Evaluation of the Absorbed Energy

and Velocity Limits of Reinforced Epoxy

Composites with Mallow Natural Fibers
Used in Ballistic Protection

Lucio Fabio Cassiano Nascimento, Sérgio Neves Monteiro,

Jheison Lopes dos Santos, Ulisses Oliveira Costa
and Luana Cristyne da Cruz Demosthenes

Abstract In the present work, natural fibers of mallow (Urena Lobata, Linn) were
used in percentages of 0, 10, 20, and 30% vol. for ballistic application in epoxy matrix
composites. The ballistic efficiency of these composites was evaluated through the
measurement of the absorbed energy and the velocity limit, after impact of 7.62 mm
ammunition, in order to compare with work that used composites with other natural
fibers and traditional materials, such as aramid fabrics, used in vests for individ-
ual protection. The results showed through visual analysis and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) indicate the main mechanism of rupture acting in the composites
was the delamination of layers. In all cases analyzed in this work, the parameters
obtained for the residual velocity test were higher than those found for aramid tis-
sue. This fact evidences the viability of the fibers/mallow fabric for use in dynamic
applications, especially those related to ballistic protection.

Keywords Ballistic test · Mallow fibers · Composites

Introduction

Tripod formed by mobility, resistance to penetration and high absorption of impact are
the main factors that make ballistic armoring efficient. However, improvement in one
of these factors often negatively influences that of another. For example, an increase
in the penetration resistance may cause a reduction in mobility, due to the necessary
increase of thickness and, therefore, of weight, in the case of monolithic armors
made of steel [1]. There have been general needs to seek new engineering solutions
to improve the protection of the targets. Armors constituted by ceramic components
associated with other materials, such as polymer composites, are then employed to
favor a good ballistic protection/weight ratio [2]. These are called multilayer armoring
systems (MAS).

L. F. C. Nascimento (B) · S. N. Monteiro · J. L. dos Santos · U. O. Costa ·

L. C. da Cruz Demosthenes
Military Institute of Engineering—IME, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: lucio_coppe@yahoo.com.br
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2019 185
S. Ikhmayies et al. (eds.), Green Materials Engineering, The Minerals,
Metals & Materials Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10383-5_21
186 L. F. C. Nascimento et al.

Table 1 Properties of aramid fiber, mallow fiber, and epoxy resin [2, 7–10]
Materials Density Tensile Young’s Specific Specific
(g/cm3 ) resistance modules resistance modules
(MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa)
Aramid (KevlarTM ) 1.4 3000–3150 63–67 2143–2250 45–48
Mallow 1.4 160 17.4 116 13
Epoxy 1.1–1.3 60–80 2–4 46–73 1.5–3.6

However, synthetic materials, such as Kevlar™, that make up the composite of the
intermediate layer have drawbacks, such as high acquisition and processing costs,
as well as environmental damages, due, for example, to their degradation over time,
after the end of its useful life. As a result, constant research efforts are looking for new
alternative materials that can efficiently replace synthetic ones and are environmen-
tally friendly. In this context, natural lignocellulosic fibers (NLFs) can play this role
because they have many advantages, such as: good specific properties (low specific
mass), low toxicity, biodegradability, and low cost. In addition, they make it possi-
ble to foster the economic and technological development of Brazil’s less favored
regions, such as the northern and northeastern regions, which are major producers
of natural fibers. Other properties can be found in Table 1.
The goal of this study is to analyze the ballistic efficiency of epoxy matrix com-
posites in different percentage of mallow fibers (0, 10, 20, and 30% vol.). The ballistic
test consists of determining the residual velocity of the bullet after its impact on the
target (specimen). This velocity is related to the energy that is absorbed by the com-
posite during the impact—the greater that energy, the more efficient the composite
will be. After, a visual analysis is made in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to
observe fracture mechanisms in the composites.

