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The benefits from “good” financial-planning their impact on a successful retirement of risk aversion. Given that Gamma is relatively
decisions are difficult to quantify. For any can be far less important than other financial- unclaimed within financial literature, we seek
given portfolio, investment decisions generally planning decisions. to give it new meaning.
can be decomposed into two primary
components: beta and alpha. Beta can be In this article, we introduce a concept called Gamma varies for different investors as well
defined as the systematic risk exposures of the “Gamma,” which is designed to measure as for investors in different lifecycles
portfolio (usually achieved through asset the additional expected retirement income (for example, the accumulation stage versus
allocation), and alpha is the residual (skill or achieved by an individual investor making retirement). For those who find it hard
luck-based) component associated with intelligent financial-planning decisions. to break from traditional (and inadequate)
the various flavors of active management, such Gamma is the third letter in the Greek alphabet performance measurements, Gamma
as tactical asset allocation, security selection, (preceded by alpha and beta), and within is a metric that is somewhat comparable to
and more. Alpha and beta are at the heart financial economics, it is sometimes used as alpha, or excess return, but even more
of traditional performance analysis; however, the variable denoting an investor’s degree than that, it is the return that an investor
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Gray Matters
accounts that differ in tax status. Asset income generated from a given strategy. 0% (no change), positive 1%, positive 2%,
location is typically defined as placing Utility is an approach to quantify the satisfac- and positive 3%. We show these results
(or locating) assets in the most tax-efficient tion derived from some set of goods or in Exhibit 2. It demonstrates that a
account type. For example, it generally services. In this case, we assume that the 10% increase in median retirement income is
makes sense to place less tax-efficient assets utility of income is an increasing concave equivalent to an extra 1% annualized return
(those where the majority of total return function; the higher the level of income, the (or Gamma-equivalent alpha) in the base
comes from coupons and dividends taxed as lower the increase in utility of additional portfolio. A 28.8% increase is equivalent to a
ordinary income, such as bonds) in retirement income. Thus, the amount of utility an investor 1.82% annualized alpha.
accounts and more tax-efficient assets gets for each dollar of income is not equal.
(those where the majority of total return A more detailed explanation of Gamma can be Exhibit 3 shows how we attribute this
comes from capital gains taxed at a rate less found in the full version of this study, Gamma-equivalent alpha among the five
than ordinary income, such as stocks) which is available at global.morningstar.com/ Gamma factors. This is likely to be significantly
in taxable accounts. When thinking about gamma. higher than any type of portfolio alpha that
withdrawal sequencing, it typically makes a financial advisor would be able to generate
sense to withdraw money from taxable through fund selection or market-timing.
accounts first and from more tax-efficient Y(Strategy) Y(Benchmark) Also, while traditional portfolio alpha is a
Gamma(Strategy)
accounts later. Y(Benchmark) negative-sum game (because everyone cannot,
on average, outperform the market), our
5 Liability-Relative Optimization results show that Gamma is not a zero-sum
Asset-allocation methodologies commonly game and can be achieved by any investor who
ignore the funding risks, such as inflation Gamma Results takes a smarter approach to generating
and currency, associated with an investor’s If we add the results from the five Gamma retirement income.
goals. By incorporating liabilities into factors tested, we find a Gamma of 28.8%,
the portfolio-optimization process, it is possible meaning $1.29 for every $1 generated Gamma’s Appeal
to build portfolios that can better hedge by the base set of assumptions. The base case In this article, we introduced a new concept
the risks faced by a retiree. While these is retirees (males and females both aged 65) called Gamma. We define Gamma as
“liability-driven” portfolios may appear to be who follow the static 4% withdrawal the additional value achieved by an individual
less-efficient asset allocations when viewed scenario and invest in a 20% equity/80% investor who makes more-intelligent financial-
from an asset-only perspective, we find fixed-income portfolio. (The performance of the planning decisions. While Gamma varies
they are actually more efficient when it comes portfolio is determined by Ibbotson capital for different types of investors, we focus on
to achieving a sustainable retirement income. market assumptions and Monte Carlo five types of Gamma relevant to retirees:
simulation.) We display this concept in a total wealth framework to determine the
These five Gamma concepts can be thought Exhibit 1, which shows the incremental and optimal asset allocation, a dynamic withdrawal
of as valuable actions and services that total income generated by each of the strategy, the incorporation of guaranteed
financial planners can provide. Bennyhoff and Gamma tests. income products, tax-efficient allocation
Kinniry (2010) called them “advisor’s alpha,” decisions, and liability-relative portfolio
and Scott (2012) labeled them “household An increase in certainty-equivalent (utility- optimization. Among the five types of Gamma
alpha.” However, Bennyhoff and Kinniry do not adjusted) income of 28.8% is an impressive tested, the use of a dynamic withdrawal
attempt to quantify the benefit of these improvement in retirement income, strategy was determined to be the most
actions. We aim to provide some perspective but how does it relate from a traditional alpha important, followed by tax-efficient allocation
on, as well as to quantify, the potential perspective? To determine how much additional decisions. (Each of these five components
benefits that can be realized by an investor, annual return, or alpha, is equivalent is either currently being used or in development
especially a retiree, from using a Gamma- to the 28.8% Gamma, we conducted an to be used in Morningstar Retirement Manager
optimized portfolio. additional analysis. We determined the median and Ibbotson’s Wealth Forecasting Engine.)
income generated for the initial withdrawal
Gamma Defined rate (4%) and compared it with the median In the aggregate, we estimate a retiree
First, let’s define Gamma. The Gamma of a income generated for portfolios with can generate 29% more income on a certainty-
retirement-income strategy is defined in the returns that are either higher or lower than the equivalent utility-adjusted basis using a
equation below, where Y is the utility-adjusted base portfolio by negative 2%, negative 1%, Gamma-efficient retirement-income strategy
References
Bennyhoff, Donald G. and Francis M. Kinniry Jr. (2010),
“Advisor’s Alpha,” Vanguard research paper (December).
Exhibit 2 Relationship Between Additional Retirement Income and
Bhojwani, Gary C. (2011), “Rethinking What’s Ahead in Changes in Returns for Different Initial Withdrawal Rates
Retirement,” Allianz Perspectives.
–10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Scott, Jason (2012), “Household Alpha and Social Secu- % Median Change in Retirement Income
rity.” Financial Analysts Journal, vol. 68, no. 5.
(September/October).
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