SEMINAR REPORT

2017-18

INTRODUCTION

Decorative concrete is the use of concrete as not simply a utilitarian medium for
construction but as an aesthetic enhancement to a structure, while still serving its function as
an integral part of the building itself such as floors, walls, driveways and patios.

The transformation of concrete into decorative concrete is achieved through the use of a
variety of materials that may be applied during the pouring process or after the concrete is
cured, these materials and/or systems include but are not limited to stamped concrete, acid
staining, decorative overlays, polished concrete, concrete countertops, vertical overlays and
more.

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STAMPED CONCRETE

Stamped Concrete is the process of adding texture and color to concrete to make it
resemble stone, brick, slate, cobblestone and many other products found in nature including
wood, fossils, shells and many more. This limitless array of possibilities combined with great
durability and lower cost than natural products makes Stamped Concrete an easy choice for
new construction and renovation projects.The installation consists of pressing molds into the
concrete while the concrete is still in its plastic state. Color is achieved by using Dry Shakes
or Color Hardeners, Powder or Liquid Releases, Integral Colors or Acid Stains. All these
products may be combined to create even more intricate designs.

Stamped Concrete may be used on driveways, patios, commercial roads and parking lots and
even interior floors. Stamped concrete is a desirable finish to concrete areas, however with
time and wear the color dyes fade and the surface looks patchy and unpresentable. There are
many re-coloring options which can completely restore and rejuvenate the color and
presentation of faded stamped concrete.

Concrete Dyes

Concrete "dyes" take many different forms and compositions and can be used on both
residential and commercial concrete applications, including sound/retaining walls, bridges,
countertops, floors, etc.

Early concrete dyes consisted of generic printing inks that were dissolved in mild

solutions of alcohol and applied to concrete surfaces to add a wide array of color to plain gray
concrete. When alcohol-based dyes are exposed to sunlight, the color either lightens or fades
out completely. Therefore, alcohol-based dyes were more prevalent in interior applications
where direct sunlight or other forms of ultraviolet (UV) lighting was not present.

Manufacturers later began dissolving the same printing inks in different carriers, such
as acetone, lacquer thinner and other solvents, hoping to achieve increased penetration levels.
In addition, UV inhibiting agents were added to new dyes to help with the UV instability
issues. However, slight fading (5-8% per year) still occurs when the dye is exposed to direct

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sunlight.Colored concrete can be obtained from many ready mix concrete companies and
many have color charts available.

Acid Staining

Acid staining is not a dying or pigment-base coloring systems, but a chemical reaction. A

mixture of water, mineral salts and a slight amount of muriatic acid is applied to the concrete
surface. This chemical reaction with the existing minerals (primarily lime) in the concrete
over a period of one to four hours creates new earth tone colors on the concrete surface. The
concrete surface is later scrubbed to remove excess stain and neutralized by a basic solution
of ammonia and water or baking soda (less likely to cause whiting later) to help raise the ph
level back to normal level. Due to inconsistencies in the surface level of concrete floor, acid
staining creates a variegated or mottled appearance that is unique to each slab. The color
penetration ranges from 1/16 to 1/32 of an inch. Older exterior concrete surfaces may not
color as well as interior surfaces because the environment has leached or percolated out the
mineral content. As well, any exposed aggregate (rocks) in worn concrete will not accept
staining. Chemicals commonly used in acid staining include Hydrochloric acid, Iron
chloride and Sodium bicarbonate.

Water Based Staining

Water Based Stains are similar to acid based stains in the sense that one can still
achieve a translucent look like acid; some stains are able to achieve an opaque color and/or a
translucent effect. The main difference is that acid stains react to the concrete and change the
physical make up of the concrete material, whereas water based stains are more of a "coating"
that bonds with the concrete. There are many variations of water based stains that have come
into the decorative concrete industry that perform in a number of different ways. Some are
polymer based, acrylic and epoxy.

Overlaying

Concrete overlays date to the 1960s when chemical engineers from some of the larger, well

known chemical companies began to experiment with acrylic paint resins as modifiers for
cement and sand mixes. The result was a thin cementations topping material that would
adhere to concrete surfaces and provide a newly resurfaced coating to restore the worn

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surface. Concrete overlays lacked the long-term performance [2] characteristics of acrylic

resins. Acrylic resins provided good UV resistance, but lacked long term water resistance and
adhesion characteristics needed to provide a long term and permanent solution.

