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GENERAL
BIOLOGY
2
Congratulations! You have
survived General Biology 1.
You might have been bored for
the past few weeks or months
without the thrills of studying
the nature of life. I welcome you
back to the rollercoaster ride of
Dr. Acar’s mighty lectures,
experiments, quizzes.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 GENETICS 5-8
Gregor Johann Mendel
Genetic Terms
Punnett Square
Mendel’s Principles
6 EVOLUTION
A MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION 30 – 32
Natural Selection vs Selective Breeding
Two Types of Genetic drift
B EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION 32 - 36
Charles Darwin
Alfred Russel Wallace
Fossil Record
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
7 KINGDOM ANIMALIA 37 - 45
Taxonomy
Modern Phylogenetic Taxonomy
Cladistics
Characteristics of Kingdom Animalia
Table Summary about Animals
50 Scientific Names of Common Animals
10 Animal Phyla
Classes under Chordata
More on Mammals
Order Primata
FROG ATLAS 46 - 50
9 Skeleton
11 Muscular System
13 Body Organs
10 ANIMAL NUTRITION 55 - 59
Animal Diet
4 Main Stages of Food Processing
Alimentary Canal and Accessory Glands
Digestion in the Small Intestine
Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
Feedback Circuits regulate Digestion, Energy Storage and Appetite
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
17 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION 80 - 85
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction and Fertilization
Human Female Reproductive Anatomy
Male Reproductive Anatomy
Gametogenesis
Sex Hormones
Female Reproductive Cycles
Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System
Human Sexual Response
18 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT 85 – 91
Fertilization and Acrosomal Reaction
LIST OF COMMON ANIMALS SCIENTIFIC NAMES 86 – 87
Cortical Reaction and Cleavage Formation
Morphogenesis and Gastrulation on Different Organisms
Organogenesis and Neurulation
Cell Fate Specification
Spemann’s experiment and Vertebrate Limb Formation
19 HOMEOSTASIS 91 – 97
Teleological vs Mechanistic Views of Physiology
Level of Structural Organization
More on Homeostasis
Negative vs Positive Feedback Loop
Controlling Body Temperature
Controlling Glucose Levels
Controlling Water Levels
Diagram: Body systems and Homeostasis
20 SAMPLE QUIZZES
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
LESSON 1
Hotchi-witchi is an old Roman nickname for the hedgehog. Precisely what the name means is
unclear, but it’s likely that the first part is an alternation of urchin (another old English name for the
hedgehog) while the second is probably an old Romany word meaning something like “woodland” or
“forest.”
If you thought JK Rowling made the name Dumbledore up, think again—dor is an Old English
word for a flying or buzzing insect, and dumbledore is actually an 18th century nickname for a bumblebee.
In an interview in 1999, Rowling herself explained that she gave the wise old headmaster of Hogwarts the
name because of his love of music: “Dumbledore … seemed to suit the headmaster,” she said, “because
one of his passions is music, and I imagined him walking around humming to himself.”
Onos is the Ancient Greek word for an ass, while a crotalus is another name for a castanet, or the
clapper inside a bell. This literally makes an onocrotalus an “ass-clapper,” but despite appearances it’s
actually an old nickname for the pelican. Although the word has long since vanished from the language,
the scientific name of the great white pelican is still Pelecanus onocrotalus.
Science – Systematized body of knowledge based on facts and principles gathered through
experimentation and observation. Has 3 divisions:
4. In ancient Mesopotamia, animals were sometimes kept in what can be described as the first zoological
gardens.
5. In the Greco-Roman world, scholars became more interested in rationalist methods. Greek scientist
and philosopher Aristotle, during the 300s B.C.E., described many animals and their behaviors, and
devoted considerable attention to categorizing them.
6. In ancient Rome, Pliny the Elder is known for his knowledge of nature. Later, Claudius Galen became
a pioneer in medicine and anatomy.
7. The medieval period from the fifth century to early sixteenth century has often been called the dark
age of biology. Of the Arab biologists, Al-Jahiz, who died about 868, is particularly noteworthy. He
wrote Kitab al Hayawan (Book of animals).
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
8. In the 1200s, the German scholar named Albertus Magnus wrote De vegetabilibus (seven books) and
De animalibus (26 books). He discussed in some detail the reproduction of animals.
9. During the Renaissance, roughly from mid-1300s C.E. to early 1600s C.E., naturalists described and
classified many animals, and artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci contributed accurate
drawings of animals. Many visual artists were interested in the bodies of animals and humans and
studied the physiology in detail. Such comparisons as that between a horse leg and a human leg were
made. Books about animals included those by Conrad Gesner
10. In the middle and late 1600s, the pioneering use of the microscope led to insights on physiology, such
as observations on blood by Marcello Malphighi, and on minute organisms by Robert Hooke, who
published Micrographia in 1665, based on his observations using a compound microscope. Hooke
described the compartments of cork tissue as "cells."
11. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), who made more than 400 microscopes himself, was the first
person to view single-celled microbes.
12. Systematizing and classifying dominated biology throughout much of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, developed a classification for animals
based on shared characteristics. His new system greatly standardized the rules for grouping and
naming animals and plants.
13. At this time, the long-held idea that living organisms could originate from nonliving matter
(spontaneous generation) began to crumble, particularly through the work of Louis Pasteur (1822–
1895).
14. 1859, Charles Darwin, with his publication of The Origin of Species, placed the theory of organic
evolution on a new footing, by his marshalling of evidence for evolution by descent with modification,
and by presentation of a process by which it could occur, the theory of natural selection. Darwin's
theories revolutionized the zoological and botanical sciences.
15. Gregor Mendel's object was to gain a better understanding of the principles of heredity. Mendel made
his chief experiments with cultivated varieties of the self-fertilizing edible pea. When the importance
of Mendel's work was realized, it led to the merging of Darwinian theories with an understanding of
heredity, resulting in the "modern evolutionary synthesis" or neo-Darwinism. The modern synthesis was
integral to the development of much of zoology in the twentieth century.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
General Zoology
Ancient Period Medieval period 17th - 18th Century 19th – 20th Century
Plato – Atlantis – the Leonardo da Vinci – Bartholin – lymphatic Karl Ernst Von Baer -
cradle of civilization give definition of fossil. system germ layer – father of
Embryology
Anaximander – first Konrad Gesner – Wharton – Glands in
evolutionary theory – frenchman who the body Leydig – Tissue
that man developed illustrated the first formation
Marcelo Malphigi
from fishes to fishes workbook in zoology.
– father of Histology Purkinje discovered
with action of
Gullaume Rondelet – the purkinje fiber in the
mudlight. Jan Swammerdam –
comparative anatomy of cerebellum of the brain.
father of entomology
Herophilus – fishes.
August Weismann –
discovered the retina of Rudolphi – father of
Pierre Belon – divided Chromosomes
the eye and optic nerve modern parasitology
the fishes into bony and
of the brain. Thomas Morgan
cartilaginous one.
breeding experiment of
Diogenes – first to give
Fallopio – reproductive the fruit fly
the anatomical
system
description of man. Arthur Komkerg –
Paracelsus - pathology synthesis of DNA
Xenophanes – wrote
about marine fossils Columbus – hearing
sense.
Hippocrates – father of
medicine. Cesalpino – circulatory
system
Notable zoologists
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
1. Optical Instruments
3. Complicated Technology
3.1 Centrifuges – used to separate the parts of cell by spinning it around the solution.
3.2 Microdissection Apparatus – used to control movement of instrument to work on minute organism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
LESSON 2 : GENETICS
GENETICS – branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organisms.
New combinations of genes occur in sexual reproduction - Fertilization from two parents
Son of peasant farmer, studied Theology and was ordained priest Order St. Augustine.
Went to the University of Vienna, where he studied botany and learned the Scientific Method
Prior to Mendel, heredity was regarded as a "blending" process and the offspring were essentially a
"dilution"of the different parental characteristics.
• Mendel was the first biologist to use Mathematics – to explain his results quantitatively.
Mendel predicted:
1. The concept of genes 2. That genes occur in pairs 3.That one gene of each pair is present in the gametes
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
g. Dominant – the allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the expression of an alternate allele; the trait
appears in the heterozygous condition.
h. Recessive – an allele that is masked by a dominant allele; does not appear in the heterozygous
condition, only in homozygous.
i. Genotype – the genetic makeup of an organisms
j. Phenotype – the physical appearance of an organism
(Genotype + environment)
k. Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross involving a single pair of
genes (one trait); parents differ by a single trait.
l. P = Parental generation
m. F1 = First filial generation; offspring from a genetic cross.
n. F2 = Second filial generation of a genetic cross
Punnett square
4. "split" the letters of the genotype for each parent & put them "outside" the p-square
• Determine the gametes of each parent… How? By “splitting” the genotypes of each parent
Phenotypes:
100% Tall plants
Another example: Flower color
If you cross a homozygous Purple (PP) with homozygous white (pp): PP x pp Pp; You get all
purple. Crossing the F1 generation will yield you 3 purples and 1 white flowers. (1 PP, 2 Pp and 1 pp).
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Mendel’s Principles
1. Principle of Dominance:
One allele masked another, one allele was dominant over the other in the F1 generation.
2. Principle of Segregation:
When gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary factors (genes) become separated, so that each
sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of gene.
Inheritance pattern of CF
IF two parents carry the recessive gene of Cystic Fibrosis (c), that is, they are heterozygous (C c),
one in four of their children is expected to be homozygous for cf and have the disease:
Dihybrid crosses
• Matings that involve parents that differ in two genes (two independent traits)
For example, flower color: P = purple (dominant) and p = white (recessive) and stem length: T = tall
and t= short.
Dihybrid cross F2
Tall, purple (9); Tall, white (3); Short, purple (3); Short, white (1)
1 TTpp and 2 Ttpp (Tall, white) ; 1 ttPP and 2 ttPp (Short, purple)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
“Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs during gamete formation”
For example, a plant with purple flowers can either be PP or Pp… therefore, you
cross the plant with a pp (white flowers, homozygous recessive)
• If you get all 100% purple flowers, then the unknown parent was PP…
• If you get 50% white, 50% purple flowers, then the unknown parent was Pp…
If you had a tall, purple plant, how would you know what genotype it is? (TTPP x ttpp)
Mendel was lucky! Traits he chose in the pea plant showed up very clear. One allele was dominant
over another, so phenotypes were easy to recognize. But sometimes phenotypes are not very obvious…
Snapdragon flowers come in many colors. If you cross a red snapdragon (RR) with a white snapdragon (rr)
You get PINK flowers (Rr)! What happens if you cross a pink with a white? A pink with a red?
When F1 generation (all pink flowers) is self pollinated, the F2 generation is 1:2:1 red, pink, white
LESSON 2 SUMMARY
Mendel’s Principles:
• Independent Assortment: Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene
pairs during gamete formation
LESSON 3 : Sex Determination & Sex-Linked Inheritance & Human Genetic Disorders
Most species of animals and plants carry a pair of chromosomes that determine the individuals sex.
These are called sex chromosomes. All other chromosomes are called autosomal
Blood clotting
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
X chromosome
Sex-Linked Genes
Hemophilia Color-Blindness
Description o A blood disorder where the blood does not clot Color Blindness is a sex-linked
properly. trait found on the X
o A minor cut can cause serious injury and chromosome.
demand medical attention.
Males are more likely
o Bleeding into the joints, internal bleeding and
to be color blind due to the fact
deep cuts can be fatal for hemophiliacs.
they only have one X
o Genetic lack of one of the clotting factors
chromosome.
produced by the liver.
o There is no cure for hemophilia but treatment
options with clotting factor transfusions are
available.
Complications Bruising and bleeding into the muscles, bleeding
into the joints, infection, adverse reaction to
transfusions and serious bleeding.
Genetics o The gene for hemophilia is found on the X Red-green
chromosome. It is a recessive disorder. colorblindness is caused by an
o It is referred to as a sex-linked recessive disorder. abnormal gene for
Males are more likely to get hemophilia. photoreceptors in the retina
o Females have the possibility of being
The genes for both red
heterozygous for hemophilia.
and green photoreceptors are
(This makes them a carrier)
located on the X chromosome –
colorblindness can result from
recessive alleles for either one or
both of these genes.
