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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: A small hydro plant using an Archimedes screw is the focused of this work. This is an alternative solution
Received 19 October 2015 to smallscale hydropower as it exploits unused resources such as small rivers or streams. Archimedes
Received in revised form screw plants reverse the pump use principle and exploit the available stream power for energy pro-
19 February 2016
duction in very low head application. Based on the previous studies, the optimal sizing of Archimedes
Accepted 9 March 2016
screws is discussed. Then, a numerical model is established to determine the mechanical efficiency ac-
cording to its geometrical parameters, its rotational speed and its degree of filling. Simulation results are
showed and validated with data from a real installation: this work reports experimental results of a 0.84-
Keywords:
Archimedes screw
m diameter Archimedes screw delivering a torque of 250-N-m. This model is an essential part of the
Small hydropower plant whole electromechanical plant modeling and therefore is useful for the estimation of efficiency, energy
Very low head hydropower production and profitability.
Modeling © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Experimental results
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.044
0960-1481/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Rohmer et al. / Renewable Energy 94 (2016) 136e146 137
Converters
Generator
Gearbox 3 3
Archimedes screw
OR
P
Inflow
IR
T ra n sfo rm a tio n
T ra n sfo rm a tio n
1
2
C o n ve rsio n
C o n v e rs io n
3
low
of f
ec tion
Dir
Outflow
β
Kinetic energy Mechanical energy Electrical energy
same speed as the turbine. Since the speed is very low, the gener- mentioned above, Rorres and Nuernbergk have developed design
ator must be much larger than it was designed to work, for charts (Fig. 2) from theoretical results [10,14,15]. These dimen-
example, at 1500 RPM. sionless coefficients represent the pitch ratio l and the filling ratio n
Archimedes screws do have the ability to vary the flow rate which take into account the mechanical efficiency h of the Archi-
through themselves which is most efficiently achieved by varying medes screw for an optimal filling rate. The maximum volume of
its rotational speed. Moreover, this variation of the rotational speed water that the screw may contain is equal to Vmax ¼ p$OR2$P. The
allows it to operate at maximum efficiency depending on the water filling ratio n corresponds to the volume of water that is currently in
flow variations and/or to undersize the geometrical parameters of the screw depending on its geometrical parameters over the
the Archimedes screw, thus reducing manufacturing costs. The use maximum volume that the screw can contain. The pitch l and
of variable speed drives for wind systems is common [12,13]. To the radius r ratio work on the same principle as the filling ratio but uses
best of the author's knowledge, no study has been conducted to thread pitch and radius instead of volume.
prove that variable speed drives are not effective or cannot be used Fig. 2 shows the mechanical efficiency relative to the geomet-
for Archimedes screws. In fact, extra benefits from variable speed rical parameters of the screw according to the pitch l and radius r
operation have to outweight the extra losses in the generator- ratio. Then it shows the values of lnh as a function of l and r. The
inverter/rectifier-inverter chain and also the additional costs of maximum value of lnh is equal to 0.0514. Subsequently, it is
the equipment. possible to easily determine r ¼ 0.505, l ¼ 0.21 and h ¼ 0.86.
The final objective of this research is to determine several plant Finally, ln ¼ 0.06 is obtained. These results are optimal for a three
configurations for a specific production site using a multi-objective bladed Archimedes screw (N ¼ 3) with an inclination b of 30 and
optimization. It is necessary to develop a complete model of the are calculated to trap as much water as possible between two
electromechanical system, taking into account various parameters blades.