POLYMER CEMENT OVERLAYS

Polymer cement overlays, consisting of a proprietary blend of Portland cements, various

aggregates and polymer resins, were introduced over 20 years ago. The purpose of adding a
polymer resin to the cement and aggregate is to greatly increase the performance
characteristics and versatility of conventional cements, mortars and concrete materials.
Unlike conventional cement and concrete mixes, polymer cement overlays can be applied
thinly or thickly without fear of delamination or typical product failure. In addition, polymer
cement overlays are much more resistant to damage from salt, petrochemicals, UV, harsh
weather conditions and traffic wearing.

Originally intended for use as a thin surface restoration material for concrete substrates,
polymer cement overlays were introduced into the architectural concrete and commercial
flooring industries in the early 80s. Subsequently, its use in these industries has become
standard. Polymer cement overlays are regarded as economical in providing long term,
durable renovation without the need for costly and continuous repairs associated with
deteriorating concrete surfaces.

Polymer cement overlays are used for interior and exterior applications ranging from:

 Skim coat/broom finish concrete resurfacing – Restore and protect damaged, pitted,
flaking and stained concrete back to the look of a new concrete surface.

 Concrete regarding & leveling – Repair and level concrete surfaces that have settled.

Existing substrate redecorating and renovating – Alter the appearance of existing concrete or
wood substrates through applying "thin stamped" or "thin stained" overlays, creating new
textures, colors and designs. For use on commercial or resident pool deck, this frequently
takes the form of "splatter textures" or "knockdowns," in which polymer cement is applied to
the existing concrete substrate in a moderately textured finish (average of 1/8” thickness) in

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various patterns. Often, the texture is knocked down with a trowel to slightly modify the
appearance and feel of the finished application.

Stamped overlays

Rubber imprinting tools (stamps) are impressed into thin pre-mixed concrete overlay material
shortly after it is placed to create natural stone or brick textures. These rubber imprinting
tools are manufactured from molds created from authentic stone or wood. Release agents are
used to help release the stamps from the concrete without sticking. Release agents come in
either a liquid or powder form and are available in a wide range of colors.

Epoxy coating

Applied over acid stained, dyes and/or overlays to seal and protect. Some epoxies are also
colored.

Polishing

Concrete can be polished with Mechanical grinders and diamond pads of increasing grit sizes.

Diamond pads come in many grit or mesh sizes. Common sizes start with 6 grit and can go
up to 8500 grit although concrete can only maintain a shine of about 800 grit, it can be helped
by adding a concrete hardener such as sodium silicate or lithium silicate which will allow
concrete to hold a 1800 through 3000 grit shine. The work is accomplished in multiple stages
by passing over the concrete with successive grit diamond pads until it has a hard-glassy
finish. Both acid stains and concrete dyes can be used during the polishing process.

Engraving

Existing concrete can be remodeled by cutting lines and grooves into its surface. Geometric
patterns, straight or curved lines and custom designs can be cut directly into the surface of the
concrete creating the look of tile, flagstone, cobblestone and many other common surface
patterns. This is usually achieved using tools like an angle grinder fitted with diamond blades,
but is more effectively accomplished using specialty tools designed specifically for cutting
designs into the concrete.

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Form liner

Concrete can also be cast into unique and detailed designs using urethane form liner. These
projects can be seen around the United States and the world, usually on sound/retaining walls,
building exteriors, and bridges.

Generally, this process starts with the sculptor, who creates the design to be used in the
concrete using clay, polyurethane or wax. When the original art is complete, a cast is made
using synthetic liquid rubber, and from this cast, form liners are produced in the reverse
image of the original.

The form liner then acts as a mold for the concrete to be formed against. Once the concrete is
set, the form liner is stripped from the hardened concrete surface. The concrete is
permanently textured with the pattern of the form liner.

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WHY DECORATIVE CONCRETE OVERLAYS

OFFER SO MUCH OPPORTUNITY

Decorative concrete overlays suffer from an identity crisis of sorts. They fall far short
in product recognition when compared to the better-known decorative disciplines of stamped
and stained concrete, yet they have much greater market potential. They arguably offer the
most variety in color and finish, as well as the best opportunity for future growth, yet are just
not that well known outside of the decorative concrete arena.