Examples Pedigree of Queen Victoria
Czar Nicholas II and Family
Gregor Rasputin
In this example:
The father has hemophilia. He cannot give his son
hemophilia because he gives his son the Y chromosome.
He can give his daughter the recessive gene, but if her mother
does not give her the recessive gene, she will not have hemophilia.
She will be a carrier.
On the right: The mother is a carrier of hemophilia. She does not have
hemophilia but she is heterozygous for the trait.
There is a 50% chance her son will have hemophilia.
In this example: the mother is a carrier of the colorblind gene.
There is a 50% chance her son will be colorblind but unless the father is
colorblind the daughter cannot end up colorblind.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
She must inherit a recessive trait from both her mother and father. (her father must have the disorder)
How does a male show a recessive sex-linked trait?
He must inherit the recessive trait from his mother. He gets the Y from his father so it has no
bearing on a sex-linked disorder.
Human Genetic Disorders can be:
Autosomal genetic disorders are caused by alleles on autosomes (chromosomes other than the sex
chromosomes)
People with 1 recessive allele are carriers – they do NOT have the disorder but are able to pass the allele
on to their children Ex: Cystic fibrosis (CF), sickle cell anemia
Can also be dominant (need only 1 allele to have the disorder) Ex: Huntington’s disease
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Sickle-Cell
Anemia
(Sickle-Cell
Disease)
Sickle-cell anemia is most common in areas of the world where malaria is prevalent
People who are heterozygous for the cystic fibrosis allele may be more resistant to cholera. When
carriers have an advantage over people who are homozygous dominant, it is heterozygote superiority
Huntington’s Disease
Both men and women need only one Huntington’s allele to get the disorder.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Clumsiness, Irritability, Depression, Memory loss, Loss of muscle coordination & ability to speak
Multiple Genes
o Cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease, and Huntington’s disease caused by mutant alleles for a single gene.
o Many other genetic disorders are believed to be the result of multiple genes:
Diabetes mellitus, Heart disease and some personality disorders like Bipolar disorder and, schizophrenia
Chromosome Abnormalities
Heart, vision, and intestinal problems and (4) Susceptibility to infections and leukemia.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
DNA Mutations
They are Not inherited and they do Occur during fetal development
Both genetic disorders and congenital disabilities can often (but not always) be detected before a
baby is born
Genetic counseling
Can help parents determine the likelihood of their child being born with a genetic disorder
o Medical geneticists analyze blood tests to determine if parents are carriers of certain genetic disorders
Genetic counseling usually can NOT determine whether or not a child will be born with a genetic disorder
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
IMAGING TECHNIQUES
Ultrasonography Fetoscopy
Uses high-frequency sound waves which A small incision is made in a pregnant woman’s
bounce off of tissue abdomen
Depending on the density of tissue, waves An endoscope tube is inserted through the incision
“echo” back at different wavelengths and are used Has a camera on the end that shows an image on a
to produce a computerized image called an monitor
echogram Instruments can be inserted through the endoscope
to perform additional procedures
Used in most pregnancies to detect the position
and anatomy of the fetus
Used with amniocentesis to reduce risk of injury
Can also help doctors detect abnormalities such
as congenital heart defects
o Introducing normal genes into the cells of people with defective alleles
o Enclosing alleles in droplets of fat, which are taken into cells by endocytosis
o Currently these are still experimental procedures and have had limited success
F. Miescher (1844-1895), a Swiss physician and biologist, isolated various phosphate-rich chemicals,
which he called nuclein (now nucleic acids), from the nuclei of pus cells (leukocytes) obtained from
discarded surgical bandages.
1889, Altman , from yeast and animal tissue, nucleic acid, acidic properties.
In 1889, Altmann extracted nucleic acid from yeast and animal tissue. He coined the term “nucleic acid”
in exchange for nuclein, when it was demonstrated that nuclein had acidic properties.
1902, E. Fischer, the Nobel Prize for Chemistry, glucose and purines
1953 Watson & Crick, DNA double helix model, The Nobel Prize in Physiology in Medicine 1962
“For their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for
information transfer in living material.”
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
1. Classification of nucleic acids : DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid and RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
Roles of RNA and DNA: DNA is the MASTER PLAN, RNA is the BLUEPRINT of the Master Plan
Genes are DNA segment that carries the hereditary information. Proteins are key substances for
all aspect of cell life.
DNA – information is encoded in sequence of bases along each side of ladder like DNA molecules.
DNA RNA
Nucleus Nucleus and cytoplasm
Pair – A-T, G-C Pair – A-U, G-C
Deoxyribose Ribose
2 strand 1
Carrier of genetic code For protein synthesis
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
Prokaryote:nucleoid,
Anticodon UGA
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Nucleic acids are linear polymers of nucleotides, the monomeric units are
nucleotides.
Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature 171: 737-738.(April 25 th )
Summary Background
A running of the helix containing 10 The analysis of base composition of DNA——Chargaff rules
pairs of bases
The analysis of chemical and physical data on DNA building
Structure stable depends on the vice- model
bonds
Primarily X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind
There are minor grooves and major franklin and Maurice Wilkins
grooves
X-ray diffraction pattern of DNA:DNA from different sources have the similar pattern----uniform
double-helix structure, 0.34 nm;diameter = 2 nm
Tertiary structure of DNA- supercoil Formation of a chromosome from its DNA Structure of RNA
1. Structure of RNA
o Pentose → Ribose, A C G U;RNA molecules are largely single-stranded. ; [A] ≠ [U]; [C] ≠ [G];
o But there are double-stranded regions(A-U、C-G),any unpaired bases in the molecule produce
loop --- hairpin structures or loop-stem structure ;
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
It is the most complicated synthetic activity which occur in cell, consist of linking together various
activated amino acids in an order determined by the DNA and structural gene.
o Proteins, however, are made in the cytoplasm of cells by organelles called ribosomes
o In the cytoplasm, this code must be read so amino acids can be assembled to make polypeptides
(proteins) This process is called PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Steps of Transcription
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
mRNA Processing
Introns: the mRNA contains extra info (junk) that must be removed (cut out)
Exons: the remaining pieces carry useful information are spliced (connected)
together to make the complete mRNA
After the DNA is transcribed into RNA, editing must be done to the nucleotide
chain to make the RNA functional
mRNA Editing
o Exons, segments of DNA that code for proteins, are then rejoined by the enzyme ligase
o A guanine triphosphate cap is added to the 5” end of the newly copied mRNA
The bases of mRNA pair with DNA bases but RNA replaces T with U
mRNA Transcript - mRNA leaves the nucleus through its pores and goes to the ribosomes
Codon: 3-base code on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid Ex. CGU = alanine, GUU = valine
The sequence of bases in DNA tell mRNA what order amino acids must join together to make a
particular protein.
Initiation mRNA transcript start codon AUG attaches to the small ribosomal subunit
Elongation As ribosome moves, two tRNA with their amino acids move into site A and P of the
ribosome. Peptide bonds join the amino acids
Termination
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Our DNAs and RNAs are the key to our Individuality and survival! You are unique as God created
You! Nobody can take away your identity, You are one and only you!
o Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of artificial DNA that is created by combining two or more
sequences that would not normally occur together through the process of gene splicing.
o Recombinant DNA technology is a technology which allows DNA to be produced via artificial
means. The procedure has been used to change DNA in living organisms and may have even more
practical uses in the future.
The dragon is a mythical creature that can fly and walk. Dragon can change
its form and has divine powers to summon wind and rain. The dragons are said
to be made up of many different types of animals of the Earth. Dragon is an
imagination creature, which has
Recombinant DNA technology is one of the recent advances in biotechnology, which was
developed by two scientists named Boyer and Cohen in 1973.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Stanley N. Cohen , who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1986 for his work on
discoveries of growth factors.
Stanley N. Cohen (1935–) (top) and Herbert Boyer (1936–) (bottom), who constructed the
first recombinant DNA using bacterial DNA and plasmids.
o The procedure has been used to change DNA in living organisms and may have even more
practical uses in the future.
Recombinant DNA technology works by taking DNA from two different sources and combining that
DNA into a single molecule. That alone, however, will not do much.
Recombinant DNA technology only becomes useful when that artificially-created DNA is reproduced.
This is known as DNA cloning.
o Recombinant DNA is a molecule that combines DNA from two sources. Also known as gene cloning.
o The bacteria are recombinant organisms and produce insulin in large quantities for diabetics
o Genetically modified organisms are possible because of the universal nature of the genetic code!
Genetic engineering is the application of this technology to the manipulation of genes. These advances
were made possible by methods for amplification of any particular DNA segment (how?), regardless of
source, within bacterial host cells. Or, in the language of recombinant DNA technology, the cloning of
virtually any DNA sequence became feasible.
o Recombinant technology begins with the isolation of a gene of interest (target gene). The target gene is
then inserted into the plasmid or phage (vector) to form replicon.
o The replicon is then introduced into host cells to clone and either express the protein or not.
o The cloned replicon is referred to as recombinant DNA. The procedure is called recombinant DNA
technology. Cloning is necessary to produce numerous copies of the DNA since the initial supply is
inadequate to insert into host cells.
o Some other terms are also in common use to describe genetic engineering.
For example, the members of a colony of bacterial cells that arise from a single cell on a petri plate
are clones. Molecular biology has borrowed the term to mean a collection of molecules or cells all identical
to an original molecule or cell.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
A series of procedures used to join together (recombine) DNA segments. A recombinant DNA
molecule is constructed (recombined) from segments from 2 or more different DNA molecules. Under
certain conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can enter a cell and replicate there, autonomously (on its
own) or after it has become integrated into a chromosome.
These steps include isolating of the target gene and the vector, specific cutting of DNA at defined
sites, joining or splicing of DNA fragments, transforming of replicon to host cell, cloning, selecting of the
positive cells containing recombinant DNA, and either express or not in the end.
DNA molecules that are constructed with DNA from different sources are called recombinant DNA
molecules. Recombinant DNA molecules are created in nature more often than in the laboratory;
o For example, every time a bacteria phage or eukaryotic virus infects its host cell and integrates its DNA
into the host genome, a recombinant is created.
o Occasionally, these viruses pick up a fragment of host DNA when they excise from their host’s genome;
these naturally occurring recombinant DNA molecules have been used to study some genes.
Both vector and target DNA molecules can be prepared by a variety of routine methods, which are
not discussed here. In some cases, the target DNA is synthesized in vitro.
As we will see, cleaving DNA to generate fragments of defined length, or with specific endpoints, is
crucial to recombinant DNA technology. The DNA fragment of interest is called insert DNA. In the
laboratory, DNA is usually cleaved by treating it with commercially produced nucleases and restriction
endonucleases.
A recombinant DNA molecule is usually formed by cleaving the DNA of interest to yield insert DNA
and then ligating the insert DNA to vector DNA (recombinant DNA or chimeric DNA). DNA fragments are
typically joined using DNA ligase (also commercially produced). Ex. : T4 DNA Ligase
In order to be propagated, the recombinant DNA molecule (insert DNA joined to vector DNA) must
be introduced into a compatible host cell where it can replicate. The direct uptake of foreign DNA by a host
cell is called genetic transformation (or transformation). Recombinant DNA can also be packaged into
virus particles and transferred to host cells by transfection.
Cloning vectors allow insert DNA to be replicated and, in some cases, expressed in a host cell. The
ability to clone and express DNA efficiently depends on the choice of appropriate vectors and hosts.
Vectors usually contain easily scored genetic markers, or genes that allow the selection of host cells that
have taken up foreign DNA. The identification of a particular DNA fragment usually involves an additional
step—screening a large number of recombinant DNA clones. This is almost always the most difficult step
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
– Earth is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years old based on the rock and fossil record.
