LIFTS

ADVANCED SERVICES
What are lifts?

The lift is a type of vertical

transport equipment that
efficiently moves people or goods
between floors (levels, decks) of a
building, vessel or other
structure. generally powered by
electric motors that either drive
cables, hoist, or pump hydraulic
fluid to raise a cylindrical piston
like a jack.
Types of Lifts

Drive system

Traction
Hydraulic
(machine lift)
1. HYDRAULIC LIFTS

• Hydraulic elevators are

supported by a piston at the
bottom of the elevator that
pushes the elevator up. They
are used for low-rise
applications of 2-8 stories and
travel at a maximum speed of
200 feet per minute. The
machine room for hydraulic
elevators is located at the
lowest level adjacent to the
elevator shaft.
• Hydraulic elevators have many
two main types as follows:
A. Holed (Conventional) Hydraulic Elevators:-
They have a sheave that extends below the floor of the elevator pit,
which accepts the retracting piston as the elevator descends. Max
travel distance is approximately 60 feet.
B. Hole-less hydraulic elevator:-
It is further classified into three parts
a . Telescoping hydraulic elevator :- In this configuration, the telescoping
pistons are fixed at the base of the pit and do not require a sheave or
hole below the pit and has 2 or 3 pieces of telescoping pistons.
Telescoping pistons allow up to 50 feet of travel distance.
b. Non-telescoping (single stage) Hydraulic Elevators:- it has one piston
and only allows about 20 feet of travel distance.
c. Roped Hydraulic Elevators :- They use a combination of ropes and a
piston to move the elevator. Maximum travel distance is about 60 feet.
2.TRACTION ELEVETOR (PULL ELEVETOR) :-

•Principle : see – saw

the car is raised and lowered by traction steel ropes rather than
pushed from below.
•The ropes are attached to the elevator car, looped around a
sheave &connected to an electric motor.
•when the motor turns one way, the sheave raises the elevator;
when the motor turns the other way, the sheave lowers the
elevator.
•Typically, the sheave, the motor and the control system are all
housed in a machine room above the elevator shaft.
•The ropes that lift the car are also connected to a counterweight,
which hangs on the other side of the sheave.
the counterweight and the car are perfectly balanced.
•Basically, the motor only has to overcome friction -- the weight
on the other side does most of the work.
•Nowadays, some traction elevators are using flat steel belts
instead of conventional steel ropes. Flat steel belts are extremely
light due to its carbon fiber core and a high-friction coating, and
does not require any oil or lubricant.
A- Geared Traction Elevators: They have a gearbox that is attached to the
motor, which drives the wheel that moves the ropes. These are capable of
travel speeds up to 500 feet per minute.
B- Gear-less Traction Elevators: They have the wheel attached directly to
the motor. These are capable of speeds up to 2000 feet per minute.
C- Machine-Room-Less Elevators: They are typically traction elevators
that do not have a dedicated machine room above the elevator shaft. The
machine sits in the override space and the controls sit above the ceiling
adjacent to the elevator shaft.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRACTION & HYDRAULIC LIFTS
(overview)
TRACTION ( MACHINE )
lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel
attached to an electric motor above the
elevator shaft.
used for mid and high-rise applications. Much
higher travel speed than hydraulic.
Principle : see - saw
Components : control system, sheave, motor,
counterweight, guiding rail.
The machine room is located at the upper
most level, i.e., on the terrace.
HYDRAULIC
supported by a piston at the bottom of the
elevator that pushes the elevator up as an
electric motor forces oil.
used for low-rise applications of 2-8 stories.
Principle : Pascal’s pressure principle
Components : tank, motor, valve, actuator.
The machine room is located at the lowest
level adjacent to the elevator shaft.
TYPES OF LIFTS

CAPSULE LIFT PASSENGER LIFT

GOODS LIFT HOSPITAL LIFT

BED LIFT
 CAPSULE ELEVATORS
Capsule elevators act as Architectural highlights on prestigious buildings.
They can be called the ornament of a building as they enhance its beauty and bring life
into it. Their design, features and infinite options add its optimum travel comfort. They
have aesthetically attractive interiors with large glass viewing panel. Capsule lifts
demand specialized knowledge and we have the wide experience required to suit your
particular concept in capsule elevator operations.

CAPACITY
Capsule lifts can accommodate from 8 person to 49 persons for a single glass capsule.
Octagonal shaped capsule lifts are also being designed and can accommodate up to 13
persons.
CAPSULE LIFTS.
Capsule lifts manufacturing demand specialized knowledge and state of the art
technology. There are several different options pertaining to their design that are
available. They can have bottom lit marble floors, bell shaped roofs and cabin exteriors.
Capsule lifts can be traction machine based or hydraulic machine based depending on
the machine room location.
 PASSENGER LIFTS
•Passenger elevator is designed to move people
between floors of a building. Their capacity is related
to available floor space. Upto 8-10 floors these
operate at 1m/s and above 10 floors the speed starts
at 2.5 m/s to 10 m/s.
•There are some types of passenger elevators:
Sky lobbies- an intermediate interchange floor
where people can change from an express elevator
that stops only at the sky lobby to a local elevator
which stops at every floor within a segment of the
building.
Express elevators- An express elevator does not
serve all floors. it moves between the ground floor
and a sky lobby.
GOODS ELEVATORS

• Goods Elevator is essentially designed so as to fulfill material handling

requirement of Industry, Building, Hotel, Car workshop etc. for a properly
engineered installation, the choice of freight elevator requires
consideration of such factors as volume and weight of material to be
transported and the method of handling like manual or trolley driven.
• Precision made geared traction machines used
• The VVVF Drive used in the Elevator Results in Smooth Start and Smooth
Stop of the Elevator ensuring comfortable feeling. This drive also helps
reduce power consumption upto30% and also increases the life of the
Equipment.
• Flame Proofing and weather proofing for special application requirement
• Regenerative Drive
• The Down Collective Control Panel uses logic to collect the Passenger
while travelling in the down direction thereby reducing power
consumption and waiting time.
• Elevator is fitted with Flat Panel LED lights in the Cabin, Modern Push
Buttons, Scrolling Dot Matrix Led indicator for Direction, Seven Segment
Position Indicators.
HOSPITAL ELEVATORS

• Hospital bed elevators generally transport patients who are not well
enough to sit up even in a wheelchair.
• One of the features of bed elevators should be its ability to transport
the patient has smoothly as possible with minimal amount of
bumping and jostling.
• Many contemporary bed elevators are manufactured to consume
extremely low amounts of power and to be durable with a number
of safety features built-in.
• Hospital bed elevators generally draw very little power so that
should there be a power outage they are still operational off the
hospital's backup power supply.
• Most often there will be a rear and a front entry to the elevator
cabin.
• Used in hospital & treatment center. Designed for transporting large
carts or furniture
• Speed of elevator 100 – 350 Ft / min. - Two sides of front and back
doors for loading and unloading facilities. - Door width between 900
– 1100mm
BED LIFT (PATIENT LIFT)
• A patient lift may be either a sling lift or sit-to-stand lift. This is
an assistive device that allows patients in hospitals and nursing
homes and people receiving home health care to be transferred
between a bed and a chair or other similar resting places, by the
use of electrical or hydraulic power. Sling lifts are used for
patients whose mobility is limited. Sling lifts are mobile (or floor)
lifts or overhead lifts (suspended from ceiling, wall-mounted or
overhead tracks).[1][2]
• The sling lift has several advantages. It allows heavy patients to
be transferred while decreasing stress on caregivers while also
reducing the number of nursing staff required to move patients.
It also reduces the chance of orthopedic injury from lifting
patients.[3]
• Another kind of sling lift, which is called a ceiling lift, can be
permanently installed on the ceiling of a room in order to save
space.[4]
• Mistakes using patient lifts may result in serious injury and some
injuries that have been caused by improper use or malfunction of
sling lifts have led to civil lawsuits.[5][6
WORKING AND OPERATION
OF LIFT
 LIFT AND ITS COMPONENTS
• An elevator can be defined as an electric lift which is
used as vertical transportation of goods as well as people
among the floors in buildings
• Traction elevators are the most commonly used elevator
and it includes cable lifts, counterweight lifts or rope lifts.
It can be geared or gearless.

•GEARED ELEVATOR: Geared elevators, a worm gear is used to

control the mechanical movement of the car. Geared machines
can reach speed up to 500 feet per minute.

•GEARLESS ELEVATOR: Gearless traction elevators have a drive

sheave that is directly attached to the end of the motor and can
reach speeds up to 2,000 feet per minute.
 WORKING OF LIFT
•The following are the basic parts of lift:
•Cables or ropes
•A sheave or a pulley
•Counterweight
•Motor
•Vertical guide rails

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ELEVATOR:

• The working principle of an elevator or
lift is similar to the pulley system.
•A pulley system is used to draw the water from the well. This
pulley system can be designed with a bucket, a rope with a
wheel. A bucket is connected to a rope that passes throughout a
wheel.
•The similar mechanism is used for the elevator. The elevator is
moved using sophisticated motor instead of manual operation.
•When the lift is called to the
floor the following takes
place:
• the motor turns the sheave
or the pulley. The motor gives
the elevator the ability to
move by rotating the cables
attached to the car.

•The governor is a mechanical

device that governs the
speed of the elevator.

•The controller is responsible

for controlling the elevator’s
integrated functions. It
controls from floor selection
to the speed of the elevator.
•Brake is the piece of
equipment that is used to
hold the elevator in place
when it is in a stopped
position.

•The cables suspend the

elevator car in the hoistway.
Most commonly one end is
attached to the elevator car
and the other is attached to
the counter weight.

•The guide rails are the

backbone of elevator. This is
the component that runs the
entire length of the hoistway
and guides the elevator.
•Travelling cable supplies
power and communicates
control demands from the
elevator car back to the main
elevator controller.

•The counterweight is made

to eliminate additional wear
on the elevator machine and
motor. By balancing the
weight of the car and
passengers, the
counterweight means that
the motor and machine only
need to lift the difference
between the two weights,
not the entire weight of the
elevator car
PARTS OF LIFTS
TYPES OF LIFTS
• ELECTRIC LIFTS
• HYDRAULIC LIFT
• PNEUMATIC LIFT
TYPICAL TRACTION LIFT DESIGN
• COUNTER WEIGTH – IT IS CONNECTED WITH A ROPE OF ELEVATOR CAR TO
SUPPORT THE LOAD CARRIED BY GENERATOR. ITS MAIN FUNCTION IS TO GRIP
THE LIFT CAR AND REDUCE THE POWER OF GENERATOR.

• BUFFER – IT IS GROUP OF SPRINGS PLACED IN VERTICAL DIRECTION TO ABSORB

THE IMPACT OF LIFT CAR WHEN IT FALLS. IT IS PLACED IN LIFT PIT.
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
• ELECTRIC LIFTS – IT IS BASICALLY ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENABLED GEARLESS
TRACTION ELECTRIC TECHNOLOGY TO SSEND PEOPLE TO HIGHER BUILDING.
ELECTRIC LIFTS
• HYDRAULIC LIFT – THESE ARE POWERED BY PISTON THAT TRAVELS INSIDE A
CYLINDER . AN ELECTRIC MOTOR PUMPS HYDRAULIC OIL INTO THE CYLINDER TO
MOVE THE PISTON . THE PISTON SMOOTHLY LIFTS THE ELEVATOR.
HYDRAULIC LIFT
HYDRAULIC
LIFT
• PNEUMATIC LIFT – THE PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF THE LIFT IS BASED ON THE
ASCENDING PUSH GENERATED BY DIFFERENCE IN THE ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE
ON THE TOP OF CAR AND UNDER THE CAR. THE VACCUM REQUIRED BY THE
TURBINES OPERATING AS EXHAUST FANS, LOCATED AT THE TOP OF THE
ELEVATORS.
• A pneumatic lift elevator uses a pneumatic cylinder to move product
between elevations.
• The three major components of a pneumatic lift elevator are
➢Frame - The frame provides the basic structural integrity and
guidance track for the carriage.
➢Conveyor carriage - The carriage typically features a conveyor and
provides the method of transport from one elevation to another.
➢Machine guarding - The machine guarding eliminates pinch points
and provides a safe barrier around the equipment.
PNEUMATIC LIFT
INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR
LIFTS IN INDIA
IS 8216. 1976
ROPE LIFE
Lift rope life depends upon a multitude of factors and may extend over
periods ranging from a few months to several years.
CAUSE OF WEARING OUT OF ROPE
Wire ropes wear out from two causes: a) Breakage of the wires, and b)
Reduction in area caused by wearing of the outside wires. In normal
practice, the former is the more predominant.
METHODS OF INSPECTION :

1.Before starting inspection, all dirty and overlubricated ropes should

be cleaned. A hand lamp with a special clamp which can be anchored
with the lift rope may be used for inspection purposes.
2.For traction machines, the ropes on counterweight side from top of
the car, with the car located at the top of the lift shaft, should be
examined.
For basement drive machine the portions of the ropes leading from
the driving machine sheave and from the counterweight to the
overhead wheels should be examined from the car top as the car
IS 14665
part 1:2000
 CAPACITY
CALCULATIONS
OF LIFT

54
For design of lifts it is important to consider the
Handling capacity or maximum flow rate required by
the people and Interval or quality of service required.

Capacity :
Minimum size of car recommended for a single
purpose building is one suitable duty load of 884 Kg.
For large building car 2040 Kg. according to
requirement.
Handling Capacity & Round Trip Time(RTT) :
The handling capacity is calculated by the formula:

H= (300 x Q x 100)/T x P

Where
H = Handling capacity as the percentage of the peak population
handled during 5 min.
Q = Average number of passengers carried in a car
T = waiting interval, and
P = Total population to be handled during peak morning period.
(It is related to the area by a particular bank of lifts)
The value of ‘Q’ depends on the dimensions of the car. It may be
noted that the capacity loaded always to its maximum
capacity during each trip and, therefore, for calculate the
value of ‘Q’ is taken as 80% of the maximum carry capacity of
the car.

56
The waiting interval is calculated by the
formula :
T = RTT/N
Where,
T = waiting interval
N = number of lifts
RTT = round trip time, that is, the average
time required by each lift in taking one full
load of passengers from ground floor,
discharging them in various upper floors and
coming back to ground floor for taking fresh
passengers for the next trip.

57
RTT is the sum of the time required in the following
process :
a) Entry of the passengers on the ground floor,
b) Exit of the passengers on each floor of discharge,
c) Door closing time before each floor of discharge,
d) Door opening time on each discharging operation,
e) Acceleration periods,
f) Stopping and leveling periods,
g) Period of full rated speeds between stops going up,
and
h) Period of full rated speeds between stops going
down.
It is observed that the handling capacity is inversely
proportional to the waiting time which in turn is
proportional to RTT.