What’s behind the identity crisis? Despite the fact that the technology, products and
applications have proven themselves for decades, there is no unifying approach to marketing
that is enabling these products to gain across-the-board popularity and acceptance. In
addition, the decorative overlay market tends to be regionally diverse. Exterior knock-down
finishes are extremely popular in the Sunbelt regions, but much less so in the colder northern
climates. Hard-troweled interior micro toppings have become popular in contemporary
metropolitan settings, but are sparse outside the urban corridor. Stamp able overlays are even
more regionally diverse.

With such a wide range of products, finishes and applications, the identity of
decorative overlays remains diluted and obscured outside the industry. Identity crisis aside,
the decorative overlay market is strong, and there is no segment of the market that is not ripe
with opportunity. However, the opportunities are more subtle, and more work on the sales
and marketing side is required to open the eyes of designers and architects to the exciting
possibilities.

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THE EVOLUTION OF DECORATIVE OVERLAY PRODUCTS

Decorative overlays can trace their roots back to commercial and industrial polymer-
modified cement-based toppings introduced in the 1950s. Over the next 40 years,
technological advances in dry ingredients and polymer technology led to stronger and more
durable systems. Most of these were utilitarian, with little focus on the decorative market. By
the mid to late 1980s, manufacturers started offering complete overlay systems targeting the
growing decorative market segment. Those early-generation systems have evolved into the
wide offering of decorative overlays available on the market today, including systems that
work for both interior and exterior applications, on vertical and horizontal surfaces, and at
thicknesses ranging from that of a credit card to an inch or more.

“Decorative overlay” is actually an umbrella term that covers a wide variety of

products and systems intended to provide a decorative finish over an existing substrate. The
general categories that fall under that umbrella are thin-section micro toppings, thick-section
stampable overlays, self leveling overlays and polish able toppings. Within each of these
product categories are numerous individual products and systems designed for specific
applications.

The one thing that all decorative overlays have in common is that they are polymer-
modified, which increases their strength, adhesion and durability. When combined with
cement and sand, these toppings can attain strengths exceeding 6000 psi. The additional
strength provided by the polymer allows the cement-based material to be applied thinly
without becoming brittle and weak. The final performance characteristics will vary greatly,
depending on the type of polymer selected. The most popular types of polymers include
acrylics, ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). Manufacturers will
select the polymers they use in their overlay systems based on the target applications.
Acrylics are usually found in systems for interior flooring, where a very hard, durable surface
is needed and there will be little change in environmental conditions. EVA systems are more
forgiving and are often found in overlays used for exterior applications or where flexibility is
important. SBR polymers are used in systems that require water or chemical resistance.

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You’ll find most of these overlay materials and systems relatively easy to come by,
with most full line decorative concrete manufacturers offering at least one overlay product,
and many offering multiple systems.

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MICROTOPPING

Microtoppings, or thin-section overlays, run the spectrum from spray deck products
for driveways and pool decks to high-end trowel-grade materials for interior residential and
commercial spaces. They also run the spectrum when it comes to strength. Knock-down
systems can reach 3000 psi, while higher-end interior systems used in high-traffic situations
can top 6000 psi. “Of all decorative overlay systems, microtoppings command the largest
portion of the market,” says Terry Grimble, director of technical services for Bomanite Co.

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WIDE RANGE OF COLOR AND FINISHES

Microtoppings also offer the most variation in regard to color and finishes. They can
be applied plain, colored integrally, or be topically colored with stains and dyes. The ability
to manipulate the look of a microtopping to create a wide range of finishes and colors is a big
selling point. In recent years, microtoppings have grown in popularity because of their
competitive price. “People are looking for the most inexpensive floor with the best look,”
says Ryan Connors, owner of Modern Concrete Surfaces, Signal Hill, Calif.

This is where microtoppings excel. You can offer so much with a microtopping that it really
comes down to what the client is willing to pay and how creative the applicator wants to get.
“It does not matter if the job is residential or commercial. The look is what is important, and
then we match the product to realize that look,” says Connors. Modern Concrete Surfaces
offers a wide range of “stock finishes” but takes advantage of the flexibility of microtoppings
to find products and finishes that meet the demands of their clients.

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EXTERIOR MICROTOPPINGS

The demand for more utilitarian exterior microtoppings is also growing. In the
warmer Sunbelt climates, spray deck or knockdown microtopping finishes have long been
popular. These are the most common finishes found around pool decks and for exterior
concrete surfaces such as driveways, walkways and patios. These types of knock-down
finishes have proven themselves reliable to a point that they are now becoming more
common in colder, more environmentally demanding areas. “Residential homeowners are
becoming more comfortable with topping exterior concrete,” says Chris Becker, managing
director of the architectural concrete division of Stockness Construction, Hugo, Minn. The
microtoppings he installs have to endure a harsh environment, so weatherresistance is one of
the top factors he considers in material selection, followed by the client’s artistic demands
and budget constraints.