Largest Division: Eons, divided into Eras: Eras are divided into Periods
PreCambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, Ceno – recent ,Meso – middle, Paleo – ancient, Zoic - life
“Age of Bacteria” , Oldest Era, Longest Era because we know so little about the earth that long ago
Very little life: only basic forms including bacteria, the oldest fossils ever found were seaweed,
jellyfish and worms
Photosynthesis of the seaweed added oxygen to the early atmosphere, paving way for land life
Key Events of Precambrian time
Acasta Gneiss is dated at 3.96 bya. It is near Yellowknife Lake
, NWT Canada.
Zircons possibly a bit older in Australia
Formation of Continents
Continents did not always exist but grew from the chemical
differentiation of early, mafic magmas in the young hot earth.
Floating “Volcanic Islands” of less dense higher silica magmas.
Island Arcs and other terranes accrete to edge of small continents as intervening ocean crust is subducted.
Formation of Enzymes
1950's and 1960's experiments produced amino acids by combining atmospheric gases, electrical
sparks and heat. Further experiments demonstrated that drying and re-wetting of these organic
compounds could produce cell-like membranes and simple proteins.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Those experiments…
– But organic compounds in shallow pools would have been instantly destroyed by
ultraviolet radiation. Need an Oxygen-rich atmosphere to make an Ozone-Layer
– Modern theory life started at deep sea vents near “Black smokers”
Stanley L. Miller, working in the
– 2 bya atmosphere has oxygen O2 and ozone O3 which blocks UV laboratory of Harold C. Urey at the
University of Chicago.
DNA => mRNA, TRNAaa bound to mRNA in Ribosomes; Makes chain of amino acids (protein)
The DNA sequence in genes is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA). Ribosomes then read the
information in this RNA and use it to produce proteins. Ribosomes do this by binding to a messenger RNA
and using it as a template for the correct sequence of amino acids in a particular protein.
The amino acids are attached to transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one part of the
ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA sequence. The attached amino acids are then joined together by
another part of the ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, "reading" its sequence and producing
a chain of amino acids.
– Archaebacteria are the most primitive fossil life forms. (Likely ancestors of all life)
Primitive Archaebacteria are hyperthermophiles that thrive near boiling point of water.
– Archean life probably arose in deep oceans hydrothermal environment; volcanic vents that would
have formed near Mid-Ocean Ridges. Vents provide:
They include the methane forming, the salt loving and the heat loving bacteria.
Example: Methane Forming/ the methanogenic bacteria create Adenosine Tri Phosphate ATP by reducing
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using hydrogen, formate, or methanol. As a result methane is
liberated. This can only be done in the absence of free oxygen.
Fossil Bacteria
– More common in upper Archean as shallow water shelves began to form along
margins of early continents.
• Molds of individual bacterial cells found in Late Archean and Proterozoic cherts.
Chroococcalean 0.85 bya
Evolution of Eukaryotes Palaeolyngbya 1. bya
• Probably began as a endosymbiotic relationship between different prokaryotes. Grypania 2.1 bya
• Early eukaryotes “ate” but could not digest a cell which became a mitochondria. oxidation
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Ediacara Fauna
Proterozoic Life: First metazoans evolve 580-542 mya.
Paleozoic Era: Life starts in the seas and moves onto land (570 to 225 mya)
Cambrian Period Cambrian Explosion – Most major animal phyla are 550-505 mya;
(570-500 mya) found in the fossil record (mostly aquatic first trilobites, forams,
invertebrates with exoskeletons). brachiopods, nautiloids,
clams, snails, crustaceans,
Burgess Shale – major fossil site located in
crinoids, gastropods,
Canadian Rockies
corals, protozoans
Silurian Period 1st jawed fish (later evolved into sharks-made of 438-408mya;
(435-395 mya) cartilage). First land plants, ferns,
Ozone (O3) layer formed which blocks harmful UV sharks, boney fish,
radiation; life could evolve on land. scorpion (eurypterid)
1st land plants (mosses & ferns) followed by 1st
land animals (arthropods-spiders & scorpions).
Devonian Period “Age of the Fish” (giant armored fish). 408-360 mya;
(395-345 mya) 1st bony fish (scales and swim bladder for First insects, tetrapods,
buoyancy). ammonites, placoderms
1st vertebrates on land – amphibians (early tetrapods,
Evolved from the lobed-fin fish which include Acanthostega and
some species of lungfish. Icthyostega)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Began approximately 245 mya and ends about 66 mya after a major mass extinction.
Mesozoic Reptiles
Dinosaurs Myths
Had many different forms and many had ‘armor’ to protect themselves i.e. Triceratops and Ankylosaurus
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Some were VERY large and all could swim VERY fast
o Were very good flyers o Small (~ 1 foot) and very large (~ 16 feet)
Archaeopteryx have bones that are hollow and feathers like birds
(Was this an evolutionary link?)
It is the last period when Dinosaurs lived for it ends with a mass extinction around 66 mya.
First plants with flowers (Could insects have helped the flowering plants evolve?)
66 million years ago, a ~10 km wide meteorite struck the Earth near what is now Mexico.
o The impact caused shock waves, tidal waves, and sent a tremendous amount of dust into the
atmosphere
o As the dust re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere, it would have instantly heated the atmosphere causing
tremendous forest fires
o The dust could have caused the Earth’s climate to cool in the long-run by blocking sunlight
o Plants, animals, etc went extinct due to the climate changes and competition between organisms
An element that is very rare in Earth rocks and very common in meteorites
The layer of rocks above the last dinosaur bones contains ~160 times ‘normal’ levels of iridium
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Early Cenozoic
India begins its collision with Asia, causing the Himalayas to be lifted
Formation of the “Ring of Fire”
Australia separates from Antarctica
The demise of the dinosaurs allows not only mammals, but birds to diversify
and flourish. Birds got very large (op to 10ft tall) and were predatory. Songbirds also develop in
this time period.
First flowering plants develop – angiosperms
The climate of the Paleogene was notably drier than previous periods
o Also much warmer than it is currently and Lead to more land being above sea level
o Allowed for the evolution of first grasses and therefore, grazing mammals (like horses)
evolve
o All major mammal groups are in place by the middle of the Cenozoic
o Sharks take over as the dominant predator in the sea, filling the
niche left by extinct mosasaurs and pleisosaurs
• North and South America join, Iceland emerges from the sea, and Polar Ice Caps form
The Pliestocene (1.6 mya – 10,000) is often referred to as the “Ice Age”
It leads to sea level retreats and advances and Great Lakes formation.
Other major event includes the eruption of the Yellowstone caldera and (even worse!) the eruption of
the Toba caldera which nearly wipes out humans
(Pleistocene) Megafauna refers to the extreme large mammals that dominated this time period
• Include the Mammoth, Mastodon, Saber-cat, Giant Sloth and Giant Beaver (among others)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Pleistocene Megafauna
Pleistocene Extinction
At the end of the last Ice Age (about 18,000 - 12,000 ya) most of the large mammals went extinct
This extinction event only affected large mammals. Probable causes include climate changes
affecting the web chain and overkill by early humans
Still plenty of room for doubt. One question – is this extinction event a thing of the past, or is it
continuing today?????
HUMAN EVOLUTION
I. Primates
Humans belong to the group of mammals called primates which also includes all monkeys and apes.
The oldest primate fossil is at 65 Myo and at 55 Mya, Primates Split Into 2 Groups:
1. Prosimians-Pre-Monkey
Small, W/Large Forward Facing Eyes. Nocturnal, Insect Eaters, Tree Dwellers. Prehensile Tail
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Scientists have not found the first Hominid ancestor that separated from
the apes. Fossil evidence of other hominids indicates that this may have
occurred 5-8 Million Years Ago
The oldest hominid fossil is 6.0 million years. The genus Australopithecus
were around 3.5-4.4mya
Are also known as “Southern Ape”. It was discovered in South Africa in 1924
by Raymond Dart. Found child’s skill of an Australopithecus africanus
which lived around 2.7-2.1 mya
a. Australopithecus Discoveries
1936 - Hip bone fossil found. Anthropologists determine Bi-pedalism, upright walking
1974 – Donald Johanson found a small female skeleton Lucy – A. Afarensis lived 3-4 mya
They are the direct ancestor of modern humans. In 1964, discovered in Africa.
Anthropologists found tools and weapons and are ½ size of modern humans.
(also bigger brains)
1 million years ago, they are the first hominid that migrated out of Africa into Europe and Asia.
They may have been hunters and gatherers. Have larger cranium than the H. habilis.
It was hypothesized that they may have lived in shelters and wore animal hides;
lived during an Ice Age
d. Homo sapiens aka ‘Wise Man’ with fossils date around 500 to 300 thousand years old
Neanderthal Cro-magnon
They lived throughout Europe 150-30k 1868 found in France by Louis Lartet
years ago Lived 100 thousand years ago
Brain size the same as modern Cave paintings and tool use
humans Narrower nasal opening
They may have spoken Small, pointed chin
Hyoid bone in throat found with
some fossils
Heavy brow ridge
Small chin and large, broad nose
Tools at grave, recent evidence of cave
paintings
What happened to Neanderthals?
1. Did they get out competed by Cro-Magnon?
2. Did they interbreed with them?
(Evidence most people of European ancestry have 1-4% Neanderthal DNA in
their DNA Sequence)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
1. Artificial Selection
Domesticated breeds have not always been in their current form. This change has been achieved by
repeatedly selecting for breeding the individuals most suited to human uses. This shows that selection
can cause evolution.
Genetic Variation
Individuals in a species carry different alleles (An allele is an alternative form of a gene (one member
of a pair) that is located at a specific positionon a specific chromosome.
Any change in gene (and allele) frequencies within a population or species is Evolution
2. Natural Selection
Affects variation in a population as the better adapted (more fit) individuals to their environment
survive and reproduce, passing on their genes to the successive generations increasing the frequency of
favourable alleles in the population.
Imagine that green beetles are easier for birds to spot (and hence, eat). Brown beetles are a little more
likely to survive to produce offspring. They pass their genes for brown coloration on to their offspring. So
in the next generation, brown beetles are more common than in the previous generation.
3. Individuals with advantageous variations survive and pass on their variations to the next generation.
4. Overtime, offspring with certain advantageous variations make up most of the population
Natural selection and selective breeding can both produce changes in animals and plants.
The difference between the two is that natural selection occurs in nature, but selective breeding only
occurs when humans intervene.
Most of the peppered moths in the area were light colored with dark spots.
As the industrial revolution progressed, the tree trunks became covered with soot and
turned dark.
Over a period of 45 years, the dark variety of the peppered moth became more common.
Survival of the fittest –the organism best fit for the environment may survive and pass its favorable
adaption/variation down to the next generation. Darker moths were now better hidden from predators
and survived in greater numbers, living to reproduce, pass their now favorable trait on and continue to
increase in numbers.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
3. Select the best offspring from parents to breed the next generation
3. Gene Flow
Gene flow can introduce new alleles into a gene pool or can change allele frequencies.
The overall effect of gene flow is to counteract natural selection by creating less differences between
populations. Example is when a plant pollen is being blown into a new area.
This what happens when two or more populations interbreed. This generally increases genetic diversity.
Imagine two populations of squirrels on opposite sides of a river. The squirrels on the west side have
bushier tails than those on the east side as a result of three different genes that code for tail bushiness. If a
tree falls over the river and the squirrels are able to scamper across it to mate with the other population,
gene flow occurs.
4. Genetic drift
The change in allele frequencies as a result of chance processes. These changes are much more
pronounced in small populations. Directly related to the population numbers.
Smaller population sizes are more susceptible to genetic drift than larger populations because there is
a greater chance that a rare allele will be lost.
Imagine that in one generation, two brown beetles happened to have four offspring survive to
reproduce. Several green beetles were killed when someone stepped on them and had no offspring. The
next generation would have a few more brown beetles than the previous generation—but just by chance.
These chance changes from generation to generation are known as genetic drift.
a. The Founder Effect occurs when a new colony is started by a few members of original population
Small population that branches off from a larger one may or may not be genetically representative of
the larger population from which it was derived.
Only a fraction of the total genetic diversity of the original gene pool is represented
in these few individuals.
Ex.: The Afrikaner population of Dutch settlers in South Africa is descended mainly
from a few colonists. Today, the Afrikaner population has an unusually high
frequency of the gene that causes Huntington’s disease, because those original Dutch
colonists just happened to carry that gene with unusually high frequency. This effect
is easy to recognize in genetic diseases, but of course, the frequencies of all sorts of
genes are affected by founder events.