Materials and Methods

The mallow fiber has been used as reinforcement in the composite. The fibers were
provided by State University of Northern Rio de Janeiro (UENF). Firstly, the fibers
were cleaned, aligned, and cut in length of 15 cm. After, they were maintained in
stove for 24 h in order to reduce the absorbed moisture. The as received bundle of
fibers and the mallow and jute hybrid fabric are shown in Fig. 1.
The composite matrix was diglycidyl ether of the bisphenol A (DGEBA), which
is a commercial epoxy resin mixed with triethylenetetramine (TETA) hardener in
proportion of 13 parts of hardener per hundred parts of resin in weight. Both compo-
nents are fabricated by the Brazilian firm Dow Chemical and commercially supplied
by the distributor RESINPOXY Ltda.
Composites with 0, 10, 20, and 30% in volume of mallow fibers were manufactured
(Fig. 2), being eight units of each concentration. It was used to mallow fibers as initial
Evaluation of the Absorbed Energy and Velocity Limits … 187

Fig. 1 Mallow fibers as received

Fig. 2 Composite plates of epoxy reinforced with 0, 10, 20, and 30% vol. of mallow fibers

reference density of 1.40 g/cm3 [3] and for the epoxy resin (DGEBA-TETA) value
of 1.11 g/cm3 [4]. A pressure of 5 MPa was applied and the composite plate cured
for 24 h [2, 4].
The ballistic tests were conducted at the Brazilian Army shooting range facility,
CAEX, in the Marambaia peninsula, Rio de Janeiro. All tests, eight for each type of
percentage, were carried out according to the NIJ 0101.04 standards using 7.62 mm
188 L. F. C. Nascimento et al.

Fig. 3 Schematic exploded view of the ballistic experimental setup [2]

Fig. 4 a Specimen of composite plate fixed in the metal bracket with spring clips. b Apparatus of
CAEX for ballistic testing with ammunition and doppler radar. c Aramid plate fixed with spring
clips

FMJ military ammunition (m  9.7 g—Armor level III). Figure 3 shows, schemat-
ically, the exploded view of the ballistic test setup. A dashed straight line indicates
the projectile trajectory. A steel frame was used to position the target, which was
held in place by spring clips (Fig. 4a). The gun, located 15 m from the target, was
sighted on its center with a laser beam. The exact velocity of the projectile at three
moments: leaving the gun, immediately before impacting (Vi ) in the plate and after
outcoming projectile (residual velocity—Vr ) was measured by an optical barrier and
a model SL-52 OP Weibel fixed-head Doppler radar system (Fig. 4b). The Kinetic
energy Ed , dissipated inside the target, could then be estimated by the Eq (1):
Evaluation of the Absorbed Energy and Velocity Limits … 189

Fig. 5 Graph of experimental points of the reinforced epoxy composite with 30% vol. of mallow
fibers

1
E d  m(Vi2 − Vr2 ) (1)
2

Results and Discussion

In order to verify the individual ballistic resistance of each component of the MAS,
the residual velocity test was performed, and it was possible to estimate the absorbed
energy (Eabs ) and the velocity limit (VL ) of each sample with the aid of a radar
(Fig. 4b) and using Eq. (1). In this test, all the samples were perforated and crossed
by the projectile, which allowed the measurement of the energy absorbed by each
component present in the shield. Figure 5 shows an example of data obtained from
the Doppler radar spectrum of a test specimen of the epoxy composite mallow fibers
(30% vol.) and the adjusted continuous polynomial curve.
Approximately 840 m/s, there was an abrupt drop in velocity, which character-
ized the moment of impact on the target. This velocity was defined as the velocity
of impact (Vi ) and the minimum velocity reached at that fall defined the residual
velocity (Vr ). Similar graphs were obtained for the other components of the MAS
and based on the results extracted from these graphs both the limit velocity (VL )
190 L. F. C. Nascimento et al.