such as the inner radius IR, the outer radius OR, the thread pitch P, With the previous coefficients, it is possible to determine the
the number of blades N and the inclination b of the Archimedes optimal outer radius OR of the Archimedes screw with the
screw. Moreover, the synchronous reactance Xs, the winding following equation [10,14,15]:
resistance Rs, the magnet fluxes lf and the pair pole numbers Np of
3=7
the permanent magnet synchronous generator will be considered. Q $tanðbÞ
Thus, the power electronics will be replaced by an equivalent circuit OR ¼ (1)
K1 $ðlnÞ
and load resistance changed by a duty cycle ac. Finally, a maximum
power point tracking will be elaborated as a command strategy for where K1 is a constant between 10.362 and 11.606. According to
maximum output power. Rorres and Nuernbergk, the thread pitch P and the inner radius IR
This paper discusses the mechanical part of the plant and in- can be calculated by equation (2) [10,14,15]:
troduces how to optimally size an Archimedes screw from research
results found in the literature. Then, it presents the experimental 2p$OR$l
prototype that has been developed at INSA Strasbourg, France. The P¼ IR ¼ r$OR (2)
tanðbÞ
Archimedes screw was built by the NSC Environment Company
(France). From this, the experimental results will be used to validate The following table shows the optimal sizing of a three bladed
the developed numerical model. Archimedes screw (N ¼ 3) using a nominal flow rate Q of 0.15 m3/s
with an inclination b of 30 . These values will be used for the
experimental prototype and the next numerical turbine model of
2. Optimal sizing of an Archimedes screw the Archimedes screw.
Rorres is the first person to have worked on the optimal sizing of
To obtain the optimal sizing of an Archimedes screw according an Archimedes screw. The parameters l, r and n were established
to its nominal flow rate Q, its inclination b and its number of blades for an Archimedes screw pump and were optimized in order to
N, several geometric parameters have to be determined such as the raise a maximum volume of water per turn of the screw. Nuerbergk
inner radius IR, the outer radius OR and the thread pitch P. adapts these parameters to an Archimedes screw turbine and in-
To calculate the Archimedes screw geometric parameters cludes the mechanical efficiency in his charts. The various losses in
138 J. Rohmer et al. / Renewable Energy 94 (2016) 136e146
Fig. 2. Mechanical efficiency and optimal geometric parameters for a three bladed Archimedes screw (N ¼ 3) with an inclination b of 30 as a function of the pitch l and radius r
ratio [10,14,15].
the Archimedes screw are identified such as leakage losses QLS and given as follows [10,14,15]:
friction losses. Overfilling losses QLZR are not taken into account
since these charts (Fig. 2) are made for an optimal filling rate.
Pði 1Þ
However, these losses are calculated from empirical equations WLevel ðx; iÞ ¼ tanb x x0 þ y0 (4)
N
based on Lashofer data [11]. Nuernbergk uses for his calculation of
friction losses the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor fD which depends
where x0 and y0 are the starting coordinates and have to be
on the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) and the fluid properties.
calculated directly from equation (5) and correspond to P111 in
In his study, fD ¼ 0.035 [10]. This coefficient varies depending on the
Fig. 3 [10,14,15].
geometrical parameters of the Archimedes screw. In other words,
for small screws this coefficient becomes significant and impacts on
the mechanical efficiency of the Archimedes screw. P tanðbÞ$P
x0 ¼ $arcos
These sizing charts give good results for an Archimedes screw 2p 2p$IR
x (5)
whose parameters are similar to Lashoffer data (OR ¼ 1 m and
HydroHead ¼ 2.5 m). However, for Archimedes screw having y0 ¼ IR$sin 2p 0
P
different geometrical parameters to Lashoffer data, these co-
efficients no longer ensure optimum sizing. Nevertheless, these Fig. 3 shows in continuous green and blue lines, the internal and
sizing charts remain the most suitable for our application, since external Archimedes screw blade for the first blade according to the
Nuernbergk is the only person to have taken into account the optimal parameters calculated in Table 1. Dotted lines shifted by P/N
functioning of an Archimedes screw turbine and different losses represent the second blade. The water level for an optimal filling
within the latter. rate is given by equation (4) represented by Y0(1) in Fig. 3.
To calculate the water volume between two blades, only the
starting and the ending coordinates has to be known. Then, the
3. Numerical model of the Archimedes screw
water bucket have to be equally divide between P111 and P122 into
a large number of units. In fact, the problem of determining the
The purpose of the numerical model is to determine the me-
water volume is reduced to determining the individual sub-area A1
chanical efficiency h of the Archimedes screw according to the river
… AN [10]. In our case, the bucket has been divided into 20 sub-
flow rate Q and the rotational speed U of the turbine for a given
parts.
sizing.