The event may eliminate alleles entirely or also cause other alleles to be over-represented in a gene pool.
Ex. : Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a population bottleneck
humans inflicted on them in the 1890s. Hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals
at the end of the 19th century. Their population has since rebounded to over 30,000 but their genes still
carry the marks of this bottleneck. They have much less genetic variation than a population of southern
elephant seals that was not so intensely hunted. (also cheetahs hehe)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Bottleneck is any kind of event that reduces the population significantly like
earthquake, flood, disease.
Mutations provide the raw material on which natural selection can act.
Can be neutral, harmful or beneficial (give an individual a better chance for survival).
Mutation is a change in DNA the hereditary material of life. An organism’s DNA affects how it looks,
how it behaves, and its physiology—all aspects of its life. So a change in an organism’s DNA can cause
changes in all aspects of its life.
Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and won’t be passed onto offspring.
For example, the golden color on half of a Red Delicious apple was caused by a somatic mutation. The
seeds of this apple do not carry the mutation.
The only mutations that matter to large-scale evolution are those that can be passed on to offspring.
These occur in reproductive cells like eggs and sperm and are called germ line mutations.
A single germ line mutation can have a range of effects: No, Small, or Big Changes occurs in phenotype.
Some really important phenotypic changes, like DDT resistance in insects are sometimes caused by
single mutations. A single mutation can also have strong negative effects for the organism.
Mutations that cause the death of an organism are called lethals —and it doesn't get more negative
than that.
Causes of Mutations
6. Non-random mating/Recombination
Sexual reproduction results in variation of traits in offspring as a result of crossing over in meiosis
and mutations. Genetic shuffling is a source of variation.
Sexual selection occurs when certain traits increase mating success. There are two types:
1. Argued from evidence that species inhabiting Earth today descended from
ancestral species
2. Proposed a mechanism for evolution Natural Selection
Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation because of differences in their genes
Genes that allow individuals to survive are then passed on to their offspring)
Individuals poorly adapted are less likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their genes
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Modern Horses (Equus) began to develop 2 mya. As a result of changes in the global climate, they
lived in grasslands and ate grass. They developed long legs and one toe (hoof) to help the horse run faster
from predators and longer teeth to eat the grass.
Galapagos Islands in 1850’s Charles Darwin described how organisms might change over time (5 yrs)
In each generation of a species, individuals have slight differences. Sometimes these variations make
an individual more successful in its environment (more food, live longer, reproduce more, and attract better
mates). Then individual may then reproduce and pass this variation on to its offspring.
Variations in individuals are controlled by genes. Individuals have no control over what variations
they will have. Useful variations are NOT ALWAYS passed on. Variations that are not useful may also be
passed on.
Selective Breeding of Horses and Dogs (Ancient Wild Horses Help Unlock Past)
Aug. 23, 2011 — An international team of researchers has used ancient DNA to produce compelling
evidence that the lack of genetic diversity in modern stallions is the result of the “domestication” process.
Horses were first domesticated for transportation, agricultural work and warfare
The cow above has been selectively bred for meat. She produces enough milk to feed one calf. Her
calf will milk her six times per day. She only needs a small udder.
The picture above shows a dairy cow. She has been bred for
milk. She has been selectively bred to produce enough milk for ten
calves, but her calf is removed from her shortly after birth. Most cows
are only milked twice a day. It may have to carry over 20 liters of milk.
Many cows go lame through carrying all this milk
The chickens on the left are egg-laying hens. They have been selectively bred to lay lots of eggs,
but they grow at a normal rate. Most are still kept in battery cages, though this system is to be banned in
2012. The chickens on the right are broiler chickens. They have been bred for meat. They grow twice as
quickly and are usually slaughtered at six weeks old. Most meat chickens are kept intensively in large
sheds. You can click on the link to read more about these chickens.
Hybrid Fruits include Nectarcots, Pluots, and Peacotums. ( a peach/apricot/ plum hybrid that
has a texture of a peach, but tastes like a blend of plum and apricot.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876) is one of the seminal works in the field.
o Fossil record
o Homologous structures
o Vestigial structures
o Biochemical evidence
o Embryological development
o Geographical Location
The fossil record shows a sequence from simple bacteria to more complicated
organisms through time and provides the most compelling evidence for evolution.
All the pieces of evidence that we have discussed so far point to the inter-
relatedness of all living things and their evolution from a single common ancestor.
However, perhaps the most compelling piece of evidence in support of evolution is the
fossil record itself. The fossil record shows a sequence from simple bacteria in the oldest
rocks through to more complicated organisms like dinosaurs and humans in much
younger rocks. It shows that different species arose at different times and, as we see in the
next slide, in many cases there are clear transitions from one species, or group, to another.
Transitional fossils
Many fossils show a clear transition from one species, or group, to another.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Fossils in older layers are more primitive than those in the upper layers.
Types of Fossils
Dating of Fossils
2. Homologous Structures – bodily structures that are similar in structure, but different in function,
due to sharing a common ancestor. The study of anatomy provides evidence for evolution.
Analogous Structures – bodily structures that similar in function, but not in structure. It is not an
evidence of Common Ancestry. It is a kind of comparative anatomy.
3. Vestigial Structures – structures that serve no function but useful structures in earlier ancestors.
Structural patterns are clues to the history of a species. Vestigial Structured are
remnants of organs or structures that had function in an early ancestor.
The coccyx is a much reduced version of an ancestral tail, which was formerly
adapted to aid balance and climbing. Another vestigial structure in humans is the
appendix. Pythons have tiny femurs (leg bone)
Examples: Ear muscles, Ostrich wings, Wisdom teeth, Whale and snake pelvis/hind legs.
4. Embryological Development
Embryo is a fertilized egg that will or is in the process of growing into a new individual.
All vertebrates have gill pouches sometime during their early development.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Embryology
Vertebrates all share gill slits and a tail in their early embryo
stage; thus they share a common ancestor.
5. Molecular/Biochemical Evidence
Two closely-related organisms will have similar DNA, RNA, and protein
(amino acid sequences). This also gives evidence of a common ancestor.
Examples of Biochemical Compounds: DNA, Cyt C, 20 amino acids and some enzymes
Cytochrome c
During the Jurassic Period, 160 million years ago, all the Southern Hemisphere landmasses were
joined together and you could have walked from Australia to South America across what is present day
Antarctica. Fossil evidence shows that marsupials evolved in the Jurassic but after the continents started to
break-up, the marsupials must have got separated into two populations, one in the Americas and the other
in Australasia. In fact fossil marsupials have even been found in Antarctica and South Africa as well,
providing evidence that that these continents acted as a land bridge connecting the two populations for a
time.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and groups organisms according to their
characteristics and evolutionary history.
Organisms were first classified more than 2,000 years ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Carolus Linnaeus (mid-1700’)s was a Swedish biologist who established a simple system
for classifying and naming organisms.
He developed a Hierarchy (a ranking system) for classifying organisms that is the Basis
for Modern Taxonomy. For this reason, he is considered to be “father” of modern taxonomy.
His system is still being used today.His system allowed organisms to be grouped with similar organisms.
He first divided all organisms into two Kingdoms, Plantae (Plants) AND Animalia (animals). This was
the same as Aristotle’s main categories.
Modern system: Kingdom Phylum (division) Class Order Family Genus Species
Note: Phyla and Family were not in Linnaeus’ classification system but were added by modern scientists.
The genus and species comprises the scientific name of an organism.
When we use the Latin name for an organism, we always capitalize the Genus (first part) but not the
species identifier (second part).
We also print the name in Italics or Underline them or the name can be abbreviated For example:
Acer rubrum (scientific name) - red maple tree (common name) or Acer rubrum or A. rubrum
Acer is the Latin name for Maple (genus) while rubrum is the Latin word for Red (species)
Homo because of our large brain and upright posture. sapiens from our intelligence and ability to speak
Using patterns of shared derived traits, biologists used cladisitcs to construct a branching diagram
called a cladogram. A cladogram shows show a sequence in which different groups of organisms evolved
The key to Cladistics is identifying morphological, physiological, molecular, or behavioral traits that
differ among the organism being studied and that can be attributed a common ancestor.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Why many scientists group viruses in a category separate from living things?
o Viruses have no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles, or cell membrane, so they cannot carry out cellular
functions. They are very small, size ranges from 20nm to 250 nm (size of small bacteria)
o Only able to replicate by infecting cells and using the organelles and enzymes within
o Consists of two parts: a nucleic acid and a protein coat called a capsid
o Some viruses have a membrane-like structure outside the capsid called an envelope
Cladistics
Derived characteristic: similarity that is inherited from the most recent common ancestor of an entire
group. Ancestral: similarity that arose prior to the common ancestor of the group
In cladistics, only shared derived characters are considered informative about evolutionary relationships
To use the cladistic method character variation must be identified as ancestral or derived
Characters can be any aspect of the phenotype such as: Morphology, Physiology, Behavior and DNA
Characters should exist in recognizable character states. Example: Teeth in amniote vertebrates has two
states, present in most mammals and reptiles and absence in birds and turtles.
• Presence of lungs in mammals is an ancestral feature; also present in amphibians and reptiles
Construction of a cladogram
• Polarize characteristics
• Clade: species that share a common ancestor as indicated by the possession of shared derived
characters. Clades are evolutionary units and refer to a common ancestor and all descendants
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• Homoplasy: a shared character state that has not been inherited from a common ancestor
• If there are conflicts among characters, use the principle of parsimony which favors the hypothesis
that requires the fewest assumptions. It says the phylogenetic tree that requires the fewest
evolutionary changes is the one you should assume is correct.
Kingdom Animalia
• Lack cell walls (unlike Plants and Fungi) ; Lack rigid cell walls; fungi
absorb their nutrients by excreting enzymes into the substrate
• Heterotrophic, by ingestion – Animals obtain their nourishment by ingesting other organisms (unlike
Fungi)
• Most animals are mobile (Except sponges, sessile animals have muscle fibers for movement in sudden
or short bursts)
• Sexual reproduction; haploid cells fuse directly to produce zygote, and no alternation of generations
Radial… in such a way that any plane passing through the central axis divides the
organisms into halves that are approximate mirror images; evolved first in
Cnidarias (jellyfish)
Dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom); anterior (front) and dorsal (back);
• Bilateral symmetry – body has a right and a left half that are mirror images of
each other (advanced)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Evolution of a body cavity enabled the evolution of supporting organ systems and a means for
distributing materials
The body cavity – a space surrounded by mesodermal tissue formed during development (Coelom)
• Three germ layers: Ectoderm (outside), Mesoderm (middle), and Endoderm (inside)
*Three germ layers in most animals (Cnidarians only have endo and ecto); Sponges lack any germ layers
*Germ layers develop into different organ systems (skin, brain, etc) - development
Kingdom: Animalia
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Insects, spiders, scorpions, shellfish (crustaceans), centipedes (1 pr legs per segment), millipedes (2 pr)
Approx. 2/3 of all named species are arthropods (80% of that are insects, most of which are beetles)
b. A hollow, dorsal nerve cord; develops into spinal cord and brain
d. An endostyle* – longitudinal ciliated groove in pharynx, produces mucus to capture food particles
This tail extends beyond anus, nearly all other animals have a terminal anus
2. Multicellular 4. Heterotrophic
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Urochordata
tunicates
Class Ascidiacea Solitary e.g. Styela montereyensis
Colonial - in groups but with own tunic
Compound Colonial - colonial with shared tunic
Sea Squirts
Class Thaliacea Salps (free swimming) , planktonic
Pyrosoma
Colonial salp (bioluminescent)
Class Larvacea Gelatinous house, planktonic
Oikopleura
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Lancet Strictly marine
Live buried in sand with head sticking out
Filter Feeders
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Chondrichthyes Includes sharks, skates, rays, and chimera
(cartilaginous fishes) • Heterocercal tail
• Two dorsal fins
• Paired pectorals
• 5-7 gill slits
• ureoosmotic
Class Osteichthyes • Swim bladder
(bony fishes) • Operculum (gill cover)
• Homocercal tail
• Scales of bony origin
– Smooth cycloid
– Spiny ctenoid
Class Amphibia There are about 3,500 species of amphibians
Characteristics include:
Cold blooded
Returns to water to breed
Metamorphosis
Some are toxic
Estivation-dry and hot , Hibernation- cold
Salamander, newt, mudpuppy, poison arrow frog, Coqui, Rana cancrivora
Class Reptilia There are about 6,500 species of reptiles
Characteristics include:
Cold blooded
Have scales
Amniotic egg
Dry skin
2 chambered heart (except crocks)
Ex: Marine iguana, Saltwater crocodile, marine turtle and sea snake
Class Aves Characteristics include:
Warm blooded, Feathers and wings
Hollow bones, Horny bill
Lungs have air sacks, Hard egg shell
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Characteristics
The Class Mammalia is well represented in Southern Africa. There are 293 species of land mammals and
37 species of marine mammals in the Southern African subregion. That is 330 of the around 5000 mammal
species found on Earth!