58
 The round trip time can be decreased not only by
increasing the speed of the lift but also by
improving the design of the equipment related to
opening and closing of the landing and car doors,
acceleration, deceleration, levelling and passenger
movement.
a) The most important factor in shortening the time
consumed between the entry and the exit of the
passengers to the lift car is the correct design of
the door and the proper car width, for comfortable
entry and exit for passengers, it has been found
that most suitable door width is 1000 mm and that
of car width is 2000.
b) The utilization of centre opening doors also favors
the door opening and closing time periods.
59
Calculation of R.T.T.
The most probable number of floors on which lift
may have to be stopped is given by statistical
formula:

Sn = n [ 1-(n-1)/n)Np]

Where
Np= Total number of passengers entering the car
at ground floor (Entrance Lobby) during peak
period which is equal to car capacity.
n = Total number of floors served above
ground floor.
Sn = Most probable number of stops.

60
Now,
R.T.T. = Entrance lobby time + Sn x floor serving
time + Return trip time (D-2d)/Vc.
Where, Sn = Probable number of stops
D = Total Lift travel in one direction (m)
d = Distance travelled during acceleration or
deceleration (m)
Vc = Contract speed of elevator in m/s also.

D = ½ ft2
Where,
f = acceleration in m/sec2
t = Time for acceleration
= 2 seconds for lifts upto 2.5 m/s.

61
 ADVANCE SERVICES
PROVISIONS TO BE MADE IN BUILDINGS FOR INSTALLATION OF LIFTS
LIFT INSTALLATION BY ZONE SYSYTEM

• ZONE SYSTEM ZONE-

- FOR BUILDING NOT > 15 LEVELS.

- ELEVATORS CAR STOPS AT EVERY LEVEL OF THE BUILDING.
- USED TO SAVE SPACES.

• TWO SYSTEM ZONE-

- FOR BUILDINGS >15 LEVEL AND >40 LEVELS.

- SYSTEM BREAK INTO TWO ZONE OF ELEVATORS.
- THE ELEVATOR OF THE BOTTOM AND SAME FOR THE TOP WILL NOT STOP AT ANY LOWER ZONE. -
-- NOT EFFECTIVE IN THE EVENT OF “OFF PEAK” AN INTERFLOOR SERVICE.
POSITION OF LIFT IN BUILDING

- LIFT SHOULD BE SITED IN THE CENTRAL AREA AND TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE PROXIMITYOF
ENTRANCES TO THE BUILDING AND STAIRCASES .

- WHEN THE BUILDING HAS TO HAVE A NO. OF PASSENGER LIFTS, IT IS USUALLY PREFERABLE TO GROUP
THEM TOGETHER RATHER THAN SPREAD THEM THROUGHT THE BUILDING.

- GROUPING OF LIFTS ALSO REDUCES THE COST OF INSTALLATION IN DEPARTMENTAL STORES SHOPPERS
MUST BE ENCOURAGED TO VISIT THE UPPER CELLS FLOOR AND THEREFORE LIFTS IN THIS BUILDINGS
SHOULD BE EASILY SEEN AND ACCESSIBLE .
THE NO. AND SIZE OF LIFTS :

THE NO. AND SIZE OF THE LIFTS MUST BE RELATED TO THE FOLLOWING :

- POPULATION OF THE BUILDING.

- TYPE OF BUILDING OCCUPANCY.
- THE STARTING AND FINISHING TIMES OF THE POPULATION , WHETHER STAGGERED OR UNIFIED.
- NO OF FLOORS AND HEIGHTS.
- POSITION OF BUILDING IN RELATION TO PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICES.
-A BUILDING NEAR A TRAFFIC TERMINAL GENERALLY HAS HIGH PASSANGER PEAKS DURING ARRIVAL
HOURS.
LIFT PLANNING IN BUILDING
- IN GENERAL A LIFT SHOULD BE SITUATED IN CONSPICUOUS CENTRAL POSITION WHICH DOES NOT OBSTRUCT .
- THE MAIN ENTRANCE TO THE BUILDING AND BE ADJACENT TO THE PRINCIPAL STAIRCASE.
- ESPECIALLY IN OFFICES AND HOTELS IT IS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE STAIRS .
- IT IS OFTEN PLACED WITHIN THE WELL OF THE STAIR.
- FOR LARGE HOTELS , DEPARTMENTAL STORE ETC WHERE LIFTS ARE GROUPED TOGETHER.
- THERE SHOULD BE ADEQUATE CRUSH SPACE PROVIDED IN FRONT OF EACH LIFT BATTERY ON EACH FLOOR.
- THE NO. OF LIFTS REQUIRED DEPENDING UPON THE NO. OF FLOORS TO BE SERVED AND ESTIMATED NO OF
PERSONS OCCUPY THE BUILDING DURING PEAK PERIODS.
- IT DEPENDS ALSO UPON SIZE OF THE CAR AND THE SPEED AT WHICH IT WILL TRAVEL.

- IN DETERMINING THE SIZE OF THE CAR THE AREA ALLOWED VARIOUS FROM 0.14 TO 0.28 M
SQUARE PER PERSON AND THIS IS OFTEN REDUCE WHEN A CAR IS PACKED DURING A PEAK PERIOD.

- IT IS EASIER TO ASSUME THE AVERAGE WEIGHT PER PERSON TO BE 76 KG.

- THE CARS SPEED VARY ACCORDING TO THE DISTANCE BETWEEN STOP AND THE LENGTH OF TRAVEL.

- THUS THE SPEED OF THE CAR IN A BLOCK OF FLATS MAY NOT EXCEED 30 M PER MINUTE.

- IN MULTISTOREYED; SPEED IS 90 TO 120 M PER MINUTE.

- THE SPEED OF GOOD LIFT MAY BE AS SLOW AS 24 M PER MINUTE.

- THE CERTAIN MULTISTOREYED BUILDING ECONOMY CAN BE ACHIEVED BY ARRANGING FOR THE
LIFT TO SERVE ALTERNATE FLOORS ONLY.
ADVANTAGES OF ELEVATOR

- EASIER FOR CONSUMER TO USE IT AT OFFICE, HOSPITAL, SHOPPING MALL ETC.

- PROVIDES COMFORT TO CONSUMERS.

- CAN CARRY HEAVY THINGS.

- USEFUL FOR EMERGENCY WHICH IS LIFT FOR FIRE EXTINGUISHER IS PROVIDED.

- FOR BUSINESS INTERESTS THAT REQUIRE A LOT OF CUSTOMERS.

DISADVANTAGES OF ELEVATOR

- HIGH COST OF ENERGY TO OPERATE THE ELEVATOR, THE COST OF THE EQUIPMENT.
- RISK OF CONTAMINATION FROM A HYDRAULIC FLUID SPILL FROM THE HYDRAULIC TANK AND THE NOISE AND
SLOW OPERATING SPEEDS.

- ELEVATORS REQUIRE FREQUENT MAINTAINENANCE.

WORKING AND
DESIGN OF
ESCALATORS
INTRODUCTION
• Escalators are one of the largest,
most expensive machines people
use on a regular basis, but they're
also one of the simplest.
• At its most basic level, an
escalator is just a simple variation
on the conveyer belt. A pair of
rotating chain loops pull a series of
stairs in a constant cycle, moving a
lot of people a short distance at a
good speed.
WORKING OF ESCALATOR
• The core of an escalator is a pair of
chains, looped around two pairs of gears.
An electric motor turns the drive gears at
the top, which rotate the chain loops. A
typical escalator uses a 100 horsepower
motor to rotate the gears. The motor and
chain system are housed inside the truss,
a metal structure extending between two
floors.
• Instead of moving a flat surface, as in a
conveyer belt, the chain loops move a As
the chains move, the steps always stay
level. At the top and bottom of the
escalator, the steps collapse on each
other, creating a flat platform. This makes
it easier to get on and off the escala The
maximum angle of inclination of an
escalator to the horizontal is 30 degrees
with a standard rise up to about 60 ft (18
m). tor. series of steps.
WORKING OF THE ESCALATOR
• Each step in the escalator has two sets of
wheels, which roll along two separate
tracks. The upper set (the wheels near the
top of the step) are connected to the
rotating chains, and so are pulled by the
drive gear at the top of the escalator. The
other set of wheels simply glides along its
track, following behind the first set.
• The tracks are spaced apart in such a way
that each step will always remain level. At
the top and bottom of the escalator, the
tracks level off to a horizontal position,
flattening the stairway. Each step has a
series of grooves in it, so it will fit together
with the steps behind it and in front of it
during this flattening.
• Each step has a series of grooves in it, so it
will fit together with the steps behind it and
in front of it during this flattening.
WORKING OF ESCALATOR
▪ In addition to rotating the main chain loops, the electric motor in an escalator
also moves the handrails. A handrail is simply a rubber conveyer belt that is
looped around a series of wheels. This belt is precisely configured so that it
moves at exactly the same speed as the steps, to give riders some stability.
▪ Once an elevator is filled up, you have to wait for it to reach its floor and return
before anybody else can get on. On an escalator, as soon as you load one person
on, there's space for another. Escalator: Electric motor
▪ Drive gear
▪ Handrail drive
▪ Handrail
▪ Step
▪ Return wheel
▪ Chain guide
▪ Inner rail
PLANNING AND DESIGN FACTORS
Circulation/Movement of
people in buildings
• Mode (horizontal or vertical)
• Movement type (natural or mechanically assisted)
• Design objectives
• Free flow of people & goods
• Safe operation, comfort & service
• Occupy minimum space & require less costs
• Aesthetics, disabled access, etc.
PLANNING AND DESIGN FACTORS
Human factors
• Physical dimensions
• Occupancy ellipse 600 mm by 450 mm (0.21 m2)
• Personal space (buffer zone)
• Female: 0.5 m2 (0.8 m diameter circle)
• Male: 0.8 m2 (1.0 m diameter circle)
• Density of occupation
• Desirable: 0.4 person/m2
• Comfortable: 1.0 person/m2
• Dense: 2.0 person/m2
• ‘Crowding’: 3.0 person/m2
• Crowded: 4.0 person/m2
ESCALATOR DESIGN FACTORS
Major design concerns
• Circulation efficiency
• Location & arrangement (prevent bottlenecks)
• Coordination with lobby, stairway & corridor
• Fire & safety regulations
• Handling capacity (quantity of service)
• Interval or waiting time (quality of service)
• Consideration by lift functions
• Passenger, goods, firemen, shuttle,
observation.
ESCALATOR TYPICAL DESIGN
• Speed: 0.5 and 0.65 m/s, up to 0.9-1.0 m/s on deep
systems like subway
• Step widths: 600, 800 & 1000 mm; min. step or
tread length = 400 mm
• Inclination: usually at angle 30o
• 35o if rise < 6 m & speed < 0.5 m/s
• Boarding and alighting areas
• Safe boarding, 1.33 – 2.33 flat steps
ESCALATOR TYPICAL APLICATION
Escalator – typical
applications
• Low- to medium-rise buildings
• Large no. of people e.g. airports,
subway stations, department stores,
shopping malls
• Escalator arrangements
• Parallel
• Multiple parallel
• Cross-over or criss-cross
• Walk around
Escalator: handling capacity
• N = (3600 x P x V x cos θ) / L
• N = no. of persons moved per hour
• P = no. of persons per step
• V = escalator speed (m/s)
• L = length of step (m)
• θ = angle of incline
• Ce = 60 V k s (persons/minutes)
• V = speed along the incline (m/s)
• k = average density of people (people/step)
• s = number of escalator steps per metre
STANDARD ESCALATOR STEP WIDTHS
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SHAPE
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
ARRANGEMENT
Interrupted arrangement(one way traffic) Crisscross arrangement(two way traffic)
COMPONENTS
Unit-2
 Telephone
TELEPHONE AND
and
communication
COMMUNICATION

Unit 2
 INTRODUCTION
• Telecommunication is a global term that indicates to exchange of information through electronic and
means over a significant distance.
• it consists of two or more stations that is supplied with transmitter and receiver devices.
• Devices included are telegraph, telephones, radio, microwave communication arrangements, fiber
optics, satellites and the internet.
• Data is transmitted in the form of carrier waves, which is then modulated into either analog or digital
signals.
• Initial telecommunication transmissions used analog signals, which were transmitted over copper wires.
• As both the analog and digital communications depends on electrical signals, transmitted data is
obtained almost instantaneously, regardless of the distance.
• Main distribution frame (MDF) connects components inside a telecommunications facility to cables and
subscriber carrier equipment. Every cable that supplies services to user telephones lines ends up at main
distribution frame and is distributed through main distribution frame to equipment within local exchanges.
• Jumping process is done in cabinet.
• Cabling is drawn to a building through overhead cable from distribution point.
• Cable-based casting service to building will go through basement floor and then reach to the main telecom
room through entry ducts.
• In a Main Telecom Room (MTR), it consists of cable trays or conduits and risers to provide horizontal and
vertical services.
• For high rise buildings exceeding 30 floors, a Floor Telecom Closet (FTC) must be selected for every 10
floors.
Floor Distribution Closet (FDC) Optical Distribution Frame (ODF)

Main Telecom Room (MTR)

BUILDING CHARACTERISTIC IN TELEPHONE
INSTALLATION
• Number storey
• The size of cable pairs
• Floor area
TELEPHONE CABLE INCOMING SIZE
• Categories 1
More than 5 storey and the area of floor exceeding incoming 650 m2 . Incoming size cable
exceeding of 50 pairs.
• Categories 2
Less than 5 storey and floor area less than 650 m2 . Incoming size less than 50 pairs of cables.
• Categories 3
Detached houses or bungalows for residential. 1 pairs of cable size.
APPLICATION
The typical requirement for high-rise buildings is to provide the needed capacity to the people
working/living/staying inside the venue. Fiber technology is a high quality, “future-proof” telecommunications and
multimedia services provided for high-speed connections via optical fiber technology. developers are encouraged
to engage with the telecommunication company in the early stages so that any process or
design issues may be resolved.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Spaces and Rooms
• A number of telecom rooms will be required in a building depending on its characteristics, namely,
main telecom room, mobile service room, rooftop mobile service room and floor telecom closet.
• Buildings should acquire telecom rooms that are vertically aligned and linked by a shared
containment system.
• Telecom room’s locations must not be in close proximity to any sources of heat, moisture, high
voltages, corrosive atmospheric or environmental conditions, radio frequency and electro-magnetic
interference. Besides that, the rooms must not be directly beneath or next to wet areas such as
showers, washrooms, swimming pool and garbage area.
 SAFETY MEASURES TAKEN IN TELECOMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
• All telecom spaces should be fitted with smoke detectors, which is connected to the building management system.
• All telecom spaces should be fitted with emergency lighting.
• All containment openings to telecom spaces must be sealed with a regulation fire retardant material.
• All doors to telecom rooms must be of solid wood core or steel construction, fire retardant with a minimum rating
of 2 hours.
• All doors to telecom rooms must be outward opening with an automatic door closer system fitted on the hinged
edge.