For each cutting surface Ai (blue surface in Fig. 4), the area
To determine the mechanical efficiency h of the Archimedes
covered between the outer radius, the water level and the central
screw, several steps have to be performed such as: the calculation
tube has to be determined in order to use the Simpson method [10].
of the water volume trapped between two blades (water bucket)
In numerical analysis, the Simpson method is a technique for nu-
subject to the geometrical parameters calculated in section 1 (inner
merical computation of an integral. Volume with the Simpson
radius, outer radius and thread pitch) including the water level
method is calculated with equations (6) and (7).
according to the inclination and the flow rate. Moreover, the
leakage losses QLS between the trough, the blades and the shaft
have to be determined as well as the frictional losses. h
VBucket ¼ ðA þ 4A1 þ 2A2 þ … þ 2An2 þ 4An1 þ An Þ (6)
3 0
3.1. Water volume calculation
x122 x111
The first step is to determine the intersection coordinates be- h¼ (7)
20
tween the blades and the water level by using the Newton method.
According Rorres and Nuernbergk, the perimeter of the inner and In Fig. 4, the initial polar angle f111 indicates the start of the
outer screw blades can be calculated by a sine function with the division into sub-parts. The blue curve that goes from the green
following equation [10,14,15]: inner circle to the blue outer circle represents the first blade that is
currently under the water level. The green curve shifted by 2p/N is
x ði 1Þ the second blade. Blades move counterclockwise with a pitch angle
YRadius ðx; iÞ ¼ Radius$sin 2p (3)
P N (f122f111)/20. A(9) shows the 8th cut, in which, the first and
second blades have moved the pitch angle 8 times. The process has
where i is the nth blade of the screw, P the thread pitch and N the to be repeated until the second blade starts to chase water to the
number of blades. The water level according to the inclination is end polar angle f122 (A(21)) which corresponds to the 20th cut.
J. Rohmer et al. / Renewable Energy 94 (2016) 136e146 139
Table 1
Optimal parameters of the screw for N ¼ 3, b ¼ 30 and Q ¼ 0.15 m3/s.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3.2. Leakage losses calculation 2
Ssp P 2
QLS ¼ mA $Ssp $OR 1 þ $ 1þ $ $a3 þ a4
2$OR 2p$OR 3
The leakage losses QLS between the blades and the trough are
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the second most detrimental losses after friction losses and are 2 P
measured by more than 5%. They are shown by the following þ $a5 $ 2g$ $sinðbÞ
3 N
empirical equation [10,14]:
(8)
Fig. 6. Adapting the theory of the triangular crested weir on the Archimedes screw.
Equation (16) has to be deduced from Archimedes screw effi- and (18):where HSUS and HSDS show in meters the distance from
ciency (equation (15)) where U is expressed in RPM and Q in m3/s sensors to the liquid surface at the upstream and downstream
and are represented in Fig. 7. stage. The value ‘0.984’ represents a dimension of the Archimedes
Once the frictional losses deduced, the efficiency of the Archi- screw's prototype. Equation (17) is used for experimental mea-
medes screw can be determined. h ¼ f(U,Q) in Fig. 7, represents the surements on our prototype where HSUS can be directly taken from
blueprint of a contour plot of the efficiency, where the efficiency is the upstream sensor. In order to determine the hydrostatic head
interpreted as height in respect to the flow rate and rotational numerically, HSUS has been expressed in equation (18). HModel
speed. The maximum mechanical efficiency is obtained for a rota- models the height of the Archimedes screw's inflow [14].
tion speed of 40 RPM with a flow rate of 0.09 m3/s with a value of HModel is calculated by using the previously described model,
84%. which allows us to determine the volume of water between two
blades for a given rotational speed and flow rate. It is then possible
to determine for any volume of water the corresponding bucket's
3.5. Hydrostatic head calculation
surface at the inlet of the Archimedes screw by dividing VBucket/P.