Class Mammalia -- all mammals share three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones;
hair; and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands.
Mammals hear sounds after they are transmitted from the outside world to their inner ears by a chain of
three bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes. Two of these, the malleus and incus, are derived from bones
involved in jaw articulation in most other vertebrates.
Mammals have hair. Adults of some species lose most of their hair, but hair is present at least during
some phase of the ontogeny of all species. Mammalian hair, made of a protein called keratin, serves at least
four functions. First, it slows the exchange of heat with the environment (insulation). Second, specialized
hairs (whiskers or "vibrissae") have a sensory function, letting the owner know when it is in contact with
an object in its external environment. These hairs are often richly innervated and well-supplied with
muscles that control their position. Third, through their color and pattern, hairs affect the appearance of a
mammal. They may serve to camouflage, to announce the presence of especially good defense systems (for
example, the conspicuous color pattern of a skunk is a warning to predators), or to communicate social
information (for example, threats, such as the erect hair on the back of a wolf; sex, such as the different
colors of male and female capuchin monkeys; presence of danger, such as the white underside of the tail of
a whitetailed deer). Fourth, hair provides some protection, either simply by providing an additional
protective layer (against abrasion or sunburn, for example) or by taking on the form of dangerous spines
that deter predators (porcupines, spiny rats, others).
Mammals feed their newborn young with milk, a substance rich in fats and protein that is produced by
modified sweat glands called mammary glands. These glands, which take a variety of shapes, are usually
located on the ventral surface of females along paths that run from the chest region to the groin. They vary
in number from two (one right, one left, as in humans) to a dozen or more.
Other characteristics found in most mammals include highly differentiated teeth; teeth are replaced just
once during an individual's life (this condition is called diphyodonty, and the first set is called "milk teeth);
a lower jaw made up of a single bone, the dentary; four-chambered hearts, a secondary palate separating
air and food passages in the mouth; a muscular diaphragm separating thoracic and abdominal cavities;
highly developed brain; endothermy and homeothermy; separate sexes with the sex of an embryo being
determined by the presence of a Y or 2 X chromosomes; and internal fertilization.
The Class Mammalia includes around 5000 species placed in 26 orders (systematists do not yet agree
on the exact number or on how some orders are related to others). Mammals can be found in all continents
and seas. In part because of their high metabolic rates (associated with homeothermy and endothermy),
they often play an ecological role that seems disproportionately large compared to their numerical
abundance.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Order – Primates
Characteristics and origins Primate characteristics
233 living species placed in 13 families 1. Arborial
most have long arms, prehensile (grasping) tail and hands 2. Grasping hands
with fingernails 3. Finger nails & finger pads with ridges
stereoscopic vision with eyes in front of head 4. Binocular vision
brain adapted for learning 5. Diurnal
probably arose about 65 mya 6. Colour vision
early primates were more like rodents that lived in trees 7. Large brain
8. High degree of parental care
9. Long childhood
Prosimians Muzzel
Immobile upper lip
Developed sense of smell
Ears can orientate
Evolved from about 63 Ma Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)
Old World Narrow nose
Monkeys Tail (when present) never
prehensile
Mostly diurnal Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)
New World Split from the old world
Monkeys monkeys about 40 Ma
Flat-nosed
More premolars
Howler monkey (Alouatta sp.)
Long tails, some prehensile
Apes (From left to right)
Gibbon (Hyolabates lar)
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Gorilla gorilla
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
FROG SKELETON
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
a. Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system
b. Sensations are action potentials; That reach the brain via sensory neurons
c. Once the brain is aware of sensations; It interprets them, giving the perception of stimuli
Sensations and perceptions begin with sensory reception, the detection of stimuli by sensory receptors.
a. Sensory Transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into a change in the membrane
potential of a sensory receptor.
This change in the membrane potential is known as a receptor potential. Many sensory receptors are
extremely sensitive with the ability to detect the smallest physical unit of stimulus possible
Some sensory cells generate action potentials, which are transmitted to the CNS (Central Nervous System)
This occurs at all levels of the nervous system. Some receptor potentials are integrated
through summation. Another type of integration is sensory adaptation (a decrease in
responsiveness during continued stimulation)
Based on the energy they transduce, sensory receptors fall into five categories:
The mammalian sense of touch relies on mechanoreceptors that are the dendrites of sensory neurons.
2. Chemoreceptors include
General receptors that transmit information about the total solute concentration of a
solution.
Specific receptors that respond to individual kinds of molecules.
Two of the most sensitive and specific chemoreceptors known are present in the antennae of
the male silkworm moth that can detect pheromones or sex attractants.
Some snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors that detect body
heat of prey against a colder background.
This rattlesnake and other pit vipers have a pair of infrared receptors, one between each
eye and nostril. The organs are sensitive enough to detect the infrared radiation emitted by
a warm mouse a meter away. The snake moves its head from side to side until the radiation
is detected equally by the two receptors, indicating that the mouse is straight ahead.
Many mammals appear to use the Earth’s magnetic field lines to orient
themselves as they migrate.
Such as these beluga whales, apparently sense Earth’s magnetic field and use the
information, along with other cues, for orientation.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Many arthropods sense sounds with body hairs that vibrate or with localized
‘ears’ consisting of a tympanic membrane and receptor cells.
1. Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals in most terrestrial vertebrates, the sensory organs for hearing
and equilibrium are closely associated in the ear.
Vibrating objects create percussion waves in the air that cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
The three bones of the middle ear transmit the vibrations to the oval window on the cochlea.
These vibrations create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea that travel through
the vestibular canal and ultimately strike the round window
Human ears with stereo capability can hear a broad range of sound but other
animals have more complex and sensitive ears and can hear a wider or different range of
frequencies. This young antelope has large ears which it can move to focus sounds. Bats
depend on their antennae-like ears to determine distances using echolocation, i.e.
bouncing changing sounds off of objects
2. Smelling
The perceptions of gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell) are both dependent on chemoreceptors that
detect specific chemicals in the environment. Meanwhile, the taste receptors of insects are located within
sensory hairs called sensilla which are located on the feet and in mouthparts.
Human smell is one of our weakest senses, far surpassed by dogs who are 10, 000 times more sensitive
and bears whose ability to smell is 7 times more sensitive than dogs.
3. Tasting, receptor cells for taste in humans are modified epithelial cells organized into taste buds.
These are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (elicited by glutamate)
Olfactory receptor cells are neurons that line the upper portion of
the nasal cavity. When odorant molecules bind to specific receptors,
4. Vision
Many types of light detectors have evolved in the animal kingdom and may be homologous.
Many invertebrates have some sort of light-detecting organ. One of the simplest is
the eye cup of planarians which provides information about light intensity and
direction but does not form images
Eyesight is probably the strongest human sense with full color stereoscopic
vision and a remarkable ability for edge detection. But other animals such as
eagles have 3.6 times the human visual acuity. Some insects have a compound
eye with a fisheye view (180 degrees) of the world that can see objects in focus
both near and far at the same time.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
The eyes of vertebrates are camera-like but they evolved independently and differ from the single-lens
eyes of invertebrates. The main parts of the vertebrate eye are
However, two senses that humans don't have are electroreception and magnetoreception
1. Hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held pressure in a closed body compartment. This is the main
type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes and annelids.
Cranium (8)
Frontal (1) Occipital (1) Temporal (2) PECTORAL
Parietal (2) Sphenoid (2) 2 clavicle 2 scapula
GIRDLE (4)
SKULL (22) Facial (14)
(+6 associated bones) Nasal (2) Maxilla (2) Zygomatic (2) PELVIC
+ 1 hyoid Mandible (1) Palatine (2) Lacrimal (2) GIRDLE (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2) Vomer (1)
Humerus (2) Radius (2)
Auditory Ossicles (6) UPPER Ulna (2) Carpals (16)
6 bones, 1 hyoid Metacarpal (10)
LIMBS (60)
Phalanges (28)
Vertebrae (24)
VERTEBRAL
Cervical (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5)
COLUMN (26)
1 sacrum + 1 coccyx Femur (2) Patella (2)
LOWER
Tibia (2) Fibula (2)
LIMBS (60)
Tarsal (14) Metacarpal (10)
Ribs (24) Phalanges (28)
THORACIC (26) True (14) False (6) Floating (4)
1 sternum
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Skull forms a larger cranial cavity and also forms the nasal cavity, the orbits, paranasal sinuses
Mandible and auditory ossicles are the only movable skull bones
Cranial bones also: attach to membranes called meninges -stabilize positions of the brain, blood vessels
-outer surface provides large areas for muscle attachment that move the head or provide facial expressions
The Bony
Thorax
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Acetylcholine causes skeletal muscle to contract. Following contraction, muscles release the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase which breaks down acetylcholine and allows muscle to relax.
Smooth muscle; Peristalsis – rhythmic contraction that pushes substances through tubes of the body
Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition In general,
animals fall into three categories:
Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae while Carnivores eat other animals
Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae, most animals are opportunistic feeders
Concept 1: An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic molecules, and essential nutrients
2. Organic building blocks, such as organic carbon and organic nitrogen, to synthesize
a variety of organic molecules
3. Essential nutrients, which are required by cells and must be obtained from dietary sources; there are
four classes of essential nutrients:
Animals require 20 amino acids and can synthesize about half from molecules in their diet. The remaining
amino acids, the essential amino acids, must be obtained from food in preassembled form
Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential amino acids and are thus “complete” proteins
Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid composition. Individuals who eat only plant proteins
need to eat specific plant combinations to get all the essential amino acids
Some animals have adaptations that help them through periods when their bodies demand
extraordinary amounts of protein
Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need. The essential fatty acids must be obtained
from the diet and include certain unsaturated fatty acids (i.e., fatty acids with one or more double bonds)
13 vitamins are essential for humans. Vitamins are grouped into categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble
d. Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts. Ingesting large
amounts of some minerals can upset homeostatic balance
Dietary Deficiencies
Malnourishment is the long-term absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients. Deficiencies
in essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease, and death
“Golden Rice” is an engineered strain of rice w/beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in the body
Undernutrition results when a diet does not provide enough chemical energy. An undernourished
individual will
o Use up stored fat and carbohydrates o Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Genetic defects that disrupt food uptake provide information about human nutrition
– For example, hemochromatosis causes iron buildup without excessive iron intake
Insights into human nutrition have come from epidemiology, the study of human health and disease
in populations.
Neural tube defects were found to be the result of a deficiency in folic acid in pregnant mothers
Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders, which sift small food
particles from the water.
Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes; these are used
to build larger molecules. In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in
molecules with the addition of water
These compartments reduce the risk of an animal digesting its own cells and tissues.
• Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes
• It occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal’s body
• Animals with simple body plans have a gastrovascular cavity that functions in both
digestion and distribution of nutrients
More complex animals have a digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an
anus. This digestive tube is called a complete digestive tract or an alimentary canal
• It can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption in a stepwise fashion
Concept 3: Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive
system
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
The first stage of digestion is mechanical and takes place in the oral cavity
Teeth chew food into smaller particles that are exposed to salivary
amylase, initiating breakdown of glucose polymers.