PATHWAYS (CONTAINMENT SYSTEM)

Requirements applied to containment systems:
The containment system must be designed so that installed cables do not exceed the minimum specified
bend radius.
• All metal containment parts must be free from sharp edges and earth bonded.
• Telecom riser openings must be sealed with a suitable fire retardant material.
• Cable trays must be easily accessible in common areas to facilitate any future provision of additional
cables.
• Any cable trays that are in areas accessible to the public and less than 4.8m above the floor must be
covered.
• For all containment systems a minimum separation must be maintained from sources of electromagnetic
interference.
 NETWORKS IN
BUILDINGS,EPABX
UNIT -II
 INTRODUCTION
• EPABX stands for Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange which is a
private telephone network used by the organizations and the companies
for various types of communication, either between the employees or
outside the clients.
• The EPABX may be defined as a switching system that makes available both
internal and external stitching functions of any organization.
• PBX which is Private Brand Exchange is a telephone exchange which is used
by a particular office or business, opposite to the one that a common
carrier or telephone company operates for many companies and businesses
for the general public.
• EPABX is essential equipment that has made daily working in the offices
and organizations much smoother and simpler, especially the area of
communication.
• This system is a switching system which has enabled both internal and
external stitching functions for any organization.
• To select an appropriate EPABX one need to have proper knowledge about
the traffic pattern inside the office.
• With the right utilization of the EPABX, all the internal and external
requirements of the organization are adequately served.
Authorization Code (Authcode)

Auto Dial

Automatic Call Distribution (ACD):

Busy Lamp

Call Forward Busy

 FEATURES
• Authorization CodeOF(Authcode)
EPABX::If you are away from your
office regularly, you may want a way to easily place calls and
charge them to your office phone. Subscribers to this
feature are assigned an authorization code (authcode). you
can use your authcode from any telephone on campus, calls
are charged to your telephone.
• Auto Dial: With AutoDial, you can dial that number with
the push of one button.
• Automatic Call Distribution (ACD): Automatic Call
Distribution (ACD) allows a large number of incoming calls
to be answered by a group of individuals who serve as the
ACD agents. Calls are automatically distributed to the
member agents on a most idle basis. The admin can tell how
many calls are in queue waiting to be answered, the wait
time of the oldest call in queue and which agents are logged
 FEATURES OF EPABX:

Call Hold

Call Park

Call Hunt

Call Transfer

Call Waiting
• Call Hold: Allows you to place a current call on hold. You can then
answer another ringing telephone, make an outgoing call, or retrieve
a waiting call.
• Call Hunt :Provides consistent coverage in your office without having
to forward your phone when you leave your desk. With Call Hunt
implemented on your telephone, an incoming call bounces to the
next available (not busy) telephone, allowing more staff to assist
callers, reducing the need for voice mail retrieval and customer
callbacks.
• Call Park: Call Park allows you to put a caller on hold, and retrieve
the call from a different telephone. Call Pickup This feature lets you
pick up your neighbor's phone line using your own phone, if one is
away from their desk.
• Call Transfer: Call Transfer allows you to transfer a call to another
telephone.
• Call Waiting: Allows a user to hear a tone when they are on the line
to notify them that another call is trying to reach them. Users have
the option of answering the second call or allowing it to go
unanswered. If answered, the user can toggle between calls using
the transfer button.
 FEATURES OF EPABX:
Consultation

Executive Intercom

Group Intercom

Caller ID

Last Number Redial (LNR):

• Consultation: The Consultation feature allows you to put one
number on hold and consult privately with another party.
• Executive Intercom :Works between two specially designated
telephone sets. When you press the Executive Intercom button on
your phone set, your message can be heard through the speaker of
the electronic set that you are calling. A twoway conversation is
possible, if the called party lifts his or her handset.
• Group Intercom: Permits a group of employees to contact each
other by dialing a two/three-digit (configurable) number assigned to
the telephone.
• Caller ID: At a glance, identify the name and telephone number of
the person calling.

• Caller ID : An Intercept Recording notifies callers of your new number

when it's been changed.

Last Number Redial (LNR): The Last Number Redial feature allows
subscribers to redial the last number dialed from their telephone set by
pushing the designated key.
 FEATURES OF EPABX:
Make Set Busy

Message Waiting Indicator (MWI)

Multiple Appearance Directory

Number (MADN

Simultaneous Ring (SimRing)

 FEATURES OF EPABX
• Make Set Busy: Allows ringing to be turned
off for all lines on your set. Only available for
phones that are configured with the
Automatic Call Distribution feature.
• Message Waiting Indicator (MWI): An
indicator tells you there is a voice mail
message waiting for you in your mailbox.
The indicator turns off when you have
listened to all your new messages.
• Multiple Appearance Directory Number
(MADN): With a MADN, your number can
ring at numerous locations anywhere on
FEATURES OF EPABX

Conference

Speed Calling

Voice Menu

Voice Mail
• Conference :Conference is the feature that allow multiple
subscribers to talk to each other as a grjoup. A conference
number with an optional password is configured in the
EPABX. Any subscriber can call this number and key in the
password to join the conference.
• Speed Calling :With Speed Call, one key on a multi line set
accepts codes entered by the user. Each of these codes is
associated with a given phone number on the user's Speed
Call list. one can program a list of 10, 30, or 50 frequently
called numbers. An access code or key can be used to
automatically dial the numbers.
• Voice Mail :The Announce Only voice mailbox feature
provides up to 4 minutes of message recording length.
• Voice Menu: Service Answers calls with a greeting, and
presents a series of options.
There are 4 different types of EPABX systems based on the
technology involved.
1. Analog PBX
• Uses “phone–box” system through which many phones are
connected through phone lines.
• Requires a person to operate the switchboard controlling the
calls.
• Companies providing service – Nortel, Toshiba, Panasonic.
2. Digital PBX
• Sound converted to digital signal and sent on a channel
through circuit switching.
• It is the way contemporary phone companies adopt to connect
to callers.
• Companies providing service - Uniphone Telecommunications,
Rexon Technology and Panasonic.
3. IP PBX
• Phones are equipped with a network
interface card and integrated into a network of
phones.
• These are newer and less used than some
of the older PBX systems.
• They are easily maintained, allow for
applications to be added to them, and
manage multiple simultaneous calls on a
single network. As Voice over IP technology
becomes more popular, these easy-to-
maintain systems are being used more.
4. Hybrid PBX
• It is a digital PBX with IP PBX capabilities.
• Popular, as it allows users to have the best
of both worlds.
• Older phones without a network chip can still
be used, but they can also be upgraded to
include network chips if the funds for an
upgrade become available.
• Service provider companies - Toshiba, Inter-
Tel, and Mitel.
ADVANTAGES:

3.3.1 Sharing of Resources: Within an office set up, the

employees can share phone lines. Several extensions may be
connected to a single phone line, thus reducing the overall phone
expenses. In case of external calls, they may be routed from a
single incoming mode and directed to the respective extension
number from there.
3.3.2 Easy Programming: The EPABX system is totally
programmable. It facilitates complex installation procedures and
other integrated requirements for communication.
3.3.3 Expandable System: With the growth of the company and
the communication needs, the basic network of business phone
system can also be expanded easily without much hassle.
3.3.4 Occupies Compact Space: The physical hub of an EPABX
system is low profile and does not require large space to be
accommodated. Hence space constraints are not an issue.
SECURITY SYSTEMS,BULGAR ALARMS
What is a burglar alarm?
Basically, the burglar alarm is a device that monitors the designated area or areas to detect the
presence of suspicious elements. The system takes the help of the sensor to detect such elements.
Once found, the system sends emergency signals to the user or to the monitor station if the user so
intends.
The components of Burglar Alarm The security alarm system generally consists of a number of
elements that work together to enhance the security of a place. The basic components of a burglar
alarm system are:
➢ Control panel
➢ Keypad
➢ Sensor
➢ Siren
➢ Flashing light
➢ Motion detector
How the entire system works?
➢ The work of the home security system begins with the sensors and motion detectors. These devices
are installed in different places that they monitor in their own ways. However, they send emergency
signals to the control panel once they detect something that surpasses their tolerance level.
➢ The control panel of the system works like the brain and decide the next step of action. Basically,
there are two different things that the control panel performs. It can set off an alarm located near the
house to alert the homeowner and the neighbors
➢ However, if the system is monitored from a centralized station, the control panel will send signals
there without setting off any audible alarm. In the basic models, the control panel uses the standard
telephone line to send the security message. However, some of the latest models do use the GSM
and internet to dispatch signals. So, they don't need any wires

Sensors of the Burglar Alarm:

There are different types of sensors used in the burglar alarm system. Some of them are used outdoors
while others are suitable for indoors.
Indoor sensors:
PIR:
The Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors are very commonly found in most burglar alarm systems. It is passive
in the sense that it captures the heat emitted from the objects. Therefore, it needs a clear sight of vision.
As human body emits more heat, the sensor can detect the presence of intruders.
• Ultrasonic detectors: These sensors send ultrasonic sound waves and receive them as they
bounce back from the fixed objects in the room. So, if any object moves the wave length
changes and the sensor detects moving object
• Microwave detectors: This type of sensor emits microwaves and detects discrepancies in
the signals through the receiver.
• Photoelectric beam systems: These sensors also emit infrared light beams. However, they
observe whether there is any obstruction in its way.

• Outdoor sensors:
• Vibration sensors: These sensors are mounted on walls or other structures. They detect any
vibration that occurs when that structure is attacked.
• Passive magnetic field detection: These sensors can be buried and it monitors the area with
the help of electro-magnetic field.
• E-field: These sensors too, work in a similar fashion; however
they are more programmable and can provide vigilance up to 4
meters of height.
APPLICATIONS:
➢ Burglar alarms are used for various safety purposes.
➢ These are electronic alarms designed in such way so as to alert users to any
unknown danger.
➢ These alarms are known for high end features like effective performance, fire &
corrosion resistance and durability.
➢ Sensors are connected to a control unit via low-voltage wiring or a narrow band
signal that is used to interact with a response device. The most common security
sensors are used to indicate the opening of a door or window or detect motion via
passive infrared (PIR). New construction systems are predominately hardwired for
economy Retrofit installations often use wireless systems for a faster, more
economical installation.
security systems:
security systems are indispensable to any type of building. They provide consistency in business
operations, safety of tangible assets, intellectual property and, above all, human life. Commercial
properties, airports, retail shops, industrial enterprises, financial and governmental institutions, schools,
medical facilities, power-, oil and gas companies as well as residential complexes require a unique set of
safety and security measures because each type of property is vulnerable to different hazards.

Apartment building security systems will differ from a security system for commercial building because
security objectives are different for each type of facility.
• In the majority of cases, a security system for commercial building presents a more comprehensive
solution than typical apartment building security systems and comprises:
• Access control including multi-layered commercial access control
• Perimeter security
• CCTV
• Various sensors and detectors, such as infrared, microwave or laser sensors
• Intruder alarms
• Fire detection system
• Fire extinguisher system
Access control
Access control permits access by authorized personnel to a site, building, room or other
secure installation. Electronic access control systems may allow access using credentials such as:
➢ Passcodes.
➢ PINs.
➢ Key cards.
➢ Access badges.
➢ Fingerprints.
➢ Keys.
➢ Key fobs.
➢ Video verification.
Access information can be transmitted to a centralized access system where it can be compared to a
database of authorized personnel.
CCTV (closed-circuit TV) systems
CCTV systems generally consist of a number of security cameras connected to a central digital video recorder
(DVR) or computer by cables such as ethernet cables or via a Wi-Fi signal. Cameras can include features such
as:
➢ Infrared or night vision.
➢ License plate or facial recognition.
➢ Automatic motion detectors.
➢ Lighting
An important consideration when installing a CCTV system is the quality of the
recorded footage and the resolution of the cameras. A clear image is required if the
footage is to be used in any legal proceedings. One difficulty for large businesses is
how to monitor multiple camera feeds in a cost effective manner. Video analytics
can help automate CCTV monitoring and analyze footage without the need for
additional manpower. Video analytics examines video output for recognizable
patterns of movement that might be associated with suspicious behavior, allowing
surveillance to focus on potentially important events.
Disk indexing and time-stamping can make it easier to locate footage.
CCTV images can be transmitted to a remote monitoring facility or can be accessed
on remote devices such as mobile phones, allowing responses to be controlled, such
as police or fire service action, or in some cases to permit access and de-
activate alarms.
Intruder alarms:
Also known as security or burglar alarms, intruder alarms detect unauthorized entry into
a site, building, room or secure installation (such as a safe). They can work through a
number of sensor types, such as:
➢ Hermetically sealed switches.
➢ Passive infra-red motion detectors.
➢ Photoelectric beam systems.
➢ Glass break acoustic detectors.
➢ The signals from these sensors are sent back to a central control unit via a wired or
wireless network. In high-end installations, these units may be located in a
remote facility where staff members can monitor activities, mobilize security personnel
or contact the police in an emergency.
➢ Intruder alarm systems may also emit an audible alarm. This serves two purposes: it
draws attention to the break-in, and makes it unpleasant for the intruder to remain
onsite
Perimeter security:
• Perimeter security can prevent access onto a property through means
such as; walls, fences, infra-red perimeter beams, bollards and so on.
• At the points of entry, security guards or other access controls may be
installed. Gates, barriers, turnstiles, shutters, and screens can be used
to close these points outside of business hours.
• Care must be taken that the property’s exterior is independent
from trees, shrubs and other obstacles which could be used to
approach the building while hidden from sight
Security assessments:
Security assessments can be useful to assess the needs of an
organization and its estate and to determine its weak points. Advice can
then be given on which components are necessary to build an effective
system that reduces incidents on site. A thorough assessment will also
take local crime trends into account when devising a solution.
It is important that security solutions remain up-to-date, reflecting
emerging threats and changing business needs, and that systems and
procedures are tested and re-assessed regularly.
 Building
Surveillance
Systems
What is surveillance?!

• Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, activities, or

information for the purpose of influencing, managing or
directing. This can include observation from a distance by
means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit
television (CCTV), or interception of electronically
transmitted information, such as Internet traffic. It can also
include simple technical methods, such as human
intelligence gathering and postal interception.
• Digital recording—State-of-the-art DVRs and NVRs supply optimal security and
numerous advantages including seamless assimilation along with other protection
systems
• Remote monitoring—IP-based video surveillance security systems, using existing
corporate networks and the Internet to transmit and store digital images, enable
monitoring of video data from anyplace at any time. Remote login and monitoring
streamlines operations, increases efficiency and, most importantly, decreases expenses.
Off-site video archiving enhances on-site security by preventing local-system
tampering
• Interior and exterior—CCTV options are created for both indoor and outdoor use,
supplying clients with the maximum protection and security
• Dome/matrix systems—Dome systems conceal the essential components of CCTV, so
it’s hard to follow where the camera is aiming. The camera’s 360-degree range, coupled
with pan, zoom, and tilt capabilities, offers a broad range of views. This reduces the
number of cameras, decreasing overall cost
• Covert and special applications—In addition to discreet dome systems with tilt-zoom
functionality, cameras can be disguised as smoke detectors or even clocks
• There are many great systems available on the market
today. From those that you can speak to from a remote
area to those that you simply monitor, modern technology
has made it easier than ever before to protect your home.
• Such surveillance systems are easy to install and can
be monitored either by you yourself or by a top security
company like BSS. Either way, you’ve gained an extra
measure of protection for your home.
• Surveillance systems can reduce your homeowner’s insurance
drastically. You’ll appreciate getting discounts on your insurance
and being able to save money.
• With modern technology what it is today, you can save a lot by
installing video surveillance systems and it won’t be that
expensive to do. Installation can be done in a few short hours.
SECURITY / FIRE SYSTEMS
•Access Control
•Fire and Life Safety Systems
•Intrusion/Burglar Alarms and Detection
•Video Surveillance Systems
•Systems Integration
•Intercom Systems
•Information Technology
•Cabling Data and Voice Services
•Central Station Monitoring
 ACCESS CONTROL

• The control systems is a computerized, intelligent network of electronic devices designed to monitor and control the
mechanical electronics, and lighting systems in a building
• In the fields of physical security and information security, access control (AC) is the selective restriction of access to a
place or other resource. while access management describes the process. The act of accessing may mean consuming,
entering, or using. Permission to access a resource is called authorization. Locks and login credentials are two analogous
mechanisms of access control.
PHYSICAL SECURITY
• Geographical access control may be enforced by personnel (e.g., border guard, bouncer, ticket checker), or with a device
such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid circumventing this access control. An alternative of access control in the
strict sense (physically controlling access itself) is a system of checking authorized presence, see e.g. Ticket controller
(transportation). A variant is exit control, e.g. of a shop (checkout) or a country.
• The term access control refers to the practice of restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized
persons. Physical access control can be achieved by a human (a guard, bouncer, or receptionist), through mechanical
means such as locks and keys, or through technological means such as access control systems like the mantrap. Within
these environments, physical key management may also be employed as a means of further managing and monitoring
access to mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets.
• Physical access control is a matter of who, where, and when. An access control system determines who is allowed to enter
or exit, where they are allowed to exit or enter, and when they are allowed to enter or exit. Historically, this was partially
accomplished through keys and locks. When a door is locked, only someone with a key can enter through the door,
depending on how the lock is configured. Mechanical locks and keys do not allow restriction of the key holder to specific
times or dates. Mechanical locks and keys do not provide records of the key used on any specific door, and the keys can be
easily copied or transferred to an unauthorized person. When a mechanical key is lost or the key holder is no longer
authorized to use the protected area, the locks must be re-keyed.
• Electronic access control uses computers to solve the limitations of mechanical locks and keys. A wide range
of credentials can be used to replace mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on the
credential presented. When access is granted, the door is unlocked for a predetermined time and the transaction is
recorded. When access is refused, the door remains locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will also
monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after being unlocked.
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION
• When a credential is presented to a reader, the reader sends the credential's information, usually a number, to a control
panel, a highly reliable processor. The control panel compares the credential's number to an access control list, grants or
denies the presented request, and sends a transaction log to a database. When access is denied based on the access
control list, the door remains locked. If there is a match between the credential and the access control list, the control
panel operates a relay that in turn unlocks the door. The control panel also ignores a door open signal to prevent an alarm.
Often the reader provides feedback, such as a flashing red LED for an access denied and a flashing green LED for an access
granted.
• The above description illustrates a single factor transaction. Credentials can be passed around, thus subverting the access
control list. For example, Alice has access rights to the server room, but Bob does not. Alice either gives Bob her
credential, or Bob takes it; he now has access to the server room. To prevent this, two-factor authentication can be used.
In a two factor transaction, the presented credential and a second factor are needed for access to be granted; another
factor can be a PIN, a second credential, operator intervention, or a biometric input.
• There are three types (factors) of authenticating information:
• something the user knows, e.g. a password, pass-phrase or PIN
• something the user has, such as smart card or a key fob
• something the user is, such as fingerprint, verified by biometric measurement
• Passwords are a common means of verifying a user's identity before access is given to information systems. In addition, a
fourth factor of authentication is now recognized: someone you know, whereby another person who knows you can
provide a human element of authentication in situations where systems have been set up to allow for such scenarios. For
example, a user may have their password, but have forgotten their smart card. In such a scenario, if the user is known to
designated cohorts, the cohorts may provide their smart card and password, in combination with the extant factor of the
user in question, and thus provide two factors for the user with the missing credential, giving three factors overall to allow
access.
• Credential
• A credential is a physical/tangible object, a piece of knowledge, or a facet of a person's physical being that enables an
individual access to a given physical facility or computer-based information system. Typically, credentials can be
something a person knows (such as a number or PIN), something they have (such as an access badge), something they are
(such as a biometric feature), or some combination of these items. This is known as multi-factor authentication. The
typical credential is an access card or key-fob, and newer software can also turn users' smartphones into access devices.
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Various control system components
Components of an access control system include:
•An access control panel (also known as a controller)
•An access-controlled entry, such as a door, turnstile, parking gate, elevator, or other physical barrier
•A reader installed near the entry. (In cases where the exit is also controlled, a second reader is used on the
opposite side of the entry.)
•Locking hardware, such as electric door strikes and electromagnetic locks
•A magnetic door switch for monitoring door position
•Request-to-exit (REX) devices for allowing egress. When a REX button is pushed, or the motion detector detects
motion at the door, the door alarm is temporarily ignored while the door is opened. Exiting a door without having to
electrically unlock the door is called mechanical free egress. This is an important safety feature. In cases where the
lock must be electrically unlocked on exit, the request-to-exit device also unlocks the door.
ACCESS CONTROL TOPOLOGY
• Access control decisions are made by comparing the credential to an access control list. This look-up can be done
by a host or server, by an access control panel, or by a reader. The development of access control systems has
seen a steady push of the look-up out from a central host to the edge of the system, or the reader. The
predominant topology circa 2009 is hub and spoke with a control panel as the hub, and the readers as the spokes.
The look-up and control functions are by the control panel. The spokes communicate through a serial connection;
usually RS-485. Some manufactures are pushing the decision making to the edge by placing a controller at the
door. The controllers are IP enabled, and connect to a host and database using standard networks

Typical access control door wiring Access control door wiring when using intelligent readers
ACCESS FLOORING
AND SERVER
ROOMS
 INTRODUCTION TO ACCESS FLOORING
• The main purpose for the installation of a raised floor
is to create a voided floor space in which services,
such as electrical, optical, telecommunication,
heating/ventilation and mechanical can be routed. A
raised access floor system, as opposed to a raised
floor, provides the means of accessing key or whole
areas of the subfloor void in order to install, repair,
alter or remove those services.
CATEGORIES OF RAISED ACCESS
FLOORING
• There are two categories of raised access flooring
systems; partial and full.
• Partial access floor systems relate mainly to a
continuously decked raised floor, formed with
individual panels or boards that are supported on
joists or pedestals to suit a determined height. The
boards/panels are ‘permanently’ fixed to the
means of support and access to the subfloor void
can only be performed via a series of
hinged/removable traps or hatches, or through a
run of removable flooring.
• Full access floor systems relate to the installation
of a continuously decked raised floor, formed with
individual panels, supported on pedestals to suit a
determined height. The raised floor panels are
manufactured to a regular size, are removable
from their installed position and apart from cut
panels, are wholly interchangeable within the
installed system. For the purposes of this AIS site
guide, all references to raised access floor
systems made henceforth shall be for full access
floor systems.
TYPES OF RAISED ACCESS FLOORING
• The type of raised access flooring required is
determined by the needs of the intended user, the
environment in which the floor system is to be installed
and the anticipated loads that will be imposed on the
floor system, both during installation and following
handover to the client/end user.
• Whilst actual requirements should be discussed with a
manufacturer, the general guideline for choosing the
structural grades of raised access flooring is as
follows:
• Light grade: General office use without heavy
equipment or storage items.
• Medium grade: General office use where heavy office-
type equipment will be used – cabinets, photocopiers,
heavy desking etc. Walkway and circulation areas.
• Heavy grade: Computer/PABX rooms, heavy storage
areas, high public traffic areas
• Extra heavy grade: As heavy grade, but to incorporate
particular client loading requirements.
FACTORS FOR HEIGHT OF ACCESS FLOORING
• The height of the raised access floor system above the
subfloor will be determined by a combination of three
factors:
• a) The extent and type of services required within the
subfloor void.
• b) The minimum distance allowed between the finished
floor surface to the underside of the ceiling as directed
by current regulations.
• c) The range of pedestals available from the
manufacturer.
• Also the materials are varied from galvanized steel,
brushed stainless steel, linoleum, pvc/rubber, to
polished ceramic, multi layered parquet and also
concrete and wood tiles.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
• STEP 1. Check the room dimensions and
configuration against approved drawings.
Using a builder's transit or laser, shoot in
the areas to receive access floor to
determine how much variation there is in
the level of the subfloor within the room
and at the termination points, such as
elevator and door sills and concrete
ledges. If the floor cannot be installed per
your drawings, notify the general
contractor superintendent for agreement
on corrective action. The FFH may have to
be changed.
• STEP 2. Find the starting point in the room
as shown on the drawings. Seek approval
to change the starting point if cut panels
at the perimeter will be too small to allow
proper support. Recommended minimum
size of the cut panels for proper support is
6 inches wide.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
• STEP 3. Having established the proper
starting point, lay out two chalk lines at
right angles to make sure the room is
square. Chalk lines must be used as
control lines for installing the access floor.
The reason for laying chalk lines for
installing the access floor. The reason for
laying chalk lines rather than just
measuring from the walls is that the walls
are not always square. The chalk line
system gives a square reference point. Be
careful to keep the access floor square at
all times during installation.
• NOTE: When starting the installation in the
corner of a room, stretch a dry line for
line "B" before laying down chalk. Check
the distance from "B" line and the "A"
chalk line to the walls. If the distance to
the walls is over 24 inches at any point,
move the entire line closer to the wall so
that the greatest distance is 24 inches or
less.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
• STEP 4. Chalk the two control lines and
spread pedestal assemblies in an area
approximately 48 feet x 24 feet, making
sure to start at the approved starting
point.
• STEP 5. Using a laser or transit, shoot in
a pedestal assembly to the proper FFH
every 8 or 10 feet in both directions
(depending on the length of your leveling
bar.) By spanning two pedestals at proper
FFH with the levelling bar, adjust all the
pedestals in between to the bottom
surface of the bar. As you adjust each
pedestal assembly, centre it on the two-
foot marks permanently marked on the
bar. STEP 6. Glue each pedestal base in
the spread area to the subfloor.
• Using a spatula type device, tilt up base
plate without changing its location and
apply adhesive to bottom of base plate.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
• STEP 7. If stringers are a part of the system, bolt them to the pedestal heads beginning at the
starting point.
• STEP 8. Beginning again at the start point, lay four rows of panels along the longest wall. Check to
see that you are staying on control lines, and that panels do not rock.
• Step 9. Check for rocking panels.
• Step 10. lay panels in opposite direction.
• Step 11. Align Grid.
• Step 12. Proceed with next row.
SERVER ROOMS
• A server room is a room used to store,
power and operate computer
servers and their associated components. This
room is part of a data centre, which typical
houses several physical servers lined up
together in different form factors, such as
rack mounted, or in tower or blade
enclosures.
• The ceiling of the room should be at least 9
feet high. minimum clearance of 24 inches are
recommended for new construction of
large server rooms.
• Perimeter Security :- All server rooms should
have solid walls extending from the floor to
ceiling. In areas where raised floors or a drop
ceiling are in place, walls should extend below
the raised floor and above the drop ceiling to
prevent an individual from entering the room
by climbing under the raised floor or over the
wall by accessing the maintenance space.
Locked racks or a cage may also be used to
provide a secure perimeter layer.
STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
• The server room must be located in an area that can
bear the weight of all systems, including foreseeable
planned growth.
• When feasible, door frame size should be sufficient
to allow for easy introduction and removal of
equipment. For new construction, doors should be
42 inches wide and 9 feet tall. If hinges are exterior
to the room, doors should use locking hinge pins.
• The ceiling of the room should be at least 9 feet
high.
• The server room should not have exterior windows.
• The arrangement of equipment should provide for
adequate clearance around computing racks; 4 feet
at the front and 3 feet at the rear is recommended.
• For new construction, an anti-static floor surface is
recommended. Raised floors with a minimum
clearance of 24 inches are recommended for new
construction of large server rooms.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
• Temperature, fire, flood, power play an important role in
a server room. Easy access cannot be given and a lock
system [not the solid key system] must be provided.
• Power : Large rooms should have a clearly-labeled
emergency power-off switch.
• Server rooms should have emergency lighting to provide
for life safety in the event of a power outage.
• Temperature control :The server room should have
dedicated, redundant air conditioning sufficient to
maintain temperatures between 65 and 70 degrees
Fahrenheit. Fully enclosed racks with built-in cooling may
also be used.
• Others : Cabling must be maintained in an orderly fashion
to reduce the possibility of an accidental outage.
• The manager of the server room must maintain an
accurate inventory of all systems in the server room.
• Server rooms should not have conspicuous signage that
could attract unnecessary attention or attack.
• Power Considerations : A properly configured server
room can use a significant amount of power
FLOORING IN SERVER ROOM
• To provide scalability and sustainability,
server room flooring solution should be
carefully planned.
• The raised floor is a widely used
feature of server room installations.
The design principals of the server
room raised floor have remained rather
unchanged for decades. The junction of
IT and telecommunications has
approved again the usefulness of
assembling computer rooms with raised
floor solutions utilized. Originally, server
room raised floor concept was
developed and implemented to deliver
the following utility:
• supports, tracks, conduits for cabling .
• a copper grounding grid for of
equipment.
• cold air distribution system for air
conditioning.
UNIT – 3
PORTABLE FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
AND
NBC STANDARDS
 PORTABLE FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT: :

• Fire fighting equipment is equipment designed to extinguish fires or

protect the user from fire.
• It may be used by trained fire fighters, untrained users at the scene
of a fire, or built into a building's infrastructure (such as a sprinkler
system).
• Fire fighting equipment includes not only fire hoses and fire
extinguishers but also fire-resistant protective clothing, fire-resistant
gloves, respirators, and communication equipment.