The idea is to determine the height of the bucket's surface (HModel)
The available hydraulic power from falling water can be calcu-
by interpolation method. To determine the HModel as a function of
lated from the flow rate and the hydrostatic head which corre-
the bucket's surface, the Archimedes screw must be divided into
sponds to the elevation difference between the upstream and
three distinct zones.
downstream water levels of the plant (Fig. 8). It takes into account
As an example, the equation (19) is used for a partially filled
pressure losses which appear due to water friction against the
circular trough when water level is below the central tube:
riverbed and due to singularities such as the protective grid. In our
case, the hydrostatic head has been calculated with equations (17)
sensor
sensor
HSUS
β
Hmodel
1050 mm
HydrostaticHead
1301 mm
HSDS
138
mm 1235 mm
β
Fig. 8. Elevation difference between the upstream and downstream water levels: hydrostatic head.
Fig. 9 shows the height of the water bucket at the inlet of the
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D Archimedes screw (HModel) as a function of the water bucket's
Surface ¼ OR2 $acos $D H2Model (19) surface. This function has been interpolated to the previous
OR
described model in order to calculate HSUS as a function of the
where OR represents the outer radius of the Archimedes screw and rotational speed and the flow rate.
D the distance from the central tube to the liquid surface. HModel is
equal to ORD. 4. Prototype of an Archimedes screw plant
Once HModel interpolated, singularities have to be taken into
account such as the protection grid, bifurcations, elbows, and other The development of the traditional Archimedes screw requires
constrictions. Generally, they are associated with the velocity skills such as milling, cutting and soldering which are difficult to
squared and depend on the geometry of the plant. Singularities are acquire. The production of a screw blade is difficult to manufacture
calculated by the following equation: from an industrial point of view and the procedure itself is
extremely expensive. Furthermore, to guarantee effective resis-
v2 tance of the whole system and ensure long life, the solder of the
HSing ¼ z$ (20)
2g blade on the core must be without any defect. In return using a
welding technique changes the properties of the materials used in
where z represents a dimensionless loss factor, v the flow rate ve- building the Archimedes screw and makes them more susceptible
locity and g the acceleration of gravity. to corrosion near the weld zones. To overcome these drawbacks,
0.7
0.3
Flow rate [m3/s]
0.6 1.73m
0.25
)S
SU
HModel [m]
0.5
(H
el
0.2
lev
0.4 1.64m
m
ea
0.15
str
0.3
Up
0.1 1.55m
0.2
0.1 0.05
1.46m
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Surface [m2] Speed [RPM]
Fig. 9. Height of water at the inlet of the Archimedes screw as a function of the water bucket's surface.
J. Rohmer et al. / Renewable Energy 94 (2016) 136e146 143
the screw used for our prototype includes a tubular core having at
least one blade around the core. The blades are composed of pad-
dles which are juxtaposed. This manufacturing method gives us
modular and removable blades of the Archimedes screw allowing
us to change geometric parameters of the screw [19].
The geometric parameters of the screw correspond to
Table settings 1. The electric machine is a permanent magnet
generator with an output power of 3 kW. The machine is a 30-pole
(15-pole-pair) operating at an AC supply frequency of 30 Hz
(120 RPM). The stator resistance was measured with a value of
2.8925 Ohm. The mutual inductance (line to line) was measured for
6.8 mH. The Kc torque coefficient corresponds to 33.35 Nm/Apeak.
The permanent magnets fluxes have a value of 1.0438 Vs and the
generator has an output voltage of 220 V (line to line). The proto-
type is equipped with two pumps capable of delivering 100 L per
second each. Measurement will mainly be taken on a flow range
between 35 and 190 L per second. It is possible to go below 35 L per
second but some modifications are needed to the prototype to work
under the same flow conditions. The flow is measured by an elec-
tromagnetic flowmeter. A lift table fixes the inclination of the
Archimedes screw between 20 and 32 . The height of the upstream
basin depends on the inclination of the Archimedes screw and
Fig. 11. Measurements and control of the prototype, INSA Strasbourg.