• The tongue shapes food into a bolus and provides help with swallowing
• The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea
The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis
Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx, the
upper part of the respiratory tract. Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails and food or liquids
reach the windpipe
• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme
• Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused mainly by the bacterium Heliobacter pylori
Stomach Dynamics
Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents
Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into the small intestine
The small intestine is the longest section of the alimentary canal. It is the major organ of digestion and
absorption
The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum, where chyme from the stomach mixes with
digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself
Pancreas produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of the duodenum
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells
Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis moves the chyme and digestive juices along the small
intestine. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption
of nutrients and water.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart.
The liver regulates nutrient distribution, interconverts many organic molecules, and
detoxifies many organic molecules. Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and
monoglycerides and recombine them into triglycerides.
These fats are coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins to form water-
soluble chylomicrons
Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing lymph to large veins that return blood
to the heart
The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small
and large intestines meet. The human cecum has an extension called the appendix, which
plays a very minor role in immunity
A major function of the colon is to recover water that has entered the alimentary canal
The colon houses bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli) which live on unabsorbed organic material;
some produce vitamins.
Feces, including undigested material and bacteria, become more solid as they move through
the colon. Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated through the anus
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel movements
Digestive systems of vertebrates are variations on a common plan. However, there are intriguing
adaptations, often related to diet
a. Dental Adaptations
Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is one example of structural variation reflecting diet
c. Mutualistic Adaptations
The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet have evolved in the animals called ruminants
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
The intake of food and the use of nutrients varies with an animal’s diet and environment
a. Regulation of Digestion
The enteric division of the nervous system helps to regulate the digestive process
The endocrine system also regulates digestion through the release and transport
of hormones
The body stores energy-rich molecules that are not needed right away for metabolism
In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and muscle cells in the
polymer glycogen. Excess energy is stored in adipose tissue, the most
space-efficient storage tissue
o A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels, which triggers the synthesis of glycogen
o Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen and release glucose
Overnourishment causes obesity, which results from excessive intake of food energy with the excess
stored as fat
Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes.
Researchers have discovered several of the mechanisms that help regulate body weight
Hormones regulate long-term and short-term appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the brain
Studies on mice revealed that the hormone leptin plays an important role in regulating obesity
The problem of maintaining weight partly stems from our evolutionary past, when fat
hoarding was a means of survival
Individuals who were more likely to eat fatty food and store energy as adipose tissue may have
been more likely to survive famines
The circulatory system connects the fluid that surrounds cells with
the organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes
In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs, blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory
system. There is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid, and this general body fluid is called
hemolymph
In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
• Closed systems are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system called the cardiovascular system
The 3 main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood flow is one way in these vessels
1. Arteries branch into arterioles and carry blood away from the heart to capillaries
2. Networks of capillaries called capillary beds are the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and
interstitial fluid
3. Venules converge into veins and return blood from capillaries to the heart
Arteries and veins are distinguished by the direction of blood flow, not by O2 content.
• Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have single circulation with a two-
chambered heart
Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped separately from the right and left sides of the heart
o In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen
through the lungs
o In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through
the lungs and skin
o Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit. Double circulation maintains higher
blood pressure in the organs than does single circulation
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle
The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole, while relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole
The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute
The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and
depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
• The semilunar valves control blood flow to the aorta and the
pulmonary artery
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, they contract without any signal from the nervous system
The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract
Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during diastole; it is lower than
systolic pressure
Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart
Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70/80 mm Hg at diastole
They are by far the most numerous blood cells. In mammals, mature
erythrocytes lack nuclei and mitochondria
Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in blood clotting
Coagulation is the formation of a solid clot from liquid blood. A cascade of complex reactions converts
inactive fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
• A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a thrombus and can block blood flow
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Respiratory System
Function: to provide oxygen gas need for cellular respiration and remove carbon
dioxide from the body
Respiration in animals. Whether they live in water or on land, all animals must respire.
While other have developed large complex organ systems for respiration.
Large surface areas, are in contact with air or water, If require diffusion they must be moist.
• Water flows through the mouth then over the gills where oxygen is removed
• Carbon dioxide and water are then pumped out through the operculum
Lungs - for terrestrial chordates, Examples: adult amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
• As you move from amphibians to mammals the surface area of the lungs increases
– Insures a greater amount of gas exchange (or a two way flow of air).
• Birds, by contrast have lungs and air sacs which have only a one-way flow of air.
– This allows for them to have constant contact with fresh air.
– This adaptation enables them to fly at high altitudes where there is less oxygen.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• Air inhaled through the nostrils is warmed, humidified, and sampled for odors
• The pharynx directs air to the lungs and food to the stomach
• Cilia and mucus line the epithelium of the air ducts and
move particles up to the pharynx. This “mucus escalator” cleans
the respiratory system and allows particles to be swallowed into
the esophagus
• Gas exchange takes place in alveoli, air sacs at the tips of bronchioles
• Oxygen diffuses through the moist film of the epithelium and into capillaries
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries across the epithelium and into the air space
Alveoli lack cilia and are susceptible to contamination. Secretions called surfactants coat its surface.
• The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each breath
Concept 3: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and
transport gases
The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the blood transport
large quantities of O2 and CO2
Respiratory pigments, proteins that transport O2, greatly increase the amount of O2 that blood can carry
• Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component
Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use hemoglobin. In vertebrates, it is contained w/in erythrocytes
A single hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2, one molecule for each iron
containing heme group. The hemoglobin dissociation curve shows that a small change in the
partial pressure of oxygen can result in a large change in delivery of O2
CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of
hemoglobin for O2; this is called the Bohr shift
63
GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
64
GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Scientific Name Common name (s) Local name (s) Distribution/ Endemic to
Aceros waldeni Rufous-headed hornbill Kalaw Endemic to Panay, small
Visayan wrinkled hornbill concentration on the southwestern
Walden’s hornbill end of the province of Zamboanga
Writhed-boiled hornbill del Norte in Mindanao, may already
be extinct on Negros and Guimaras
Bubalus mindorensis Tamaraw, Mindoro dwarf Tamaraw 263 individuals in 2008. Being captive
buffalo, Tamarou bred. Endemic to Mindoro
Pithecophaga jefferyi Philippine Eagle Haribon 180 – 500 birds are believed to
survive. Currently being captive
bred. Endemic to Philippines
Pristis microdon Largetooth sawfish Endemic to the Western Pacific and
Freshwater sawfish the Indian Ocean
Leichhardt’s sawfish
Puntius amarus Pait Pait Lake Lanao
Puntius baoulan Baolan Baolan Lake Lanao
Puntius clemensi Bagangan Bagangan Lake Lanao
Puntius disa Disa Disa Lake Lanao
Puntius flavifuscus Katapa-tapa Katapa-tapa Lake Lanao
Spratellicypris palata Palata Palata Lake Lanao
Risiocnemis Palata Palata Cebu
seidenschwarzi
Siebenrockiella Philippine forest turtle Recently rediscovered
leytensis Philippine pond turtle Palawan
Palawan turtle
Leyte pond turtle
Sus cebifrons Visayan warty pig One subspecies believed to be
extinct. Surviving subspecies en
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• Osmoregulation—the control of the gain and loss of water and solutes, and
Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable
range and a form of homeostasis.
4. Evaporation—loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas.
14.3 Thermoregulation involves adaptations that balance heat gain and loss
Osmosis is one process whereby animals regulate their uptake and loss of fluids.
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
Have body fluids with a solute concentration Have body fluids whose solute concentrations differ
equal to that of seawater, from that of their environment,
Face no substantial challenges in water Must actively regulate water movement, and
balance, and Include many land animals,
Include many marine invertebrates. freshwater animals such as trout, and
marine vertebrates such as sharks.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Land animals face the risk of dehydration, lose water by evaporation and waste disposal, gain water by
drinking and eating, and conserve water by
14.5 Evolution Connection: A variety of ways to dispose nitrogenous wastes has evolved in animals.
Metabolism produces toxic by-products.
Nitrogenous wastes are toxic breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids. Animals dispose
of nitrogenous wastes in different ways.
The urinary system forms and excretes urine and regulates water and solutes in body fluids.
In humans, the kidneys are the main processing centers of the urinary system.
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys, extract a fluid filtrate from the blood, and refine the
filtrate to produce urine.
Urine is
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
d. By excretion the final product, urine, is excreted via the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
Reabsorption in the proximal and distal tubules removes nutrients, salt, and water.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates the amount of water excreted by the kidneys by
o signaling nephrons to reabsorb water from the filtrate, returning it to the blood, and
o Decreasing the amount of water excreted.
Diuretics inhibit the release of ADH (1) and include alcohol and caffeine. (2)
Kidney failure can result from hypertension, diabetes, and prolonged use of
common drugs, including alcohol.
• A dialysis machine removes wastes from the blood and maintains its solute
concentration.
68
GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES Pathogens
(bacteria, fungi,
viruses)
INNATE IMMUNITY (all animals)
Recognition of traits shared by broad Barrier defenses:
ranges of pathogens, using a small set of Skin, mucous membranes, secretions
receptors Internal defenses:
Rapid response Phagocytic cells, Natural Killer cells
Antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY (vertebrates only)
Recognition of traits specific to particular Humoral response:
pathogens, using a vast array of receptors Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids
Slower response Cell-mediated response:
Cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells
Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens
o Adaptations have evolved in some pathogens that enable them to avoid destruction by phagocytic cells
o Tuberculosis (TB) resists breakdown within lysosomes after being engulfed by a host cell
o Mechanisms like this make certain fungi and bacteria substantial pathogenic threats
Innate Immunity of Vertebrates - immune system of mammals is the best understood of the vertebrates
Additional defenses are unique to vertebrates: natural killer cells, interferons, and the inflammatory
response
Barrier defenses include the skin and mucous membranes of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts. Mucus traps and allows for the removal of microbes
Many body fluids including saliva, mucus, and tears are hostile to many microbes. The low pH of skin
and the digestive system prevents growth of many bacteria
o Neutrophils circulate in the blood and are attracted by signals from infected tissues
In mammals, pathogen recognition triggers release of peptides and proteins that attack pathogens or
impede their reproduction
Interferons provide innate defense, interfering with viruses and helping activate macrophages
The complement system consists of about 30 proteins that are activated by substances on microbe surfaces
The inflammatory response, such as pain and swelling, is brought about by molecules released upon
injury of infection
Mast cells release histamine, which triggers blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable
Activated macrophages and neutrophils release cytokines, signaling molecules that modulate the
immune response and promote blood flow to the site of injury or infection
The adaptive response relies on two types of lymphocytes, or white blood cells
Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus above the heart are called T cells, and those that mature in
bone marrow are called B cells
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
INFECTIONS MICROORGANISMS
African sleeping sickness (African
Trypanosoma brucei
trypanosomiasis)
AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)
syndrome)
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides
Botulism (and Infant botulism) Clostridium botulinum
Brazilian hemorrhagic fever Sabiá virus
Bubonic plague Yersinia Pestis
Chancroid Haemophilus ducreyi
Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Clostridium difficile colitis Clostridium difficile
Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii
Common cold (Acute viral
usually rhinoviruses and coronaviruses
rhinopharyngitis; Acute coryza)
Dengue viruses (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN-
Dengue fever
4) – Flaviviruses
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Dracunculiasis Dracunculus medinensis
Ebola hemorrhagic fever Ebolavirus (EBOV)
Food poisoning by Clostridium perfringens Clostridium perfringens
Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Haemophilus influenzae infection Haemophilus influenzae
Enteroviruses, mainly Coxsackie A virus and
Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD)
Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
Hookworm infection Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus
Influenza (flu) Orthomyxoviridae family
Leishmaniasis Leishmania species
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis
Leptospirosis Leptospira species
Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes
Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia garinii, and Borrelia afzelii
Malaria Plasmodium species
Measles Measles virus
Meningococcal disease Neisseria meningitidis
Mumps Mumps virus
Murine typhus (Endemic typhus) Rickettsia typhi
Mycoplasma pneumonia Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Pediculosis capitis (Head lice) Pediculus humanus capitis
Pediculosis corporis (Body lice) Pediculus humanus corporis
Pertussis (Whooping cough) Bordetella pertussis
Plague Yersinia pestis
Pneumococcal infection Streptococcus pneumoniae
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Prevalence of Leukocytes
The relative proportions of the different types of white blood cells are:
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
The immune system produces millions of different antigen receptors but the receptors, on a single B
cell or T cell are all identical to one another
The small accessible part of an antigen that binds to an antigen receptor is called an epitope
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION
By B Cells and Antibodies By T Cells
Each B cell antigen receptor is a Y-shaped molecule Each T cell receptor consists of two different
with two identical heavy chains and two identical polypeptide chains (called α and β)
light chains The tips of the chain form a variable (V)
The constant (C) regions of the chains vary region; the rest is a constant (C) region
little among B cells, whereas the variable (V) The V regions of the a and b chains together
regions differ greatly form an antigen-binding site
Together, the V regions of the heavy and light
chains form an antigen-binding site
Binding of a B cell antigen receptor to an antigen is
an early step in B cell activation
This gives rise to cells that secrete a soluble
form of the protein called an antibody or
immunoglobulin (Ig)
Secreted antibodies are similar to B cell
receptors but are not membrane bound T cells bind only to antigen fragments displayed or
The antibodies, rather than B cells themselves, presented on a host cell
defend against pathogens MHC (major histocompatibility complex)
molecules are host proteins that display the antigen
fragments on the cell surface (pic below)
B Cell and T Cell Development – adaptive immune system has 4 major characteristics
4. Immunological memory
15.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
B and T lymphocytes produce a humoral immune response and a cell-mediated immune response
In the humoral immune response, antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in the
blood and lymph
In the cell-mediated immune response specialized T cells destroy infected host cells
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Artificial Immunity
Active Artificial immunity is induced when Passive Artificial immunity can be conferred
antigens are introduced into the body in vaccines artificially by injecting antibodies into a
nonimmune person
In this process of immunization, inactivated Example: anti venom serum
bacterial toxins or weakened or killed pathogens
are introduced
In individuals with autoimmune diseases, the immune system
targets certain molecules of the body
Host Defenses
a. Resistance - ability to ward off disease. Varies among organisms and individuals within same species
b. Immunity – mechanisms used by the body as protection against microbes and other foreign agents;
self vs non-self
Nonspecific immunity (innate, natural, inborn) – defenses against any pathogen
Specific immunity – resistance to a specific pathogen
1. Mucus membranes – layers of mucosal cells that line body cavities that open to
the outside (digestive, genitourinary and respiratory tracts)
Mucosal cells are rapidly dividing flush out of body along with attached bacteria
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Almost all bacteria are incapable to penetrate, a few helminths (hookworm & schistosoma) may
5. Digestive Tract
Mouth and lower digestive tract – lots of bacteria (mostly anaerobes e.g. Bacteroides, anaerobic
streptococci [Streptococcus mutans in mouth] and Clostridium in colon ) How?