THERE ARE 4 CLASSES OF FIRE :

• CLASS A : Ordinary combustibles or fibrous material such as wood,

paper, cloth, rubber and some plastics.
• CLASS B : Flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline,
kerosene, paint, paint thinners and propane.
• CLASS C : Energized electrical equipment such as appliances,
switches, panel boxes and power tools.
• CLASS D : Certain combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium,
potassium and sodium.
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT IS GENERALLY COMPRISED OF HUNDREDS OF
DIFFERENT PIECES OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNOLOGY.

•EXTINGUISHERS :
• Fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to
extinguish or control small fires often in emergency situations.
• A fire extinguisher consists of a hand held cylindrical pressure vessel
containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire.
• Two types of fire extinguishers :

1. STORED PRESSURE – In this, the expellant is stored

In same chamber as fire fighting agent.
With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is
Typically used, water and foam extinguishers
Typically use air.

2. CATRIDGE OPERATED EXTINGUISHER – It contains expellant

Gas in a separate catridge that is punctured prior
To discharge, exposing the propellant to the
Extinguishing agent. This type is used in primary
Areas like industries. They allow the operator to
Discharge the extinguisher, recharge it and return to
The fire in a reasonable amount of time. These
Extinguishers use compressed carbon dioxide.
•Fire fighter’s gear – Fire resistant outer suit,
Inner lining suit, inner and outer gloves, woolen
Socks, fire resistant shoes, helmet
(with or without headlight), communication
System, and breathing apparatus.

•Installed fire fighting system –•Main

Water supply network, hydrant, sprinkler
(automatic or manual), emergency fuel
And electric cut off system, portable
Generators, and portable pumps.

•Communication equipment – Walkie-talkie, radio, broadcasts,

landline telephone, sound powered telephone, cell or mobile phone,
and voice pipe.

•Fire detection and alarm systems –

Smoke, frame, spark detectors, local,
Centralized automatic, semi-automatic,
And manual fire alarm systems.

•Other accessories – water and sand bucket, shovel, hammer, fire

axe, cutters, hooks, fire blanket, emergency lifesaving apparatus, and
emergency lights.
 NBC REGULATIONS
Standards for spaces in high rise buildings:
A) fire escape shall not be taken into account while
calculating the number of
Staircases for a building.

B) all fire escapes shall be directly connected to the

ground.

C) entrance to the fire escape shall be separate and

remote from internal staircase.

D) the route to fire escape shall be free of obstructions

E) fire escape shall be constructed of non-combustible

materials.

F) fire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than
125 cm wide with 25cm treads and risers not more than
19cm.

G) handrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm.

H) fire escape staircase in the mercantile, business,

 Spiral Stairs

A) The use of spiral staircase shall be limited to low occupant load and to a building
height 9 m.
B) A spiral stair shall not be less than 150 cm in diameter and shall be designed to
give the adequate headroom.

WIDTH OF STAIRCASES:
The following minimum width shall be provided for staircases:
a) Residential buildings (dwellings) 1.0 m
b) Residential hotel buildings 1.5 m
c) Assembly buildings like auditorium, 2.0 m theatres and cinemas
d) Educational buildings up to 30 m in 1.5 m height
e) Institutional buildings like hospitals 2.0 m
f) All other buildings 1.5 m
WIDTH OF THREAD:
• The minimum width of tread without nosing shall be 250 mm
for internal staircase of residential buildings.
• This shall be 300 mm for assembly, hotels, educational,
institutional, business and other buildings.
• The treads shall be constructed and maintained in a manner to
prevent slipping.
HEIGHT OF RAISER:
• The maximum height of riser shall be 190 mm for residential
buildings and150mm for other buildings and the number shall be limited
to 15 per flight.

HAND RAILS:
• Handrails shall be provided at a height of 1 000 mm to be measured
from the base of the middle of the treads to the top of the handrails.
• Balusters/railing shall be provided such that the width of staircase does
not
reduce.
WET RISER SYSTEM AND
SPRINKLER SYSTEM
 A wet riser is a system of valves and pipe work which are
kept permanently charged with water. Dry and wet rising
mains are intended for use by the Fire Brigade or other
trained personnel and provide a readily available means
of delivering considerable quantities of water to
extinguish or to prevent the spread of fire. A wet riser is
WET RISER SYSTEM kept permanently charged with water either directly
from a storage tank, via booster

A Wet riser is a supply system intended to

distribute water to multiple levels or
compartments of a building, as a component of
its fire fighting systems.
Wet rising mains are fitted in tall buildings due to
the excessive pressures required to pump water
to high levels.
 WET RISER SUPPLY SYSTEM
They are advantageous to the fire service in two respects.
Firstly they provide a fixed distribution system within the
building that requires no fire service resources or
equipment. Secondly it is designed as part of, and to
maintain, the compartmentation of the building.

Components of wet riser system

Wet rising mains consist of vertical pipes similar to the dry

rising main system with landing valves at each floor except
the ground.

The pipe system is connected to a permanent water supply

normally a tank fed from the town mains. Duplicate
automatic pumps, one duty and one standby supply this
water to the pipe system.
The tanks are fitted with an automatic
warning system to indicate a low water
level.
At protracted incidents the wet rising
main tank may need to be augmented
and this can be achieved using
conventional Fire appliances and
additional water supplies (Hydrant,
Open water etc).

Wet rising mains are designed to supply

1500 litres per minute for 45 minutes as
a minimum.
Due to the height of the building and
the pressures used, water pressure
reduction valves are fitted to the
outlets at each floor.
 SPRINKLER SYSTEM
A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection method, consisting of a water supply system, providing
adequate pressure and flowrate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire sprinklers are
connected.

Types of sprinkler systems

PRE-ACTION
Pre-action fire sprinkler systems are filled with air and water is allowed to pass through when the smoke
alarm or detector goes off. This type of system requires two triggers to start water flow.

It helps greatly that the pre-action fire sprinkler can be set to prevent water from spouting in case of a false
alarm or a mechanical failure. The pre-action system is good for use in places where the sprinklers are only
necessary when there is an actual fire so other items in the building do not get water damage from an
accidental sprinkling. Such buildings include libraries and data centers.

These places contain items of high value like electronics and goods damageable by water such as books
Dry pipe sprinkler system
 DRY PIPE
Dry pipe sprinklers are similar to pre-action
systems as they use pressurized air in the
pipe which exits before water escapes. This
causes a minute delay in water discharge but
is ideal for buildings with low temperatures so
the pipes do not freeze.

These fire sprinkler systems have a fast

opening tool to get rid of the air and speed up
the flow of water.

Warehouses located in the north are a good

example of what buildings should use dry pipe
sprinklers.
 WET RISER

Wet pipe fire sprinklers constantly

have water in them. This allows
for a quick reaction to a fire and is
the most common type of
sprinkler installed in buildings.
A type of building that uses the
wet pipe system is a high-rise or
office building with a few floors.
This fire sprinkler system is cost
efficient and low maintenance.
 DELUGE SYSTEM
Deluge" systems are systems in which all sprinklers
connected to the water piping system are open, in that the
heat sensing operating element is removed, or specifically
designed as such.

These systems are used for special hazards where rapid fire
spread is a concern, as they provide a simultaneous
application of water over the entire hazard.

These types of fire sprinkler systems also need a smoke or

heat detector like the pre-action system.

A deluge system has open nozzles that can be used when a

hazard is present. When flammable liquids are spread
across a floor, deluge fire sprinklers are good to have.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER
● An automatic fire sprinkler system
typically comprises a series of individual
components including; Pipe, Stop Valve,
Alarm Valve, Fire Sprinkler (head), Alarm
Test Valve and Motorised Alarm Bell
(Gong).

● PURPOSE OF EACH COMPONENT

● Stop Valve:The Stop Valve is used to

isolate the water supply, it may also be
called the isolating valve. The stop valve is
used to isolate (stop) the water supply
coming into the fire sprinkler system.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER
● Valve Monitor :that is used to monitor the state (open or
closed) of the Stop Valve. The water within an automatic
fire sprinkler system can be divided into two parts;
● Water Supply :This is the water being fed into an
automatic fire sprinkler system from a water supply
● Installation :The water after the stop valve forms part of
the installation.

● Alarm Valve:The Alarm Valve (also known as an 'alarm

check valve') is used to control the flow of water into the
fire sprinkler system. This is accomplished by providing a
one way (check) valve that is closed when the water
pressure on the fire sprinkler side of the valve exceeds
the water supply pressure.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER
● Automatic Fire Sprinkler :
● The Fire Sprinkler is also used to control the flow of
water.
● It is essentially a valve that when exposed for a
sufficient time to a temperature at or above the
temperature rating of the heat sensitive element (glass
bulb or fusible link) releases, allowing water to flow
from only the affected sprinkler.
● The operation and subsequent water flow of an
automatic fire sprinkler will lead to a drop in pressure
within the fire sprinkler system after the alarm valve.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER
● Alarm Test Valve :The alarm test valve is a small
valve, normally secured in the closed position. The
alarm test valve is fitted between the sprinkler
system side of the alarm valve and the drain. The
purpose of the alarm valve is when opened to
simulate the flow of water from a single automatic
fire sprinkler.

● Motorised Alarm Bell or Gong :The motorised alarm

bell or gong is a mechanical device, operated by the
flow of water oscillating a hammer that strikes a
gong, causing an audible alarm signal.
 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER
Automatic sprinkler system shall be installed in the following buildings:

a) All buildings of 24 m. and above in height, except group housing and 45 m. and above in case of apartment
/group housing society building.

b) Hotels below l5 m. in height and above 1000 sq m. built up area at each floor and or if basement is existing.

c) All hotels, mercantile, and institutional buildings of 15 m. and above.

d) Mercantile building having basement more than one floor but below 15 m. (floor area not exceeding 750 sq m.)
e) Underground Shopping Complex.

f) Underground car / scooter parking /enclosed car parking.

g) Basement area 200 sq m. and above.

ii) The number of Fire Extinguisher required shall be reduced by half.

 FIRE HYDRANT,
CLASS OF FIRE& OCCAPANCY
 FIRE HYDRANT,

➢ A FIRE HYDRANT IS A CONNECTION POINT BY

WHICH FIREFIGHTERS CAN TAP INTO A WATER SUPPLY. IT IS A
COMPONENT OF ACTIVE FIRE PROTECTION.

THIS SYSTEM IS CAPABLE OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES OF LARGE

SIZES IN SMALL TIME

FIRE HYDRANT THROW WATER EITH GREAT PREASSURE

THIS SYSTEM IS DESIGNED IN RINGS SO TO RECEIVE WATER AT A

PLACE VIA TWO ROUTS
PARTS IN HYDRANTS

➢ THE UPPER SECTION OF PART IS REFFERED AS

HEAD OR NOZZLE THE UPPER MOST SECTION OF
THE BARREL IS CALLED AS THE BONNET
➢ THE OUTLET NOZZLES ARE WHERE HOUSES
CAN BE CONNECTED AND ARE USUALLY 2 1\2 OR 4
1\2 “ CONNECTIONS
➢ THE SMALLER CONNECTIONS ARE FOR
CONNECTING HOSES DIRECTLY TO THE HYDRANT
AND LARGER CONNECTIONS ARE FOR CONNECTING
A PUMPER SUCTION HOSE TO THE HYDRANT
GUIDELINES FOR FIRE HYDRANTS

➢ PLACE 2’ OFF CURB

➢ FED BY MINIMUM MAIN DIAMETER 6”
➢ AN AUXILARY VALVE SHOULD BE INSTALLED BETWEEN THE
HYDRANT AND GROUND SURFACE
➢ A BREAKAWAY FLANGE SHOULD BE INSTALLED 2” ABOVE THE
GROUND SURFACE
➢ SUFFICIENT SPACE MAINTAINED BETWEEN HYDRANT AND
BUILDING
➢ LOCATED NEAR STREET INTERSECTIONS
➢ BACK FROM STREET TO AVOID VEHICULAR CONTACTS
 WET- BARREL HYDRANTS

➢ FILLED WITH WATER ALL TIME

➢ NOT USED IN LOCATIONS THAT FREEZE
➢ SEPARATE VALVE FOR EACH NOZZLE
➢ NO MAIN VALVE … GEYSER RESULTS
➢ WHEN HYDRANT IS HIT AND DAMAGED

DRY- BARREL HYDRANTS

➢ USED IN LOCATION THAT FREEZE
➢ MAIN VALVE IS LOCATED BELOW THE GROUND
➢ DRAIN VALVE ALLOWS WATER TO DRAIN BARREL WHEN THE MAIN VALVE IS
CLOSED
WARM – CLIMATE HYDRANT
➢ MAIN VALVE IS AT GROUND LEVEL
➢ MAIN VALVE CONTROLS THE FLOW FROM ALL
NOZZLES
➢ HAS NO DRAIN MECHANISM IN UPPER BARREL AND
IS PRESSURIZED IN THE LOWER BARREL

FLUSH HYDRANTS

➢ USED WHERE AN ABOVE GROUND HYDRANT WOULD BE OBJECTIONABLE

➢ AIRPORT TAXI-WAY , PEDESTRIAN MALLS
➢ COMPLETELY BELOW GROUND
➢ ACCESSIBLE THROUGH COVER
➢ DRY- BARREL DESIGN
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE HYDRATES
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER
 UNIT - 3
FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS

COOKING GAS DISTRIBUTION IN BUILDINGS

Importance and Necessity of Gas Supply System in Buildings :

❖ For domestic use, gas is used for cooking, water heating, cleaning and air
conditioning.
❖ Can improve the efficiency of the industry and improve the living standards of
the population.
❖ Efficiency in gas equipment and appliances will reduce total fuel consumption
for domestic purposes.
❖ Can be used to generate electricity, as fuel for vehicles and for the use of air
conditioning.
Components of Gas Supply System In Buildings :

Gas supply system is equipped with :

❖ Gas Pressure Meter
❖ Communication System
❖ Warning System
❖ Automatic Control System
❖ Stop valve equipment to disconnect a pipe or even a separate section of the
building during emergency and repair work.
❖ Gas distribution channel and gas service line.
❖ Its role is to deliver gas from the distribution point of the municipality and
stations an from the gas storage facilities to user.
Supply Of Gas :

The supply of domestic gas is to residential, industrial and business premises

such as food, shopping centers etc.
Typical gas supply to residential houses is by individual gas tank with a capacity
of 20kgs. For residential such as apartments and condominiums, the gas supply is by
using the piping connected to the main gas tank at the bottom of the building.
As for the houses in the USA, gas is supplied to households through a network
of piping or tankin the form of CNG. for countries in the West, the use of natural gas
will increase in residential homes and commercial buildings during the cold season
when consumers use gas to heat the space in their homes and buildings using AC that
is based on natural gas.
Distribution Of Gas :

There are three types of gas distribution systems, namely :

❖ One Level System
The system provides users with gas under single pressure. It is for low-density population areas.