Table 2 Impact and residual velocities together with internally dissipated energy in ballistic tested
to composites reinforced with mallow fibers [2, 4–6]
Armor Vi (m/s) Vr (m/s) Eabs (J) % Eabs VL (m/s) Reference
components
Aramid fabric 862 ± 7.00 835 ± 10.00 221.00 6.10 212 ± 23 [6]
(16 layers)
Composite 848.08 ± 6.20 817.01 ± 8.87 250.73 7.20 227.02 ± 12.52 Present
100% epoxy work
Composite 840.00 ± 11.19 807.96 ± 11.52 256.02 7.48 229.54 ± 10.06 Present
100% mallow work
(30% v/v)—
Fibers
Composite 843.39 ± 5.33 807.07 ± 8.57 290.53 8.42 243.81 ± 21.42 Present
100% mallow work
(20% v/v)—
Fibers
Composite 845.02 ± 6.78 815.09 ± 9.78 240.72 6.95 220.92 ± 28.77 Present
100% mallow work
(10% v/v)—
Fibers

and the absorbed energy (Eabs ) were determined. The results of the average impact
velocity of the projectile (Vi ), mean residual velocity (Vr ), absorbed energy (Eabs )
and their percentage in relation to total energy (% Eabs ) are shown in Table 2, as
well as the estimated velocity limit (VL ). For comparative purposes, data from other
authors who also studied MAS based on natural fibers were also presented in Table 2
[2, 4–6].
The values of the boundary velocity (VL ) and absorbed energy (Eabs ) for epoxy
matrix composites reinforced with 20% v/v of mallow fibers presented values higher
than those found for aramid [6] and other percentages of reinforcement. This fact can
be explained by the good mechanical properties of mallow, as shown in Table 1. There
was dissipation of a greater amount of kinetic energy of the projectile through the
fragile fracture mechanisms of the epoxy matrix, together with ductile mechanisms
such as delamination between layers, elastic deformation of the composite, shear
of the layers, and stress at fiber rupture [2]. In all cases analyzed by this work, the
parameters obtained for the residual velocity test were higher than those found for
aramid fabric (212 m/s and 221 J), which shows the viability of mallow fibers for
use in ballistic applications.
Figure 6a, b show that the mechanisms associated with fragile fracture are more
active in the system, as a function of the percentages of 0 and 10% v/v reinforcement.
The main working mechanisms were those corresponding to fragile and catastrophic
fracture, typified by the cleavage of planes and river marks. In Fig. 6c,d the ductile
fracture mechanisms control the fracture, as a function of the percentages of 20
and 30% v/v reinforcement. SEM images clearly demonstrated the similarity in the
main fracture mechanisms acting in the process: layer delamination, fiber fracture
and pull-out. Probably the energy absorbed with 20% v/v was superior to all other
Evaluation of the Absorbed Energy and Velocity Limits … 191

Fig. 6 a Composite 100% epoxy (90×); b Composite epoxy reinforced with 10% v/v of mallow
fibers (90×); c Composite epoxy reinforced with 20% v/v of mallow fibers (400×); d Composite
epoxy reinforced with 30% v/v of mallow fibers (100×)

reinforcement percentages, due to associated with the ideal wettability of the fibers
by the epoxy matrix.

Conclusions

SEM shows that the mallow fiber contributed in an effective way to increase the
resistance of the epoxy matrix through the mechanisms of energy absorption, such
as delamination of layers, detachment, and disruption of fibers.
The values of the velocity limit (VL ) and absorbed energy (Eabs ), for epoxy matrix
composites reinforced with 20% v/v of mallow fibers presented higher values than
192 L. F. C. Nascimento et al.

those found for aramid [6] and other percentages of reinforcement. In all cases
analyzed by this work, the parameters obtained for the residual velocity test were
higher than those found for the aramid fabric (212 m/s and 221 J), being that these
values grow with the increase of the percentage of fiber reinforcement used, which
shows the viability of the mallow fibers for use in ballistic applications.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the support to this investigation by the Brazilian
agencies CNPq, CAPES, FAPERJ, and UENF for supplying the mallow fibers.

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