o Stomach acids
6. Genitourinary Tract – urinary tract is sterile in a healthy person except the distal urethra. How?
o Urination
7. Respiratory Tract
o Nose - nasal hair, mucus secretions (phagocytes and antibacterial enzymes), irregular chambers
o Cough reflexes
o Alveolar macrophages
e.g. yeast in vagina – yeast vaginitis; Clostridium difficile in colon – diarrhea and colitis
Anything that helps an organism survive in its environment is an adaptation. It also refers to the ability
of living things to adjust to different conditions within their environments.
a. Structural Adaptation involves some part of an animal’s body, such as the size or shape of the
teeth, the animal's body covering, or the way the animal moves.
Teeth - since different animals eat different things, they don't all have the same kind of teeth
Body coverings - Hair, scales, spines, and feathers grow from the skin. All of these parts help animals
survive in their environments.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
b. Protective Coloration
Coloration and Protective Resemblance allows an animal to blend into its environment.
d. Behavior adaptations include activities that help an animal survive. Behaviour adaptations can be
learned or instinctive. (a behaviour an animal is born with).
Social behaviour - some animals live by themselves, while other live in groups.
Behaviour for protection - An animal's behaviour sometimes helps to protect the animal. For instance the
opossum plays dead. A rabbit freezes when it thinks it has been seen.
e. Migration is the behavioural adaptation that involves an animal or group of animals moving from
one region to another and then back again.
During the hibernation the animals live off of the fat that is stored in their body.
Glands are organs that secrete chemicals. Glands of the endocrine system are ductless.
Hormones
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
The Glands
Islets of Langerhan cells: Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin
Testosterone (an Androgen) – stimulates male reproductive system development, male secondary
sexual characteristics
7. Thymus is found in the upper chest, more important in early years than adulthood
Thymosin – stimulate T cell development
8. Pineal Gland – at the base of brain
Melatonin – involved in daily rhythms and biological clock,
much still unknown
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
– Don’t travel far from production site (unlike other hormones) - Wide range of functions
Problems
b. Hypoglycemia - Too low blood glucose; Too high insulin or too low glucagon
c. Gigantism - In kids, Normal proportions, Too much GH
d. Acromegaly - In adults, Too much GH, Large body parts
e. Dwarfism - In kids, Small but proportional body, Low GH
f. Hyperthyroidism - Too much thyroxine,
g. Hypothyroidism
In infant: becomes dwarf with disproportionate body and mental retardation (cretinism)
Parts of Neuron
Dendrite Cell Body (Cyton) Axon
Branched, short Contains organelles of neuron Long, single fiber ( 1 cm to 1m)
Receives signals Does metabolic activities Carries electrical signals
Sends signals towards axon towards terminal branches.
Can be wrapped with 2 types of
glial cells:
Schwann cells that may
produce myelin (fatty insulating
material) on axons, PNS
Oligodendrocytes, CNS
Myelination progresses as we
grow into adult
Types of Neurons
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
What regulates the speed of the wave? Size of neuron and myelin presence
• Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin and glutamic acid (MSG in foods)
Strength of Stimulus?
Protists
No neurons, no nervous system, can respond to stimuli like chemicals, light, obstacles
They have “irritability” = whole organism response to stimuli
Hydra
Neurons, no brain, 2 way transmission along neuron not one way, nerve net
Whole body responses to stimuli
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Worm Has Central Nervous System (“brain” – fused ganglia, 2 nerve cords
Has Peripheral Nervous System (branching sensory, motor and associative nerves off
of CNS)
Has one way transmission
Grasshopper Central and Peripheral Nervous System, brain, 2 ventral nerve cords that have ganglia
Sensory Receptors like antennae, eyes, tympana
For emaxlpe, it deson't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod aepapr, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer are
in the rghit pcale. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit pobelrm.
S1M1L4RLY, Y0UR M1ND 15 R34D1NG 7H15 4U70M471C4LLY W17H0U7 3V3N 7H1NK1NG 4B0U7 17
6 Parts of Brain
Divided down the middle into the right and left cerebral hemispheres (Right: Art/Music, Left:
Math/Analytical). The nerves that cross the hemispheres are the “corpus callosum”
Outer Gray Matter (Cerebral Cortex): Motor neuron cytons and interneurons, many unmyelinated cells
Processing area of brain; sensory, motor and associative functions (speech, thought, hearing, vision,
voluntary body movements, memory, smell); Many folds = increase surface area
Communication of data between sides of cortex, communication from cortex region and
rest of body. Crossed “wires”: Left side of brain controls right side of body and vice versa
79 Brain Waves
GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Behaviors
Spinal Cord extends from medulla down through the vertebral column
- covered by the meninges and CSF - Connects peripheral nerve with brain
- Outer white matter, inner gray matter - Controls reflexes
31 pairs of spinal nerves, 12 pairs of cranial nerves (serving eyes, ears, nose, mouth)
- Somatic Nervous System – sensory and motor neurons dealing with activities that are voluntary
- Autonomic Nervous System – nerves that facilitate events that are not under voluntary control (gland
contraction) It has also two divisions:
OVERVIEW: Each sea slug produces sperm and eggs; in a few weeks, new individuals will
hatch from fertilized eggs. Animal reproduction takes many forms
Concept 1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by fission, separation of a parent into two or more individuals
of about the same size
• Fragmentation is breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults.
Fragmentation must be accompanied by regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts
Reproduction
• Several genera of fishes, amphibians, and lizards reproduce only by a complex form of
parthenogenesis that involves the doubling of chromosomes after meiosis
• Asexual whiptail lizards are descended from a sexual species, and females still exhibit
mating behaviors
For many animals, finding a partner for sexual reproduction may be challenging
One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each individual has male and female reproductive systems
• Some species exhibit male to female reversal (for example, certain oysters), while others exhibit
female to male reversal (for example, a coral reef fish)
Concept 2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species
The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm, play an important part in sexual
reproduction
In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment. In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive
tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract
• All fertilization requires critical timing, often mediated by environmental cues, pheromones,
and/or courtship behavior
• Internal fertilization is typically associated with production of fewer gametes but the
survival of a higher fraction of zygotes
• The embryos of some terrestrial animals develop in eggs with calcium- and protein-containing shells
and several internal membranes
• Some other animals retain the embryo, which develops inside the female. In many animals, parental
care helps ensure survival of offspring
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Gamete Production and Delivery: To reproduce sexually, animals must produce gametes
Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form from
undifferentiated tissue
More elaborate systems include sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry,
nourish, and protect gametes and developing embryos
Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems. In many
insects, the female has a spermatheca in which sperm is stored during copulation
Females can sometimes influence the relative reproductive success of their mates
Why is sperm usage biased when female fruit flies mate twice?
• The female external reproductive structures include the clitoris and two sets of labia
• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes
and house the embryo and fetus
Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the cells of which
produce estradiol prior to ovulation
The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus via oviduct
(fallopian tube).
Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus, also called the womb
The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into
blood vessels. the vagina
The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during copulation and serves as
the birth canal.
The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which consists of the labia majora, labia minora, hymen,
and clitoris. The clitoris has a head called a glans covered by the prepuce
The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich with blood vessels; the clitoris also has many nerve endings
The mammary glands are not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian
reproduction. Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
• The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis
• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce sperm and hormones, and accessory glands
Accessory Glands; Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of accessory glands
• The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen
• The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts
• The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine
remaining in the urethra
• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries, causing an erection
• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering than the shaft, and is more sensitive to stimulation
Gametogenesis, the production of gametes, differs in male and female, reflecting the distinct structure
and function of their gametes
Sperm are small and motile and must pass from Eggs are larger, and carry out their function
male to female within the female
Spermatogenesis, the development of sperm is continuous and prolific (millions of sperm are produced
per day; each sperm takes about 7 weeks to develop
Immature eggs form in female embryo, but don’t complete their development until years or decades later
1. All four products of meiosis develop into sperm while only one of the four becomes an egg
2. Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood
3. Sperm are produced continuously without the prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of sex hormones
If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called
menstruation. Hormones closely link the two cycles of female reproduction
– Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle (also called the uterine cycle)
After about 500 cycles, human females undergo menopause, the cessation of ovulation and menstruation
• Menopause is very unusual among animals. Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother to
provide better care for her children and grandchildren
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals
humans and some other primates
The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
bleeding called menstruation Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
The length and frequency of estrus cycles vary
Sexual receptivity is not limited to a timeframe
from species to species
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which nourish developing sperm
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone and other androgens, which
in turn promote spermatogenesis
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion from the
anterior pituitary
Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood and Myotonia, increased muscle tension
The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
1. Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse)
2. Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the plateau phase and prepares the vagina for receipt of sperm
– In males, semen is first released into the urethra and then ejaculated from the urethra
4. During the resolution phase, organs return to their normal state and muscles relax
A human embryo at about 7 weeks after conception shows development of distinctive features
Development occurs at many points in the life cycle of an animal. This includes metamorphosis
and gamete production, as well as embryonic development
Fertilization is the formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg and sperm
Molecules and events at the egg surface play a crucial role in each step of
fertilization
Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy, the entry of multiple sperm
nuclei into the egg
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
In frogs and many other animals, the distribution of yolk (stored nutrients) is a key factor influencing
the pattern of cleavage
• The vegetal pole has more yolk; the animal pole has less yolk
The difference in yolk distribution results in animal and vegetal hemispheres
that differ in appearance
The first two cleavage furrows in the frog form four equally sized blastomeres
The third cleavage is asymmetric, forming unequally sized blastomeres
Holoblastic cleavage, complete division of the egg, occurs in species whose
eggs have little or moderate amounts of yolk, such as sea urchins and frogs
Meroblastic cleavage, incomplete division of the egg, occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs, such as
reptiles and birds
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Concept 2: Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival
After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows and the normal cell cycle is restored
• Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their appropriate locations, involves
– Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula surface to the interior of the embryo
– Organogenesis, the formation of organs
Gastrulation rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called a gastrula
The three layers produced by gastrulation are called embryonic germ layers
The ectoderm forms the outer layer
The endoderm lines the digestive tract
The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm
Each germ layer contributes to specific structures in the adult animal
ECTODERM (outer layer) MESODERM (middle layer) ENDODERM (inner lsyer)
Epidermis of skin and its Dermis of skin Epithelial lining of
derivatives (including sweat Skeletal and muscular, -Digestive tract and associated
glands, hair follicles) circulatory and lymphatic, organs (liver, pancreas)
Nervous and sensory systems excretory and reproductive -Respiratory, excretory, and
Pituitary gland, adrenal systems (except germ cells) reproductive tracts and ducts
medulla Adrenal cortex Thymus, thyroid, and
Jaws and teeth parathyroid glands
Germ cells
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
Negative feedback loop - original stimulus reversed, most feedback systems in the body are negative
used for conditions that need frequent adjustment; Negative feedback loop consists of:
Receptor - structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes (senses)
Control center - determines next action (brain)
Effector - receives directions from the control center (muscles)
• produces a response that restores the controlled condition
Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal (the stimulus), the hormone insulin
is released and it speeds up the transport of glucose out of the blood and into selected
tissues (the response), so blood glucose concentrations decrease (thus decreasing the original stimulus).