❖ Two Level System

The system provides users with gas under combines pressure that is medium and low or high. It is
for medium-sized cities.

❖ Three Level System

The system provides users with gas under three pressures that is high, medium and low. It is to fulfill
the need in big cities.
Gas Pipe Distribution System :

Pipe distribution system will be designed based on two systems, namely :

● Close ring system, and

● Loop system

The system is to ensure that the gas supplies will not be disrupted when a certain section of the
gas pipeline is closed. Pipe connections are buried underground. Underground steel gas pipe
systems and the main gas pipeline are also protected from soil erosion and external flows by
anticorrosive insulation, electrical protection methods.

According to the regulations of the local authorities, wet gas pipeline must be buried under an
average depth of soil freezing. Dry gas pipeline located in the frozen ground area should be
buried at a distance of not less than 0.8m from the top of the pipe to face the earth.
Pipe Fittings Layout for Gas Supply System in Buildings :
 UNIT – III
FIRE SAFETY IN BUILDINGS
• PIPED GAS SUPPLY
 RETICULATED GAS SYSTEM
• ​Reticulated Gas System a mechanism of supplying uninterrupted gas horn a centralized
cylinder storage bank to the end user's point through the pipe line. The Gas is supplied from
a centralized cylinder bank or bulk storage fealty installed within the premises. This will be
differentiated in three form
• VOT - VAPOR OFF TAKE SYSTEM
• LOT - LIQUID OFF TAKE SYSTEM
• BULK STORAGE
• Reticulated Piped Gas System is supply of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) through a network
of pipelines, from a centralized cylinder bank / manifold system or a Bulk Installation
(Bullet) to customer (end user’s) kitchen / Bath room / Heating Appliances.
• This is achieved by reducing the Storage Pressure to appliance pressure by means of
suitable Pressure regulators with the extreme safety. Thanks to the Automatic Change Over
Regulator for ensuring the continues gas supply to the end user even the service cylinder
bank gets Exhausted. Special regulators like under pressure shut off (UPSO) and over
pressure shut off (OPSO) incorporated in the system to ensure safety to the end users.
• Reticulated Pipe Gas System is supply of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) through a network
of pipelines, from a centralized cylinder bank manifold system to customer (end user’s)
kitchen. A proven and latest regulatory system which inculcates a sturdy - 3 Stage Pressure
Regulation System (PRS) to provide multilevel safety.
• PRS - I reduces cylinder pressure from 6 bar to 1 bar*
• PRS - II reduces Pressure from 1 bar to 110 millibar*
• PRS - III reduces pressure from 110millibar to 28 Milli bar*​​

• PRS - I.
PRS-I is installed in the Gas Bank, wherein the cylinder pressure reduces from 6 bar to 1 bar
Gas Bank includes 2 Cylinder Manifolds
• Active
• Standby
Each manifold with battery of cylinders connected together parallel to a common pipe line.
When the Active Manifold is empty, then supply of gas will automatically commence from the
Standby Manifold using Automatic Change Over Regulator which ensures continues gas
supply. An OPSO (Over Pressure Shut-off) Valve is a safety device which monitors the gas
supply pressure & compares it to its preset level. In case the regulator fails at its preset level,
the OPSO valve will automatically active there by gas supply will be shutoff.
Advanced leak detection system shall be provided at gas bank for extra precautionary
measure.
• PRS - II.

• PRS-II (with UPSO & OPSO) is installed near the building structure at basement or Stilt level,
wherein the pressure is further reduced from 1 bar to 110 milli bar. This low pressure gas
passes through HEADER & RISER pipes and enters to each individual consumer’s flat. It has
safety features such as UPSO (Under Pressure Shut-off) & OPSO (Over Pressure Shut-off)
• UPSO- If the pressure on the outlet falls below set limit due to leakage, then the regulator
shut-off the supply of gas
• OPSO- If the pressure in the outlet of PRS-| increases from the cylinder bank, then the
regulator shut-off the supply of gas
• PRS - III.

• PRS – III (with UPSO) is mounted just before the gas meter of each individual flat. It further
reduces the pressure from 110 milli bar to 28 milli bar, thus the pipe connecting the gas stove
receives the pressure of 28 milli bar.
• UPSO - The regulator will instantly shut-off the supply to the Gas stove in case of an
interruption of LPG gas flow for some reason while
• cooking or in case the customer has left the gas burner on without attending to it even after
gas supply starts. To get the normal supply again, the customer should close the Gas Stove
burner & wait for 1-2 minutes. Thus the combination of safety devices eliminates the risk of
LPG leaking into the customer’s kitchen and creating a potential hazard.
 WHY RETICULATED GAS SYSTEM?.
• There are about 25 million households using LPG and as many as 13 million are on the waiting
list. The average growth rate in demand has been 12 to 13 percent and is expected to be of
the same order in the years to come.
• However, there are restrictions by way of domestic availability. Lack of infrastructural
facilities and shortage of gas has hampered the growth of the Petroleum Gas Companies.
Today the public sector units are in no position to increase their bottling capacity.
• Today’s situation warrants an alternative system and Reticulated Gas System, being used in
Europe and America, is the best solution to this problem. Reticulated gas system is Tailor
made to suit the project requirements.
• This centralized distribution system supplies gas to each and every user through a network of
absolutely safe system and is the best alternative to the conventional LPG distribution system.
The rigors of getting a refill are totally eliminated and the consumer ‘pays for what the uses.
• PNG systems are restricted to certain to geographical areas and further the availability of
natural gas is questioned everywhere. LPG systems have limited loops; hence more security
and more control on the safety aspects. At every stage, state-of-the-art equipment is used
with Carbon steel pipes, to provide the best and safest LPG Reticulated System. The system is
tested as per strict norms of the Oil Industry at every stage. Because safety is foremost
followed by Convenience.
• ADVANTAGES.
• Reticulation system provides continuous supply of gas at the turn of tap.
• No need to wait for the new cylinder after exhausting the existing cylinder.
• Space saving in the Kitchen.
• Improves the aesthetic sense of the Kitchen.
• More Safety to the kitchen as Under/Over Pressure Shut off Regulator is
incorporated.
• No need of blocking the money as well as the space for the second cylinder.
RETICULATED GAS SYSTEM FOR APARTMENT
COMPLEX
• Reticulated gas system promises an uninterrupted
supply and a host of other benefits for the
households. The system essentially involves a piped
network in an apartment complex that supplies
cooking gas direct to the hotplates in individual
households by drawing the fuel from a pool of
cylinders.
• The supply gets metered just the way it is being
done for water and electricity. Apart from providing
continuous supply of the cooking gas at the turn of
tap, use of reticulated system means saving on
space, time and money.
• Reticulated gas system is not-it was introduced in
the city almost four years ago. It provides
continuous supply of gas at the turn of tap and
eliminates cylinder refill booking.
 RETICULATED GAS SYSTEM
• Reticulated gas system is one of the latest value-additions
being offered by builders. Reticulated gas system
essentially involves a piped network in an apartment
complex that supplies cooking gas direct to the hotplates
in individual flats through a centralized gas bank.
• Rather than individual pipe line, a single line from
centralized gas bank shall be sufficient to supply gas
improving the esthetic look of the building and saving
area or space.
• The reticulated gas system involves a piped network that
supplies cooking gas to individual flats through a
centralized gas bank.
• In centralized gas bank, the cylinders are connected to a
manifold which consists of two arms- active bank &
standby bank- the manifold arm connected to cylinders
from which LPG is supplied is known as the “active
bank” and the other arm connected to the cylinders is
known as the “standby bank.”
• When the LPG gets exhausted in the active
bank, the supply of LPG from the active bank
to the standby bank is either done manually
or automatically.
• While the LPG supply from the standby bank
continues, the gas company replaces the
empty cylinders to ensure that the users
receive uninterrupted supply of gas.
• A gas meter is installed in a suitable position
(inside or at the entry point of the kitchen)
that records the usage of the LPG as it
passes through it.
• Gas meters measure a defined volume,
regardless of the pressurized quantity or
quality of the gas flowing through the meter.
The benefit of this system is its `use and pay’
feature just the way it is being done for
water and electricity consumption.
 ADVANTAGE OF RETICULATED GAS SYSTEM
➢ The success of the piped supply or reticulated gas system largely depends on the role of the
resident’s association and cooperation among the residents. It is the association’s responsibility
to order for the refill cylinders of the bank and collect the amount from the residents.
➢ No cylinder in the kitchen or inside the flat.
➢ No entry to delivery boy inside the house.
➢ No waiting list for new connection or refill.
➢ Increased safety in kitchen as the pressure of LPG in pipeline is much lower than an LPG cylinder
➢ Automatic Change Over to ensure continuous flow.
➢ Not required to visit to gas agencies for booking or refill booking reminders
➢ Not required to stay at home to receive gas
➢ Uninterrupted gas supply and No holiday for Gas supply.
➢ Saving of time and no need to block money for 2nd cylinder
➢ Apart from its use as a cooking fuel conduit, the system could be used for operating geysers,
LPG fire places and air convectors during winter
➢ The supply gets metered, therefore payment as per actual consumption of gas.
➢ Another benefit of this system is its `use and pay’ feature.
 SAFETY/PRECAUTIONS
➢ Fencing of areas to restrict unauthorized entry.
➢ Avoid wiring for lighting inside the Gas Bank
➢ Ensure that Gas Bank has Good Ventilation.
➢ Install 3rd stage emergency valve inside the individual kitchen to cut off the supply in the
kitchen.
➢ Under Pressure Shut off Valves to ensure satisfactory burning characteristics.
➢ Ensure to install Non-Return Valves (NRV) for cylinder to avoid back flow.
➢ Ensure-Bottom Portion of the Room Ventilation with Brass Mesh Only
➢ Don’t allow the mobile inside the gas bank
➢ Restrict unauthorized entry of apartment owners, residents or outsiders inside the Gas Bank
➢ Check inlet and outlet with Soap oil as and when Required
➢ Ground level ventilation in the manifold room / enclosure must be maintained at all times.
➢ Safety signage such as “No Smoking”, “High Flammable-LPG”, “Switch off Mobile” etc
should be placed adjacent to cylinder bank.
ADVANCE SERVICES
BOTTLED GAS SUPPLY
What is Bottled Gas?

Bottled gas is a name is used for chemicals which are in a gaseous

state at standard temperature and pressure (STP) and stored under
pressure in steel, galvanized steel, aluminum, or composite gas bottles
or other vessels.

• Bottled gas is a flammable hydrocarbon gas liquefied through

pressurization and stored in gas bottles or gas cylinders.

• LPG is also called bottled gas, along with propane, butane and mixtures of
these gases.

• Bottled gas comes from natural gas processing and oil refining.
• Bottled gas refers to a gas that can be compressed as a gas or liquefied
under pressure within a gas bottle of other vessel, typically made of steel,
aluminum, stainless steel or composites.

• These gases are all gaseous at STP - which is 0°C (32°F) at 1atm (100 kPa or
1 bar) - when released from the gas bottle.

• LPG is bottled gas. “Bottled gas” is typically a synonym for “LPG” or

“propane” stored in gas bottles or gas cylinders. Whilst there are actually
many types of gas that come in bottles or cylinders, including industrial and
welding gases, it is generally understood to that LPG is bottled gas – LPG
(propane) in gas bottles.
• In some countries, bottled gas can also refer to butane or propane/butane
mixtures of gas.
• Bottled gas is stored flammable hydrocarbon
gas liquefied through pressurization and
contained in gas bottles or gas cylinders.

• Bottled gas is synonymous with LPG, along

with propane, butane and mixtures of these
gases.

• Bottled gas comes from natural gas

processing and oil refining.

• Bottled gas is stored in LPG bottles,

cylinders or larger vessels and is primarily
used as heating, hot water, cooking and auto
fuel.
How Long Does Bottled Gas Last - Does
Bottled Gas Go Off
• Bottled gas lasts indefinitely so bottled gas
never goes off. Bottled gas – LPG – just never
goes bad. Storing LPG for 10 to 30 years or
more would not be an unreasonable
expectation, with the limiting factor being the
container.
• Bottled gas - LPG (propane) - does not degrade
through any natural process.
• The only limitation on using bottled gas is the
durability of the container – gas bottles,
cylinders or tanks. Gas is Used in Gas Bottles
• The gas used in home gas cylinders or gas
bottles is almost always LPG. So, you get either
propane, butane or a mixture of the two.
Where Does Bottled Gas Come From?
• Bottled gas is a fossil fuel that does not occur in isolation. Bottled gas is
found naturally in combination with other hydrocarbons.

• It is produced during natural gas processing and oil refining.

• It is isolated, liquefied through pressurisation and stored in pressure

vessels.

How is Bottled Gas Made?

• Bottled gas is made during natural gas processing and oil refining. It is
separated from the unprocessed natural gas using refrigeration.
• Bottled gas is extracted from heated crude oil using a distillation tower.
• It is then pressurisation and stored as a liquid in LPG cylinders and tanks.
How Bottled Gas is Transported ?
• Bottled gas exists as either a gas (vapour) or as a liquid, when it is under a
modest amount of pressure in LPG bottles, cylinders, tanks and larger LPG
storage vessels.
• Given that gaseous LPG has a volume 270x that of liquid bottled gas, it is
almost always transported in its more compact liquid state.
• Bottled gas can be transported in a number of ways, including by ship, rail,
tanker trucks, intermodal tanks, cylinder trucks, pipelines and local gas
reticulation systems.
• Most homeowners receive their bottled gas either by 45kg LPG cylinders or
tanker delivery into a large in situ tank.
• For BBQs, homeowners typically take their empty gas bottle to a retailer to be
refilled or for a swap refill.

