Annual postcard survey to identify all available talents, times, and
locations of volunteers.
 Class parent, telephone tree, or other structures to provide all
families with needed information.
 Parent patrols or other activities to aid safety and operation of
school programs.

Challenges

 Recruit volunteers widely so that all families know that their time
and talents are welcome.
 Make flexible schedules for volunteers, assemblies, and events to
enable parents who work to participate.
 Organize volunteer work; provide training; match time and talent
with school, teacher, and student needs; and recognize efforts so
that participants are productive.

36
Redefinitions

"Volunteer" to mean anyone who supports school goals and

children's learning or development in any way, at any place, and at any
time -not just during the school day and at the school building.

Results for Students

 Skill in communicating with adults.

 Increased learning of skills that receive tutoring or targeted
attention from volunteers.
 Awareness of many skills, talents, occupations, and contributions
of parent and other volunteers.

Results for Parents

 Understanding teacher's job, increased comfort in school, and

carry-over of school activities at home.
 Self-confidence about ability to work in school and with children
or to take steps to improve own education.
 Awareness that families are welcomes and valued at school.
 Gains in specific skills of volunteer work.

Results for Teachers

 Readiness to involve families in new ways, including those who do

not volunteer at school.
 Awareness of parents' talents and interests in school and children.
 Greater individual attention to students, with help from volunteers.

1.6.4.4 Learning at Home

Learning at home Activities allow coordination of schoolwork with

work at home (e.g., goal setting, interactive homework). Provide

37
information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with
homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions, and
planning.

Sample Practices

 Information for families on skills required for students in all

subjects at each grade.
 Information on homework policies and how to monitor and discuss
schoolwork at home.
 Information on how to assist students to improve skills on various
class and school assessments.
 Regular schedule of homework that requires students to discuss
and interact with families on what they are learning in class.
 Calendars with activities for parents and students at home.
 Family math, science, and reading activities at school.
 Summer learning packets or activities.
 Family participation in setting student goals each year and in
planning for college or work.

Challenges

 Design and organize a regular schedule of interactive homework

(e.g., weekly or bimonthly) that gives students responsibility for
discussing important things they are learning and helps families
stay aware of the content of their children's class work.
 Coordinate family linked homework activities, if students have
several teachers.
 Involve families and their children in all-important curriculum-
related decisions.

38
Redefinitions

 "Homework" to mean not only work done alone, but also

interactive activities shared with others at home or in the
community, linking schoolwork to real life.
 "Help" at home to mean encouraging, listening, reacting, praising,
guiding, monitoring, and discussing, not "teaching" school
subjects.

Results for Students

 Gains in skills, abilities, and test scores linked to homework and

class work.
 Homework completion.
 Positive attitude toward schoolwork.
 View of parents as more similar to teacher and of home as more
similar to school.
 Self-concept of ability as learner.

Results for Parents

 Know how to support, encourage, and help student at home each

year.
 Discussions of school, class work, and homework.
 Understanding of instructional program each year and of what
child is learning in each subject.
 Appreciation of teaching skills.
 Awareness of child as a learner.

Results for Teachers

 Better design of homework assignments.

 Respect for family time.

39
  Recognition of equal helpfulness of single-parent, dual-income,
and less formally educated families in motivating and reinforcing
student learning.
 Satisfaction with family involvement and support.

1.6.4.5 Decision Making

Decision making Activities are designed to solicit the voice of

parents in decisions about school policies and practices. It includes
parents in school decisions, developing parent leaders and
representatives.

Sample Practices

 Active PTA/PTO or other parent organizations, advisory councils,

or committees (e.g., curriculum, safety, personnel) for parent
leadership and participation.
 Independent advocacy groups to lobby and work for school reform
and improvements.
 District-level councils and committees for family and community
involvement.
 Information on school or local elections for school representatives.
 Networks to link all families with parent representatives.

Challenges

 Include parent leaders from all racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and

other groups in the school.
 Offer training to enable leaders to serve as representatives of other
families, with input from and return of information to all parents.
 Include students (along with parents) in decision-making groups.

40
Redefinitions

 "Decision making" is to mean a process of partnership, of shared

views and actions toward shared goals, not just a power struggle
between conflicting ideas.
 Parent "leader" to mean a real representative, with opportunities
and support to hear from and communicate with other families.

Results for Students

 Awareness of representation of families in school decisions.

 Understanding that student rights are protected.
 Specific benefits linked to policies enacted by parent organizations
and experienced by students.

Results for Parents

 Input into policies that affect child's education.

 Feeling of ownership of school.
 Awareness of parents' voices in school decisions.
 Shared experiences and connections with other families.
 Awareness of school, district, and state policies.

Results for Teachers

 Awareness of parent perspectives as a factor in policy development

and decisions.
 View of equal status of family representatives on committees and
in leadership roles.

1.6.4.6 Collaborating with Community

Collaborating Activities acknowledge and bring together all

community entities (e.g., with the community businesses, religious

41
organizations) with a vested interest in the education of young
adolescents. It Identifies and integrate resources and services from the
community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student
learning and development.

Sample Practices

 Information for students and families on community health,

cultural, recreational, social support, and other programs or
services.
 Information on community activities that link to learning skills and
talents, including summer programs for students.
 Service integration through partnerships involving school; civic,
counseling, cultural, health, recreation, and other agencies and
organizations; and businesses.
 Service to the community by students, families, and schools (e.g.,
recycling, art, music, drama, and other activities for seniors or
others).
 Participation of alumni in school programs for students.

Challenges

 Solve turf problems of responsibilities, funds, staff, and locations

for collaborative activities.
 Inform families of community programs for students, such as
mentoring, tutoring, business partnerships.
 Assure equity of opportunities for students and families to
participate in community programs or to obtain services.
 Match community contributions with school goals; integrate child
and family services with education.

42
Redefinitions

 "Community" is to mean not only the neighborhoods where

students' homes and schools are located but also any
neighborhoods that influence their learning and development.
 "Community" rated not only by low or high social or economic
qualities, but by strengths and talents to support students, families,
and schools.
 "Community" means all who are interested in and affected by the
quality of education, not just those with children in the schools.

Results for Students

 Increased skills and talents through enriched curricular and

extracurricular experiences.
 Awareness of careers and of options for future education and work.
 Specific benefits linked to programs, services, resources, and
opportunities that connect students with community.

Results for Parents

 Knowledge and use of local resources by family and child to

increase skills and talents or to obtain needed services.
 Interactions with other families in community activities.
 Awareness of school's role in the community and of community's
contributions to the school.

Results for Teachers

 Awareness of community resources to enrich curriculum and

instruction.

43
 Openness to and skill in using mentors, business partners,
community volunteers, and others to assist students and augment
teaching practices.
 Knowledgeable, helpful referrals of children and families to needed
services.

44