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SPECIALTY APPLICATIONS

Another application where microtoppings are establishing a niche is in the area of

specialty and designer finishes, including vertical wall coverings, showers, and countertops.
“The multiple colors and textures you can get with a microtopping are not achievable with
regular concrete. These systems give the installer a lot more options,” says Trevor Foster,
western sales manager with Miracote Products. Foster has seen a big jump in specialty
applications such as showers and walls, and feels that trend will continue as more installers
see what can be done with these products. The design community, in particular, is realizing
the clean look that microtoppings can provide. “You can produce a large surface area without
any grout lines,” .

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COLORING OF CONCRETE:
TRANSFORMING A GRAY AREA

concrete is a versatile material used for structures of all types. Because it is durable—
hard wearing and long lasting—it also can be said to meet the definition of a sustainable
building material. Concrete is a popular material choice for interior floors and all types of
outdoor pavements, and designers are continually searching for ways to enhance the
appearance of these concrete slabs. Coloring concrete adds instant visual appeal, and while
many methods can be employed to add color to new or old concrete, this article focuses
primarily on chemical stains and pertinent aspects of concrete that play a role in achieving
good results with these stains. Other coloring materials and decorative techniques are also
briefly discussed.

Color variation in concrete Stains at one time were used primarily on existing
concrete, but are now used on both old and new concrete. Designers and owners want cost-
effective decorative finishes, and this has led to the availability of an expanded range of
colored concrete slabs. For some time, decorative concrete has been one of the fastest-
growing segments of the concrete construction industry. For new slabs that are to be treated
with color, several design recommendations for the concrete mixture and finish are pertinent
to the selection of stains. The colors of the cementitious materials used in the concrete have a
major impact on the color of the slab, as does the color of the sand. These materials should be
selected with the final color in mind. Most concrete is made with gray portland cement, but
white cement is also available in North America and can yield improved results when
coloring concrete.

Options for creating the base slab color include the use of white cement alone,
blending white and gray cements, or blending white and/or gray cement with other materials.
Nowadays, supplementary cementitious materials, or SCMs, are being used more often, and
should be taken into account when applying color by means of stains. These materials
generally fall into one of two categories: pozzolans or slag. While the color of the SCM
exerts an effect on the paste’s color and therefore the slab’s color, another consideration is the

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way the SCM affects the chemistry of the cement matrix. Stains may react differently with
concrete that contains SCMs.

CONCRETE AGING

The age of newly placed concrete is important because it has an impact on when
color can be applied. General recommendations are to wait at least 14 days before applying a
stain. But certain colors require a longer waiting period to allow adequate cement hydration
and sufficient drying. Some tones require a longer curing period, such as 14 to 28 days or
perhaps even 60 days, to allow for adequate drying of the concrete. For a number of reasons,
it is beneficial to specify an adequate quantity of cementations materials in concrete mixtures
for exterior slabs. The table on p. 26, from the Portland Cement Association’s Concrete
Finisher’s Guide (Collins, Panarese, and Bradley 2006), provides the association’s minimum
recommended cementations-materials content for slabs as a function of aggregate size.

A concrete mixture could be designed on the basis of strength, but that approach
might not provide enough paste for workability, finishability, and durability of the slab. The
table gives general recommendations for satisfying all of these requirements. Concrete
containing less cement may be used when experience demonstrates that the proposed mixture
proportions will produce concrete with good fresh and hardened properties; however, low-
cementitious content may still limit the depth or richness of color that a stain can produce.
The condition of existing concrete slabs (age greater than 90 days) should be assessed prior to
applying a color stain. The concrete surface must be sound (no scaling, spalling, or other
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unsound areas) or it must be brought to a sound condition. The surface must also be clean and
free of surface contamination of curing compounds, sealers, or any material that would limit
the ability of the slab surface to absorb the stain. Surface contamination can impede stain
absorption, which would result in non-uniform color. Whether the concrete is relatively new
or has been in place for years, preparing the slab for staining is a key step in the coloring
process.