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
Baroreceptors in walls of blood vessels detect an increase in BP
Brain receives input and signals blood vessels and heart
Blood vessels dilate, HR decreases
BP decreases
Positive feedback loop - original stimulus intensified, seen during
normal childbirth
Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to the brain
Brain induces release of hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream
Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully
More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.
Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch
Glossary
Maintain – keep up. Constant – the same. Internal – inside the body.
Environment – surroundings of the body.
Feedback - a cycle in which the output of a system “feeds back” to modify or
reinforce the actions of the system in order to maintain homeostasis.
Negative feedback - a change causes system 1 to send a message to system 2
to restore homeostasis. When system 1 detects that system 2 has acted, it stops
signaling for action and system 2 stops (turned off).
Positive feedback - the original stimulus is promoted rather than stopped.
Positive feedback is rarely used to maintain homeostasis. Ex: childbirth
What is Homeostasis?
Body cells work best if they have the correct : Temperature, Water levels, Glucose concentration
Your body has mechanisms to keep the cells in a constant environment.
The maintenance of a constant environment in the body is called Homeostasis
Controlling body temperature - All mammals maintain a constant body temperature.
Human beings have a body temperature of about 37ºC.
E.g. If your body is in a hot environment your body temperature is 37º. If your body is in a cold
environment your body temperature is still 37ºC
Animals with a large surface area compared to their volume will lose heat faster than animals with a
small surface area. (Ex: Penguins huddling to keep warm)
What mechanisms are there to cool the body down?
1. Sweating - When your body is hot, sweat glands are stimulated to release sweat.
The liquid sweat turns into a gas (it evaporates). To do this, it needs heat. It gets that heat from
your skin. As your skin loses heat, it cools down.
2. Vasodilation - Your blood carries most of the heat energy around your body.
There are capillaries underneath your skin that can be filled with blood if you get too hot.
This brings the blood closer to the surface of the skin so more heat can be lost.
This is why you look red when you are hot!
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
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ROLES OF BODY SYSTEMS IN HOMEOSTASIS
GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
A Quick Review! What are the following scientific studies focusing on:
1. Non-living materials 1. Physical Science
2. Insects 2. Entomology
3. Disease 3. Pathology
4. Body functions 4. Physiology
5. Tissues 5. Histology
6. Muscles 6. Myology
7. Reptiles 7. Herpetology
8. Single-celled organisms 8. Protozoology
9. Animal distribution 9. Zoogeography
10. Fossils 10. Paleontology
11. Coelenterates 11. Cindology
12. Blood 12. Hematology
13. Shells 13. Conchology
14. Birds 14. Ornithology
15. Heart 15. Cardiology
16. Butterfly 16. Lepidopterology
17. Bones 17. Oesteology
18. Animal development 18. Embryology
19. Forms and structure 19. Morphology
20. Classification of animals 20. Taxonomy
LESSON 1 QUIZ
1. What are the sciences under Concrete Science? 1. Physical, Biological
and Sociological
Science
2. In the 1200s, Albertus Magnu wrote these 2 books in which he discussed 2. De animalibus (26) and
some details of the animal reproduction. De vegetabilibus (7)
3. What is the title of the book published by Robert Hooke in 1665? 3. Micrographia
4. He first studied the circulation of blood. 4. William Harvey
5. This is the theory introduced by Jean de Baptiste Lamarck which states 5. Spontaneous
that life arose from non-living matter. Generation Theory
6. He challenged the idea of no. 5. 6. Francisco Redi
Who is the father of
7. Taxonomy 7. Carolus Linnaeus
8. Modern Entomology 8. Jan Swammerdam
What is the scientific study of
9. Cells 9. Cytology
10. Tissues 10. Histology
11. Muscles 11. Myology
12. Growth and Development 12. Embryology
13. Hormones 13. Endocrinology
14. Unknown species 14. Cryptozoology
15. Coelenterates 15. Cindology
16. Improvement of human race through laws of heredity 16. Euthenics
17. Nucleus 17. Karyology
What do you call the person who studies
18. Mites and ticks 18. Acarologist
19. Crustaceans 19. Crustaceologist or
Carcinologist
20. Whales 20. Cetologist
21. A term which describes the complex chemical processes in cells to 21. Metabolism
provide energy.
22. The transformation that takes place in post-embryonic stages 22. Metamorphosis
23. In plants, carbohydrates are stored as ______, while in animals, it is on 23. Starch, glycogen
a form of _______
24. It is the faithful transmission of traits. 24. Heredity
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
25. Information is contained in ______ and is specifically encoded in the ___ 25. Genes, DNA
26. Enumerate the ancient civilizations and their significant contribution in 26. India – aspects of bird
the history of zoology life;
Ancient Mesopotamia
– first zoological
gardens
Egypt –
metamorphosis of
frogs and insects
Babylonians –
physiology and
anatomy of some
animals
27. Who are the three notable zoologists dedicated to ethology? 27. Desmond Morris,
Konrad Lorenz,
Richard Dawkins
28. _______ is the growth from within cells (in plants) while _______ is the 28. Intussusception,
external addition (in animals/non-living things) Accretion
29. The colourless material comprising the living part of a cell 29. Protoplasm
30. Enumerate the 10 characteristics of life. 30. Organized
protoplasm,
Cellular Organization,
Constant Energy
Requirements
, Ability to Grow,
Definite Size and
Form,
Ability to Reproduce,
Definite Life Span,
Response to Stimuli,
Ability to move
QUIZ ON GENETICS
a) A heterozygous green eyes and homozygous black hair man mate with a heterozygous green eyes
and heterozygous black woman.
Let: G – green eyes g – brown eyes B – black hair b – brown hair
1. What are the alleles of the parents? P1 : GgBB GB, GB, gB, gB P2: GgBb GB, Gb, gB, gb
2. What are the possible genotypes? GGBB – 2 GGBb -2 ggBB – 2 GgBB – 4 GgBb – 4 ggBb -2
3. What are resulting phenotypes? Green eyes Black Skin – 12 Brown eyes Black Skin – 4
4. How many are heterozygous black skin? 8
5. How many are homozygous brown eyes? 4
6. How many are heterozygous green eyes and black skin? 4
If two individuals with heterozygous green eyes and heterozygous black skin mate,
7. How many will have a homozygous green eyes and black skin? 1
8. How many will be a homozygous brown eyes and brown skin? 1
9. What are the resulting phenotypes? 9 green eyes and black skin 3 green eyes and brown skin
3 brown eyes and black skin 1 brown eyes and brown skin
b) A heterozygous curly, long haired and blue eyed Canadian is married to a heterozygous curly and
homozygous short haired and brown eyed Filipino.
10. What are the possible genotypes: 4 CCLlBb, 4 CCLlbb, 4 CCllBb, 4 CCllbb
8 CcLlBb, 8 CcLlbb, 8 CcllBb, 8, Ccllbb, 4 ccLlBb, 4 ccLlbb, 4 ccllBb, 4 ccllbb
11. What are the possible phenotypes?
12 curly short blue 12 curly short brown 12 curly long blue 12 curly long brown
4 straight short blue 4 straight short brown 4 straight long blue 4 straight long brown
12. How many individuals have a long straight hair? 8
13. How many are homozygous straight haired and brown eyes? 8
14. How any are trihybrid heterozygous alleles? 8
15. How many are heterozygous brown eyes? 0
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
QUIZ # 3
1. These are genes that are located on the sex chromosomes 1. Sex-linked genes
2. Males have one copy of no. 1 thus they are referred to as 2. Hemizygous
3. This is a blood disorder where the blood does not clot properly 3. Hemophilia
4. Cite an example of a clotting factor or protein 4. Fibrinogen
(fibrin),
Prothrombin,
Thromboplastin
5. They are more likely to be color blind. 5. Males
6. When females are heterozygous for a sex-linked recessive disorder, 6. Carrier
this makes them a ______
7. It is caused by an abnormal genes for photoreceptors in the retina 7. Red-green
colorblindness
8. A human genetic disorder that is caused by the alleles on the 8. Autosomal
chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes genetic disorders
9. It is the most common genetic disorder among white people, how 9. Cystic Fibrosis,
about among black people? Sickle-cell
Anemia
10. When carriers have an advantage over people who are homozygous 10. Heterozygote
dominant, it is called as superiority
11. Give atleast two genetic disorders that are believed to be the result of 11. Diabetes
multiple genes. mellitus, heart
disease and
some personality
disorders like
Bipolar disorder
and
schizophrenia
12. Nondisjunction
12. The failure of a pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis 13. Trisomy
13. A zygote gets three copies of a chromosome 14. Translocation
14. When a piece of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another 15. Karyotype
15. It is the printed picture of all the human chromosomes 16. Edward
16. It is a disease/syndrome caused by Trisomy 18. How about Trisomy Syndrome,
13? Turner
Syndrome
17. This occurs when a man has XYY chromosome, a supermale 17. Jacob Syndrome
18. Cri du Chat Syndrome is caused by the deletion on a part of ____ 18. Chromosome 5
19. What are the two imaging techniques used to diagnose genetic 19. Ultrasonography
disorders? and Fetoscopy
20. It involves introduction of normal genes into the cells of people with 20. Gene therapy
defective alleles.
QUIZ # 4
1. He won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1902 for discovering glucose 1. Emil Fischer
and purines
2. These are DNA segment that carries hereditary information 2. Genes
3. These are key substances for all aspect of cell life 3. Proteins
4. The DNA is distributed inside the prokaryotic _______ 4. Nucleoid
5. Sequences of three bases are called 5. Codon
6. What is the percentage of Adenine present in the human DNA? 6. 30.4%
7. It is the repeated reading that is happening in the translation 7. Elongation
8. It is the start codon 8. AUG
9. They are small clover leaf-like shaped molecules that carries amino 9. Transfer RNA
acid from cytoplasm to ribosomes
10. The non-functional segments of DNA are snipped out of the chain by 10. Ligase
11. During transcription, _____ binds to DNA and separated the DNA 11. RNA
strands polymerase
12. They read codon one at a time and construct the proteins 12. Ribosomes
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GENERAL BIOLOGY II: NOTES
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