What is Bottled Gas Used For?

• Bottled gas is utilised in numerous applications.
• Bottled gas is used as a fuel for many
residential, commercial and agricultural
heat applications, including cooking.
• It is also employed as a propellant,
refrigerant, vehicle fuel and
petrochemical feedstock.
• The bottled gas uses most people can name are around the home, in their cars
or for their business.
• It is used in leisure time activities including caravans, boats, recreational
vehicles, hot air balloons and camping.

• Business and industry use bottled gas for a multitude of processes including
steam boilers, kilns, ovens and forklifts.

• Crop and produce drying, heating greenhouses, hot water for dairies,
irrigation pumps and heating animal enclosures are just some of the
agricultural applications for bottled gas.

• Transport is also a big user of bottled gas, with either propane alone or
mixed with butane, to power various vehicle types.

• There are also many, many more bottled gas applications, including power
generation and the hospitality industry.
How Does Bottled Gas Work?

• Bottled gas is stored under pressure, as a

liquid, in a gas bottle. It turns back into gas
vapour when you release some of the
pressure in the LPG bottle by turning on your
appliance.

• The gas vapour is at the top of the LPG bottle

whilst the liquid LPG is at the bottom .

• Almost all of the uses for bottled gas involve

the use of the gas vapour, not the liquefied
gas.
7 Important Bottled Gas Facts
1. Bottled gas is LPG. LPG is the acronym for Liquefied Petroleum Gas.
2. Bottled gas is a flammable hydrocarbon gas that is liquefied through
pressurisation and commonly used as fuel.
3. Bottled gas comes from natural gas processing and petroleum refining and
is also referred to as Natural Gas Liquids – NGL.
4. Bottled gas is LPG but not all bottled gas is propane. Propane, along with a
number of gases, falls under the “LPG” label. The other gases
include butane (n-butane) and isobutane (i-butane), as well as mixtures of
the three LPG gases.
5. Bottled gas can be compressed into liquid at relatively low pressure.
6. Bottled gas is frequently used for fuel in heating, cooking, hot water and
vehicles.
7. Bottled gas is generally stored, as a liquid, in steel vessels ranging from
small BBQ gas bottles to larger LPG cylinders and storage tanks.
SWIMMING POOLS
UNIT IV
ADVANCED SERVICES

HAMPI G - Submitted BY:

16041AA041
SREEPRIYA- G.HAMPI
16041AA042 41
INDRANI- G.SREEPRIYA
16041AA043 42
OSHIN - INDRANI
16041AA044 43
OSHIN 44
JANVI CH - 16041AA045
JANVI.CH 45
K AARTHI - 16041AA047
K.AARTHI 47
K SRI LAKSHMI K.SRILAKSHMI
- 16041AA048 48
HASINI - K.HASINI
16041AA049 49
LIKITHA - K.LIKITHA
16041AA050 50
INTRODUCTION:

▪ A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or simply a pool, is a usually artificially
constructed container filled with water intended for swimming or water-based recreation.
▪ There are many standard sizes; the largest and deepest is the Olympic size.
▪ A pool can be built either above or in the ground, and from materials such as metal,
plastic, fiberglass or concrete.
▪ Pools that may be used by many people or by the general public are called public, while
pools used exclusively by a few people or in a home are called private.

USES:

▪ Many health clubs, fitness centres and private clubs have public pools used mostly for
exercise. Many hotels and massage parlours have public pools for relaxation.
▪ Hot tubs and spas are pools with hot water, used for relaxation or therapy, and are
common in homes, hotels, clubs and massage parlours.
▪ Swimming pools are also used for diving and other water sports, as well as for the training
of lifeguards and astronauts.
TYPES OF POOLS:

PRIVATE POOLS:
▪ Private pools are usually smaller than public pools, on average
16 ft × 32 ft (4.9 m × 9.8 m) to 20 ft × 40 ft (6.1 m × 12 m) whereas public
pools usually start at 80 ft (24 m).
▪ Home pools can be permanently built-in, or be assembled above ground
and disassembled after summer.
▪ Private pools are increasingly a feature of homes in greater latitudes.
▪ Construction methods for private pools vary greatly. The main types of in-
ground pools are concrete, vinyl liner, and fiberglass. Above-ground pools
(also called "on-ground pools") are usually cheaper to build.

PUBLIC POOLS:
▪ Public pools are often found as part of a larger leisure centre or
recreational complex.
▪ Many public swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but may
be any size and shape desired.
▪ There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash
pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.

COMPETITION POOLS:
▪ Standards for competition pools: 25 or 50 m (82 or 160 ft) long and at
least 1.35 m (4.4 ft) deep. A pool may be referred to as fast or slow,
depending on its physical layout.
▪ Some design considerations allow the reduction of swimming resistance
making the pool faster: namely, proper pool depth, elimination of currents,
increased lane width, energy absorbing racing lane lines and gutters, and
the use of other innovative hydraulic, acoustic and illumination designs.
EXERCISE POOLS:
▪ Consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 m x 5 m) in which the
swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially
generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices.
▪ These pools have several names, such as swim spas, swimming
machines, or swim systems.
▪ They are all examples of different modes of resistance swimming.

HOT TUBS AND SPA POOLS:

▪ Hot tubs and spa pools are common heated pools used for relaxation
and sometimes for therapy.
▪ They rarely exceed 8 sq ft (0.74 m2) and are typically 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m)
deep, restricted by the availability of the raw sheet sizes (typically
manufactured in Japan).
▪ Home spas are normally operated from 36 to 39 °C (97 to 102 °F).
▪ Water temperature is usually very warm to hot — 38 to 42 °C (100 to
108 °F), so bathers usually stay in for only 20 to 30 minutes.

OCEAN POOLS:
▪ Ocean pools, were built typically on headlands by enclosing part of
the rock shelf, with water circulated through the pools by flooding from
tidal tanks or by regular flooding over the side of the pools at high tide.
▪ Segregated changing sheds and showers were provided.
▪ A variation was the later development of sea- or harbour-side pools
that circulated sea water using pumps. A pool of this type was the
training ground for Australian Olympian Dawn Fraser.
INFINITY POOLS:
▪ An infinity edge pool (also named negative edge or vanishing
edge pool) is a swimming pool which produces a visual effect
of water extending to the horizon, vanishing, or extending to
"infinity".
▪ The water appears to fall into an ocean, lake, bay, or other
similar body of water. The illusion is most effective whenever
there is a significant change in elevation.

NATURAL POOLS AND PONDS:

▪ Natural pools were developed in central and western Europe
in the early and mid 1980's by designers and landscape
architects with environmental concerns.
▪ They are constructed bodies of water in which no chemicals or
devices that disinfect or sterilize water are used, and all the
cleaning of the pool is achieved purely with the motion of the
water through biological filters and plants rooted hydroponically
in the system.

ZERO-ENTRY SWIMMING POOLS:

▪ A zero-entry swimming pool, also called a beach entry
swimming pool, is a swimming pool having an edge or entry that
gradually slopes from the deck into the water, becoming
deeper with each step, in the manner of a natural beach.
▪ As there are no stairs or ladders to navigate, this type of entry
assists older people, young children and people with
accessibility problems where gradual entry is useful.
STANDARD DIMENSION OF SWIMMING POOL

For swimming purposes, the minimum depth for swimming is

1.20 meters.
The width can vary between 10 m and 50 m
If, in addition to swimming, there is also a trampoline one-
meter high in relation to the water surface, a depth of 2.5
meters is recommended.
If the trampoline exceeds one meter in height up to two
meters or three, a minimum depth of 3 meters is
recommended.
STANDARD DIMENSION OF SWIMMING POOL

• With regard to water depth shape types, there

are several alternatives that can be adopted.
Not all of them can be applicable, since a lot
depends on the swimming pool perimeter
shape. Generally, we could refer to four shapes
of water depth:
• Flat: same depth at both ends of the swimming
pool.

• Sloped: pool floor gradient starts with a 50 cm

depth and progressively continues down to the
desired depths

• Spooned: the bottom is first sloping and then

creates a sinking with the shape of a spoon, so
as to ensure maximum depth in the diving area

• U-shaped: the deepest part is at the center of

the pool.
 REQUIREMENTS OF SWIMMING POOL
Basin Design
The area of the pool designated as a deep area should extend vertically downward for a
minimum distance of 1680 millimetres; and the shallow area of the pool should extend
vertically downward for a minimum distance of 790mm.
Deck Areas
(1) A deck area is to surround the entire pool.
(2) The deck area should not be less than 1.8 m in width and provide not less than 0.9 m of
clear passage behind a diving board or any slide or other piece of play equipment and its
supporting structure.
Depth Markings
The depth of water is to be plainly marked at the point of minimum depth; 1.2 metres depth;
and at the points of break between gentle and steep bottom slopes.
Depth markings are to be placed on both sides and both ends of a swimming pool. The
distance between markings is not to exceed 7.6 metres.
Diving Boards and Platforms
Diving boards or platforms provided are to be rigidly constructed and properly anchored at
the base with sufficient bracing to ensure stability under the heaviest possible load.
Drinking Fountains
(1) At least one drinking fountain shall be provided.

(2) Drinking fountains should be recessed; accessible to all swimmers and located away from the
deep end of the swimming pool.

Lifeguard Towers
(1) At least one lifeguard tower shall be provided for every 150 swimmers up to the maximum
swimmer load.

(2) Lifeguard towers are to be elevated between 1.2 metres and 2 metres above the deck and
should be sufficiently anchored and stable enough to permit the lifeguard to ascend or
descend from the tower quickly and easily.

(3) Portable lifeguard chairs are acceptable.

Outlets
(1) One or more drain outlets are to be provided at the lowest point of the pool floor. The total
orifice area of all the pool drain outlets is to be at least four times the cross-sectional area
of the main pool drain line and be sized to accommodate the main drain recirculation
rate.
(2) In pools designed to waste the overflow water, the main drain piping is to be sized to
accommodate 100% of the recirculated water.
(3) In pools designed to recirculate the overflow water, the main drain piping is to be sized to
accommodate at least 50% of the recirculated water
Stairs and Ladders
Stairs or ladders shall be installed:

(a) at the deep portion of the pool;

(b) at the shallow portion of the pool where the vertical distance from the bottom of the pool
to the deck or top of the wall is more than 600mm; and

(c) where a pool is more than 9 m wide, at each side of the pool.
A ramp or step is to be continuous in nature and without spaces or gaps between the edge or
side, of this ramp or step and the wall of the pool.
• Recessed steps with grab-rails may be used in place of ladders.

• Stairs are to be sloped towards the pool to prevent an accumulation of settleable solids. The
stairs should be finished in a manner that will contrast with the pool colour.

• Treads on steps of ladders and stairs should not be less than 76 mm deep over their full width
and have non-slip surfaces. Ladders should be corrosion- resistant and are to be rigidly installed.

• There is to be a clearance of not more than 150 mm between a ladder and the wall of the pool
on which the ladder is installed.

• All ladders are to be removable.

FINISHES
▪ The back hoe or loader can cut only to within 15 centimetres of the swimming pool
perimeter; the final shaping and finishing must be done by hand. The finishing should be done
while the back hoe is making the rough cut; this way, all the dirt that is cut away in finishing
can be moved out of the pool immediately.

▪ There are two general types of excavations: those which follow the exact lines of the
swimming pool and must be carefully hand-trimmed (gunite and some fiberglass swimming
pools), and those which can be over-excavated on the sides – but not the bottom – and then
backfilled after the swimming pool has been installed (poured concrete, masonry block, and
vinyl-lined pools).

▪ With the latter type, the first finishing job is to establish the correct depths and slope of the
swimming pool. The excavation for a vinyl-lined swimming pool must fit the liner exactly.

▪ For gunite and fiberglass swimming pools, the finishing process is especially important. The
shell follows the contours of the follows the contours of the excavation exactly, and errors in
the finishing will show up as errors in the finished swimming pool.
▪ With fiberglass, the fitting of the pool into the excavation is the most critical point of the
installation. Care must be taken not to over-excavate; if this does happen, a concrete mix
rather than loose dirt will probably be required for backfill material.

▪ For steel-reinforced concrete swimming pools, walls are usually vertical for 91 centimeters
and then begin to taper into 1.5 meter-radius corners. This gives straight sides to the shallowest
part of the swimming pool and a bowl effect to the deep end.
Water Circulation
• Healthy and beautiful pool water can be achieved with proper water chemistry and a
functioning pool circulation system.
What Is A Pool Circulation System?
• Pool circulation systems are responsible for the flow of water, the carrier of mostly everything
in the pool.

• The main parts of the pool circulation system - pump, filter, and network of skimmers, drains,
and returns. These 3 parts work together to help keep pool water healthy.

• Example : Pool circulation systems can be compared to the body’s circulatory system.
The human circulatory system is responsible for the flow of blood, the carrier of mostly
everything in the body. The 3 independent parts of the
circulatory system include the heart, lungs and systemic
circulation.
How Does It Work?
• In a pool circulation system, water is drawn from the pool through skimmers and drains
by a centrifugal pump.
• The water passes through a basket in the skimmer and in front of the pump to remove
large debris before it gets to the pump’s impeller.
• The pressure created by the pump’s impeller forces the water through a filter which
intercepts any debris not caught by the baskets.
• In some cases, the filtered water is treated and heated before it is returned to the
pool.
• This system of collection, treatment, and return of pool water is repeated over and
over to ensure the water is clean, pleasant, and safe for your family and guests.
Pool Circulation System Parts

Filter
Skimmer Main Drain
Maintain Your Pool Circulation System
When the parts of the pool circulation system are
not working, the whole system breaks down.
CASCADES:
• Cascades are a series of
small, continuous waterfalls.
• Fast flow with a smooth
boundary and turbulent
flow over boulders or
bedrock. Flow is in contact
with the substrate and
exhibits upstream
convergence and
downstream divergence.
• In a cascade, water moves
both downward and
onward, like stairs.
• A garden cascade properly
employs a natural supply of
water and a sloping site;
but the site is usually
adapted artificially to take
advantage of the stream,
and sometimes a cascade
that strives to appear
natural is dependent on a
head of water artificially
created by pumps.
• Natural cascades can
be the chief reason for a
garden’s existence in a
particular place, as at
Tivoli in central Italy.
• Cascades can be used
in architectural gardens
in the form of water
stairways, as at the
Palazzo Farnese at
Caprarola, Italy.
Measurement in mm:
L 1050mm x W 1020mm x H
650mm
Approx. weight: 15kg
Measurement in inch:
L 42" x W 40" x H 26"
Approx. weight: 33lbs.
Suitable with Edge Rocks:
ER-012 & ER-013.
May be ordered with a
40mm outlet
to attach to pool pump.
.
• Cascades are a series of small, continuous waterfalls.
Fast flow with a smooth boundary and turbulent flow over boulders or bedrock. Flow is in contact
with the substrate and exhibits upstream convergence and downstream divergence.
• In a cascade, water moves both downward and onward, like stairs.
• A garden cascade properly employs a natural supply of water and a sloping site; but the site is
usually adapted artificially to take advantage of the stream, and sometimes a cascade that
strives to appear natural is dependent on a head of water artificially created by pumps.
• Natural cascades can be the chief reason for a garden’s existence in a particular place, as at
Tivoli in central Italy.
• Cascades can be used in architectural gardens in the form of water stairways, as at the Palazzo
Farnese at Caprarola, Italy.