Where contamination is known or suspected, physically abrading the slab will remove
the contamination, but will also re-move some of the surface paste, which changes the surface
appearance and texture. If this change is not acceptable, it may be possible to use chemical-
cleaning methods to remove or extract the contamination. This is likely to be more effective
if the problem areas are limited in size. In all cases, a good scrubbing with water, and perhaps
detergent, followed by rinsing, should be the final step before applying a chemical stain.

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CONCRETE STAINS

Portland cement is the key ingredient in concrete. When mixed with water, cement
starts to chemically combine with the water, or hydrate, a process that generates calcium
hydroxide. Hydrated portland cement contains 15% to 25% calcium hydroxide (Kosmatka,
Kerkhoff, and Panarese 2002).

Chemically reactive stains react with calcium hydroxide in hardened concrete to

produce insoluble colored compounds (Kosmatka and Collins 2004). The stains themselves
are water-based acidic solutions that contain metallic salts. The greater the amount of calcium
hydroxide present, the more potential there is for coloring the concrete. Because SCMs react
with calcium hydroxide to form more of the cementing gel that binds the concrete into a
strong matrix, they can affect the availability of calcium hydroxide, and therefore, the
potential for the slab to react with the color stain. The reacted color compounds become a
permanent component in the paste structure near the surface of the concrete.

An important attribute of stains is that they can be applied to old or new concrete.
Although the acid in the solution is intended to open the concrete surface for easier and
deeper stain penetration, some hard-troweled surfaces may need to be sanded for successful
stain penetration. A number of variables that should be considered when using chemically
reactive stains include

 cement properties and content of the concrete mixture;

 aggregate type;
 effects of chemical admixtures;
 finishing and curing practices;
 construction schedules; and
 moisture content during stain application.

Stain reacts only with the paste fraction of the concrete mixture or with calciumbased
aggregates such as limestone. For this reason, it is recommended that mixtures with low
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cement content be avoided when stains are used. Most chemical admixtures exert little
negative effect on chemically stained concrete. Calcium chloride accelerators, however, are
an exception. These accelerators may lead to discoloration or mottling issues. When concrete
is poorly mixed or used at higher dosages, the accelerator may leave areas that the stain
cannot color. Calcium chloride accelerators should therefore be avoided in all colored
concrete applications.

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CONCRETE FINISHING, CURING,

AND STAIN APPLICATION

Two schools of thought exist with regards to appropriate finishing practices for
concrete that is to receive color stains. The first school of thought suggests that a floated
surface will more readily accept penetration of the stain, allowing achievement of denser
color.

The potential drawback of this finishing technique is that a floated surface may not
provide the needed durability in high-traffic areas, which would then require a higher degree
of sealer maintenance to prevent color loss, or, over time, might require additional color
application. The alternate finishing technique calls for a hard-troweled surface, which, being
more durable, will hold the color for a longer period of time. This method, however, may
require additional sanding or stronger acid solutions to open the surface for stain application.

The recommended curing method for new concrete to receive stains is the use of
unwrinkled, on-staining, high-quality curing paper—not overlapped. Overlapping might lead
to color differences under the overlapped sections. Moist curing methods, such as sprinkling
or covering the surface with moisture-saturated fabric materials, may also be appropriate
when stains will be applied. Curing compounds are incompatible with staining applications,
because these materials prevent stain penetration.

Construction schedules can be an important consideration when using stains with new
construction. A minimum recommended curing period prior to staining is 14 days, although
the use of blue, green, and gold colors may require a 30-day to 60-day curing period.
(Manufacturer

recommendations should always be followed.)

Moisture content of the slab at the time of stain application also plays a role in the
final color achieved. Higher moisture contents tend to deliver more calcium hydroxide to the
slab surface, allowing more reaction products to form, but some colors may darken or even
turn black if excess moisture is available for too long a period of time. On the other end of the
moisture scale, slabs that receive direct sunlight may become hot and dry, limiting the

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reaction products that set the stain in the concrete surface. In all cases, the entire new slab
should be treated at the same age and moisture condition to improve color consistency.

EFFECT OF CONCRETE COLOR

Stains may be applied to plain concrete, or they may be used on surfaces of colored
concrete, where the colored surface creates a background for the effects of the stain. Due to
the chemistry involved, the most common chemical stains result in blue-green, black, brown,
or gold colors. For other colors, the discussion under the heading “Other Coloring Materials”
below provides some idea of the results. An internet search for concrete stains yields a large
number of suppliers.