these parameters cannot be separated. The upstream and down-
stream water levels are measured by ultrasonic sensors. To increase
the measurement accuracy of the upstream stage and to not have a currents of rank 3, 7 and 9 causing overheating (generator, trans-
turbulent flow which could influence the performances of the former, cables, etc.), additional losses, large voltage drops, over-
turbine, a metalic grid is installed at the inlet of the Archimedes loads in transformers and decreased power factor (PF). To
screw. A deflector is used on the Archimedes screw to minimize overcome this problem, capacitors have to be used to supply
leakage losses along the trough as well as to extend the water reactive power to inductive receivers, often called ’reactive power
bucket between two blades. All these devices are represented on compensation’. The objective of the reactive power compensation
Fig. 10. is to reduce the current flow on the generator, thus the effect of
The static frequency converter consists of an indirect ACeAC Joule losses.
converters (rectifier, DC link and inverter). The mechanical power The purpose of the dump load is to dump excessive generated
from the Archimedes screw is converted into direct current by the power if the grid connection is lost or for emergency stops. The
generator and injected into the rectifier which supplies the DC link. static frequency converter contains everything needed for turbine
The DC link carries the mechanical power that is converted into power conversion, control and monitoring, external equipment
three-phase power from the inverter before being fed into the grid interfacing and power feed into the grid according to European
[12,13,20]. Most of the time, the two converters use the pulse width legislation. The speed variation is made by controlling the boost
modulation technique (PWM) to produce a sinusoidal AC voltage, converter using a computer. The boost converter acts on the current
while minimizing the harmonic currents injected into the grid. located at the output of the generator, which increases the elec-
For low power (our case), the PWM rectifier is often replaced by tromechanical torque.
a 3-phase diode rectifier plus a boost converter [12,13]. Using a Two boxes (Fig. 11) were installed to ensure equipment pro-
static frequency converter of this technology generates harmonic tection and to improve efficiency of the electrical installation by
Upstream=f(Ω) Upstream=f(Q)
1.75 1.75
1.7 1.7
1.65 1.65
1.6 1.6
1.55 1.55
1.5 1.5
1.45 1.45
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Speed [RPM] Flow rate [m3/s]
Fig. 12. Upstream level as a function of the rotational speed and of the flow rate.
adding harmonic filters. An improvement of 8.83% for the electrical The model has been calibrated to the experimental results acting on
generator has been achieved by using smoothing inductors. This the dimensionless loss factor z in equation (20). In our case, z ¼ 0.4.
has enabled us to increase the overall efficiency of the installation It can be noted that the height of the water in the numerical model
of 6.48% for a total of 59.54%. Moreover, terminals have been is 3 cm lower than in the experimental results. This is mainly due to
specially placed at the upstream and downstream of the frequency the neglection of friction losses in the upstream basin. In fact, the
converter to take the measurement with electronic devices water supply channel comprises fixed geometrical parameters
regardless of the power stage. This is an important point: our having a certain roughness, reducing the water velocity, thus
prototype is not equipped with a torque-meter for reasons of cost, increasing the water level. Nevertheless, an error of 3% is a good
fragility and installation. To determine the mechanical torque, the agreement between the two.
output current of the generator is measured and multiplied by the h ¼ f(U) in Fig. 13 represents the mechanical efficiency of the
Kc coefficient. The speed of the Archimedes screw corresponds to Archimedes screw as a function of the rotation speed. The me-
the measured frequency at the output of the generator. It is possible chanical efficiency is optimal when the filling ratio in the Archi-
to determine different amounts such as the mechanical efficiency medes screw is optimal. For example, for a flow rate of 170 L per
of the turbine, the electrical efficiency of the generator and the second (red curve), the screw is optimally filled for a speed of 60
electrical efficiency of the frequency converter. RPM and reaches 72% of mechanical efficiency. The factor that will
mainly influence the efficiency of the Archimedes screw with
respect to its rotational speed are friction losses. In fact, frictional
5. Experimental results and comparison with theoretical
losses are usually estimated at velocity squared. This means that
model
the higher the rotation speed of the Archimedes screw, the more
the efficiency will decrease (even for maximum fill rate).
This section compares the experimental results (dotted line) to
However, for a constant rotational speed, the factor that affects
the results of the numerical model (continuous line). Each curve is
the efficiency of the Archimedes screw is the filling rate. Note that
plotted as a function of the rotational speed of the turbine and the
on h ¼ f(Q), blue curve for example, the screw is optimally filled for
flow rate for several operating points (Q ¼ 0.05 m3/s, 0.11 m3/s,
a flow rate of about 80 L per second. Thus, above this value, the
0.17 m3/s and U ¼ 40 RPM, 70 RPM, 100 RPM).
water bucket in the Archimedes screw is overflowing and water
Fig. 12 represents the upstream water level HSUS as a function of
begins to flow into the next water bucket, decreasing considerably
the rotational speed of the Archimedes screw and of the flow rate.
η=f(Ω) η=f(Q)
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
Mechanical efficiency [1]
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
3
experiment, Q=0.05m /s
0.5 experiment, Ω = 40RPM
numerical, Q=0.05m3/s 0.4
numerical, Ω = 40RPM
experiment, Q=0.11m3/s
experiment, Ω = 70RPM
numerical, Q=0.11m3/s
0.4 0.3 numerical, Ω = 70RPM
experiment, Q=0.17m3/s experiment, Ω = 100RPM
numerical, Q=0.17m3/s numerical, Ω = 100RPM
0.3 0.2
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Speed [RPM] Flow rate [m3/s]
Fig. 13. Mechanical efficiency of the Archimedes screw as a function of the rotational speed and of the flow rate.
J. Rohmer et al. / Renewable Energy 94 (2016) 136e146 145
numerical, Ω = 100RPM
numerical, Q=0.17m3/s
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Speed [RPM] Flow rate [m3/s]
Fig. 14. Mechanical torque of the Archimedes screw as a function of the rotational speed and of the flow rate.
the mechanical efficiency by increasing leakage losses. The The reliability of such modeling is based primarily on the quality
maximum error between the numerical model and the experi- of the experimental data on which the model is calibrated. The
mental results is between 4 and 7% for some operating points. This errors are mainly due to the various hydraulic factors, which appear
is mainly due to the coefficient m used in the empirical equation in equations (8) and (10), and the neglection of the friction losses in
(12) modeling the phenomenon of overfilling. A multi-criteria the upstream basin. Moreover, the influence of friction losses on the
optimization could be considered to better calibrate the model Archimedes screw is modeled from experimental data and the
with experimental results. interpolation of this function contains errors of ±3%. It would be
Fig. 14 illustrates the mechanical torque of the Archimedes interesting to calibrate the whole model using optimization
screw as a function of the rotational speed or the flow of water procedures.
through it. The torque depends mainly on the degree that the In order to extend the use of our model to any Archimedes
Archimedes screw is filled. In fact, all the forces consisting of water screw, the equation modeling the influence of friction losses has to
bodies in the various buckets of the Archimedes screw enable the be replaced by a model taking into account Darcy-Weisbach's factor
development of the mechanical torque. For some operating points, fD, which has to be calibrated from Moody's chart.
the maximum error between the numerical model and the exper- Nevertheless, the simulation results are sufficiently accurate
imental results can reach 12%. This is mainly due to the previous since the final objective is to compare different structures in terms
errors, and to the particular form of our Archimedes screw, which of efficiency, profitability, sensitivity and parametric robustness.
instead of having a circular core, is composed of a folded sheet The established numerical model will depend on hydrological input
metal core which adds support surfaces creating a resisting addi- data and different technical solutions (fixed speed, variable speed).
tional torque. Moreover, the downstream water level also plays an For the next step, a multi-objective optimization will permit to
important role in the mechanical torque: a resistant torque output select the optimum solutions (Pareto Front) according to multi-
of the Archimedes screw is created if the water level is well above criteria specifications.
the end of the Archimedes screw. Additional experimental tests
have to be made in order to quantify theses drawbacks. Acknowledgment
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