SAFETY ISSUES

Safety precautions should be followed when working with chemical stains. These are
acid-based materials and require proper storage and handling. Areas surrounding the work
area need to be protected, and reacted stain must be collected and disposed of properly. In
addition, workers should use the proper personal protective equipment. Manufacturers print
safety instructions on the packaging of stain materials.

Chemical stains create permanent colors because they bind with the cement matrix. But it still
can be beneficial to protect the slab following color treatment. Sealers that are penetrating
and breathable help keep moisture out of the slab. They also can be formulated to result in a
flat finish so that they virtually disappear into the slab, or they can be made with increasing
levels of gloss to enhance the color and add shine to the finish.

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COMPLETING THE PICTURE: TEXTURES AND

COMBINATIONS

The simplest surface textures are floated, broomed, or troweled. The troweled finish is
more suited to interior exposures and surfaces that will be primarily dry, because they do not
afford adequate slip resistance for safety. Floated or broomed finishes are suited for exteriors
and wet environments because they provide traction even when wet.

Contemporary texturing techniques include a wide range of stamping patterns to

mimic natural stones, rock, or brick pavers. Abrasive blasting can be used as an overall
treatment or to define borders. Grooves or sawed joints can be used to provide definition to
shapes or create patterns on slab surfaces.

A variety of interesting and striking effects can be created on concrete by combining

colors and textures with one or more decorative processes, such as the use of exposed
aggregate, integral color, shake hardeners, stains, tints and dyes, abrasive blasting, and
scoring and grooving. For example, alternate areas of exposed aggregate can be eye-catching
when combined with plain, colored, stained, or textured concrete. Ribbons and borders of
concrete masonry or brick add a distinctive touch when combined with exposed aggregate.

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Stamped and stained strips may be used to divide areas of colored concrete, or vice
versa. Scored and stamped designs are enhanced when combined with integral, dryshake
color, stains, or abrasive blasting exposures (Kosmatka and Collins 2004).

Using color and texture to treat a slab surface generates a seemingly limitless range of
options for the designer. For example, applying several colors and then blasting to remove
portions of the surface exposes different layers. Combining stains with tints and dyes expands
the range of colors possible.

These are just a few ideas and combinations; the possibilities are endless. With a little
imagination, a concrete driveway, sidewalk, plaza, floor, patio, or pool deck can be tailored to
fit the mood and style of any architecture or landscape.

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CONCLUSION

Decorative concrete has been in existence since approximately 70 AD, when concrete
was used for defining affluent or important areas of living space in communal cultures. Early
examples of this type of adornment are the streets and paving throughout the city of Pompeii
near Naples, Italy. Early decorative concrete used colored aggregates and varying shapes or
natural materials embedded in concrete paving. Traditionally, concrete has been specified
more for its functional characteristics than as an enhancement to the aesthetics of the
structure. Landscape architects were leaders in using concrete flatwork to enhance the visual
appeal of hardscapes. Using color and texture introduced concrete as a landscape feature in
addition to its functionality. An example is flatwork textured and colored to replicate the look
of slate, brick, or natural stone.

The use of decorative concrete has been well received and considered as an
alternative to other building materials for durable, versatile, and economical finishes. More
designers are creating greater aesthetic appeal in projects by using one or more combinations
of special concrete placement techniques including integral concrete colors, color hardeners,
chemical stains, pigments and dyes, surface texturing, jointing, exposed aggregate, surface
embossing, polishing.

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REFERENCES

[1] Deatrick, John, and Shari Schaftlein. Results of Joint AASHTO/FHWA Context
Sensitive Solutions Strategic Planning Process. Rep. Raleigh: Center for
Transportation and the Environment, 2007. Print.

[2] United States of America. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Department of

Transportation. Section 714 - Precast Concrete Products. Print.

[3] ASTM (2007), “C192/C192M-07, Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete
Test Specimens in the Laboratory, West Conshohocken, Pa.

[4] Wheelabrator, William F. "Surface Prepararion for Concrete Flooring." Journal of

Protective Coatings and Linings (1989). Web.

[5] Concrete Technology Inc. (2009), “CTI System Series 110/111 Modifier,” Concrete
Technology Inc., Largo, FL. [6] Concrete Technology Inc. (2009), “CTI System
Series 105 Grout,” Concrete Technology Inc., Largo, FL.

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Dept. Of Civil Engg. AAPC
college