Villa d’Este. Palazzo Farnese

TANK AND CHANNELS:

▪ A tank of the swimming-pool type formed of rigid plastic

material such as polyurethane foam and provided with a
fluid-tight lining of small thickness is placed directly in contact
with the soil within a pit which has been dug in the ground.

▪The modulus of elasticity of the side wall and preferably of

the bottom is close in value to that of the surrounding soil so
as to result in a uniform stress distribution and a deformability
which removes any danger of crack formation.

▪An overflow channel is a gutter that surrounds the pool,

covered by a removable grille.

▪ Surface water flows over the edge of the pool and runs by
gravity to the filtration plant, usually via a catchment and
top-up tank.

▪Often the exterior pool wall is higher than the overflow

channel, eliminating the possibility of pool water overflowing
onto the adjacent pool surround.

▪Overflow channels allow faster turnover of the surface water

than is possible with simple weir skimmers, which is why they
are commonly found in public pools.

▪They can also be attractive designs, particularly when

transformed into a total "vanishing edge" pool.
INTRODUCTION

FILTRATION

• Filtration is the physical process of eliminating dirt, debris, and particulates from the
pool water before water treatment and recirculation.
• A pool’s filtration system includes, the filter body, pumps, pipes, valves, and a control
panel. Local regulations determine the speeds and the time to be allowed to
guarantee perfect filtration. Pools uses 2 types of filtration systems: Sand or
Regenerated Media.

REGENERATED SYSTEM SAND FILTRATION

 SAND FILTER

• Filters that use sand as a filtering material work with the pressure of a
descending flow of water through the sand. The impurities in the water
are retained progressively while the water flows through the granular
material.

• This type of system filters small particles of about 20-30 microns in size. This
type of system requires a relatively large space due to the size of the
filtration unit. In time, accumulation of filtered material renders the filtering
less effective and limits water flow. Periodically, filtration must be
interrupted to clean the filter: this is the backwash phase that requires the
use of additional water.
• ADVANTAGES
1)Upper Service Hole
• Easy to use 2)Filter Inlet
3)Anthracite Layer
• Filtering material is easily available 4)Fine Sand Layer
5)Coarse Sand Layer
• Very little maintenance 6)Filter Outlet
7)Gravel Support Layer
• Long lasting 8)Filter Element
9)Side Service Hole
• DISADVANTAGES

• As dirt and grime begin to accumulate in the bed of sand, only clean
and fresh water can be filtered out. However, once this filter fills up, it will
need to be backwashed. Eventually, the filter’s media will need to be
replaced to assure continued water clarity and effective filtration.
 FILTRATION VIA REGENERATED MEDIA

• An alternative to traditional sand filtration is a system using regenerative media: filtering

media that can be reused more than once when refreshed using specific treatments.

• The filtration system preferred by Pools uses Perlite, an effusive volcanic rock with
vitreous structure (similar to obsidian). The Perlite, ground and treated to produce a fine
dust, sticks to the filter supports, forming a coating of filtering material. This is a
particularly effective method of filtration and can retain particles as small as 1 micron (1
thousandth of a mm).
• ADVANTAGES
• High efficacy of filtration (even, for example, in the case of protozoans)
• Simple filter management
• Water saving during backwash, energy and chemical reagent saving
• DISADVANTAGES
• Externally Loaded Media Required

➢ Unlike sand filters, regenerative media filters require externally loaded filter media on a
periodic basis. Sand filters eventually require replacement of the sand, but this is only
after many years of heavy use. Regenerative media filters require new media such as
DE or perlite after several cycles of use.

• Does Not Work as Well with High Oil Concentrations in Pool Water

➢ Another drawback can be use of these filters for swimming pool water containing high
concentrations of oils, such as with highly used outdoor swimming pools or waterparks in
 CATRIDGE FILTER

• A cartridge filter is a piece of tubular filtration equipment that can be used across
various industries for an array of filtration requirements. A cartridge is encased within a
housing or a casing and used to remove unwanted particles, pollutants, and
chemicals from liquids. The cartridge is exposed to water, liquid or solvent that needs
filtration, as it flows inside the housing and passes through the filter element. Cartridge
filters can also remove submicron particulates.

categories of cartridge filters include the following –

a) surface filters and
b) depth filters.
APPLICATIONS OF CARTRIDGE FILTERS

Self-cleaning and Pre-Filtration to RO and other types of membranes

Industrial water filtration
Incoming process water filtration
Pool water filtration
Oil removal and particle filtration in refineries and petrochemicals
Liquid filtration in the food and beverage industry
Pharmaceutical Applications
Refineries and Petro-Chemicals
SURFACE FILTERS
• Surface filters do not let the
solids/contaminants enter through the
medium. They restrict them outside the
filter media.
• Surface filtration refers flow of fluid
through to a layer of material that
restricts particles on the surface
• The size of particles restrained from
entering the medium is higher than the
mean pore size of the medium
• Over a period of time, the surface filter
gets caked on the outside with particles
and restricts the flow beyond
acceptable limit. At this point the
filtration surface has to be cleaned and
reused.
• Over a period of time, the surface filter
gets caked on the outside with particles
and restricts the flow beyond
acceptable limit. At this point the
filtration surface has to be cleaned and
reused.
• Mechanical strength of the filter medium
is less (with the exception of filter
medium made of stainless steel)
• Example : Pleated cartridge filter,
cellulose filter
DEPTH FILTERS
• Depth filters trap all the contaminants,
pollutants and solids within the media.
• Depth filtration refers to a thicker layer of
media/or multiple layers that sets a
torturous path for the particles and
restricts them from passing through.
• The size of particles in much smaller than
the mean pore size of the medium
• Contaminants travel through the depth
filter and get trapped there, gradually
the pores in the filter get blocked and
have to be cleaned using a reverse flow
of fluid or replaced by a new medium.
• Compared to the surface filter, a depth
filter is expensive but it has a longer shelf
life.
• Mechanical strength of filter medium is
high
• Example: String wound filter, Ceramic
filter and Sintered filters
DE FILTRATION

• Diatomaceous Earth is a much different type of filter media used to

filter swimming pool water. Unlike a sand filter in which the sand
media in the filter is cleaned and reused the DE powder is discarded
along with the dirt when the filter cycle is completed and you
backwash the filter.

• There are 2 different types of DE filters the vertical grid filter and the
regenerative filters also known as bump filters. In both cases, the DE
powder coats the elements inside, and traps the dirt as the water
flows through the powder.

• DE filters have the advantage of filtering the pool water to smallest

microns and will keep the water cleaner than a sand filter or a
cartridge filter.

• The disadvantage of this type of filter is that it requires the most

amount of maintenance. DE powder is needed after backwashing.

• This filter definitely requires the most of maintenance but it will filter
the water to the smallest micron size, around 2-3 microns. Although
DE filters are the most expensive to purchase, and they require more
maintenance than other types, they are the best form of filtration
available.
WATER TREATMENT

• Chlorination problematics

• Different methods have been used to reach a

sufficiently high water quality. Among the most
common methods are filter screens and sand
filtration, chemical treatments (e.g. for flocculation
and water softening), and disinfection with
chlorine/ozone/UV.

• The by far most common disinfection method today is

chlorination. However, chlorination is also associated
with complications regarding health effects among
swimmers.
• UV-treatment
• Ultra-Violet radiation is another technology used
for swimming pool water treatment. A UV-lamp is used
to generate radiation in the UV-spectrum which
efficiently deactivates microorganisms, virus, and
algae by physically destroying the DNA. It is often
used as a complement to chlorination which then
enables a reduction of chlorine consumption. On the
other hand, UV-radiation also breaks down some of
the chlorine which therefore has an increasing effect
on the demand for chlorine.
• OZONATION
• Ozone is generated in-situ unlike traditional
chemicals used for disinfection and
cleaning. Ozonation utilizes naturally occurring
oxygen which eliminates the need for chemical
handling procedures. Ozone is produced by
imposing a high voltage across a dielectric
discharge gap (Corona Discharge) which ionizes
oxygen atoms and forms ozone molecules.
• The main mechanisms for ozone disinfection
include:

• destruction of microorganism cell walls, radical

oxidation reactions,
• decomposition of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
• breakage of carbon-nitrogen bonds (which are
essential in most organic compounds like e.g.
proteins).
• Two main factors influence the effectiveness of
ozone disinfection, namely the
• contact time and
• ozone concentration.
WATER QUALITY:

▪ Proper water chemistry is essential to maintaining safe and consistent swimming pool operation.

▪Chemicals used in swimming pools include: Disinfectants to destroy harmful or otherwise

objectionable organisms; Alkalinity and pH Adjusters to maintain a consistent acid-base
relationship and acid buffering capacity; Chlorine Stabilizer to prevent unnecessary loss of
chlorine; Algicide to kill and prevent algae, and Filter Aids to help remove foreign material.

▪pH is the single most important element in swimming pool water chemistry. It affects every other
chemical balance in pool water.

▪pH is a measure of hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in water. It indicates the relative acidity or
basicity of pool water. pH is measured on a scale of 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong base) with 7
being the neutral pH.

▪In pools a slightly alkaline pH of 7.4 to 7.6 is most desirable because this range is most
comfortable to the human eye and provides for optimum use of free chlorine while maintaining
water that is not corrosive or scale forming.

▪ If pH is too low (below 7):

a. Water becomes acidic

b. Chlorine residuals dissipate rapidly
c. Eye irritation occurs
d. Plaster walls are etched
e. Metal fittings, pump impeller, heater core may corrode
f. Dissolved metals may leave stains on walls
g. Rapid Loss of alkalinity
▪If pH is too high (above 8):

a. Chlorine activity is slowed and inefficient

b. Scale formation and discoloration of pool walls
c. Water becomes cloudy
d. Filter is overworked
e. Eye irritation may occur

pH Adjustment
•
To avoid the problems listed above, pH must be maintained between 7.2 and 7.8. The most
desirable level for pH is between 7.4 and 7.6.

• If pH is too low - run alkali demand test if available. Raise pH by adding soda ash (sodium
carbonate).

• Never add more than 2 lbs per 10,000 gallons in a single treatment. Be sure the pump is
running when chemicals are added. Allow to recirculate then retest to determine if further
treatment is necessary.

• Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is sometimes used with chemical feed pumps to raise pH.
If problems with low pH persist, it may be necessary to raise total alkalinity to stabilize the pH
DISINFECTION:

▪ Micro-organisms polluted swimming pools.

▪Every swimmer adds 1.000.000 to 1.000.000.000 microorganisms to the water.

▪The water itself contains microorganisms, as well. After oxidation a disinfectant must be
added to the water to kill pathogenic microorganisms.

Demands on disinfectants:
Disinfectants used for swimming pool water disinfection must meet certain demands.

▪They should be harmless and non-irritating to swimmers and attendants.

▪They must be active in small concentrations and remain their activity for a long time.

▪Contrary to drinking water disinfectants, disinfectants for swimming pool treatment must be
active in the pool itself, because pollutions and pathogenic micro-organisms are constantly
added to the water.

▪Therefore the water has to maintain a residual disinfectant concentration.

▪ The disinfectant must be easily traced and measured and should be safe to use.
Disinfection methods for swimming pool water:

In some countries, sodium hypochlorite is used for both oxidation and disinfection of swimming
pools.
When it is added to water, sodium hypochlorite increases the pH value.
It is better to use chlorine as a disinfectant and an oxidizer at a pH value of 6,5. Often, acid is
added to lower the pH value.

Demands on swimming pool conditions:

▪ Chlorine-based disinfectants are among the most frequently applied disinfectants and oxidizers
for swimming pool treatment.

▪ Chlorine is usually added as hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite (OCl-).

▪ Chlorine kills pathogenic microorganisms that are present in the water.

▪For available chlorine the minimum concentration in swimming pools is set to 0,5 milligram per litre.

▪The maximum level is set to 1,5 mg/l. When using cyanic acid (stabilizer) minimum and maximum
values are set to respectively 2,0 and 5,0 mg/L.

▪For outdoor swimming pools and indoor pools smaller than 20 m2, the maximum level is set to 5,0
mg/l.

▪ Lowering the chlorine concentration is undesirable, because this increases the risk of waterborne
diseases. Alternative disinfectants can be used as well, these decrease the required amount of
chlorine or cause chlorine addition to be irrelevant.
▪ For available chlorine the minimum concentration in swimming pools is set to 0,5 milligram
per litre.

▪The maximum level is set to 1,5 mg/l. When using cyanic acid (stabilizer) minimum and
maximum values are set to respectively 2,0 and 5,0 mg/L.

▪For outdoor swimming pools and indoor pools smaller than 20 m2, the maximum level is set
to 5,0 mg/l.

▪Lowering the chlorine concentration is undesirable, because this increases the risk of
waterborne diseases.

▪Alternative disinfectants can be used as well, these decrease the required amount of
chlorine or cause chlorine addition to be irrelevant.

▪The pH value is measured daily. It should be between 6,8 and 7,8. At a pH of 7,0, the
amount of free chlorine present is 70%, while this concentration decreases to 20% at pH of
8,0.

▪The water and air temperature in swimming pools is usually high. Furthermore the humidity is
high. This influences the activity of disinfectants and the behaviour of substances that are
formed in the swimming pool during disinfection.

▪When sodium hypochlorite is used, chlorine gas is formed due to reactions with the acid
that is added to lower the pH of the water.

▪Chlorine gas must be removed, because it can be harmful to human health and corrosive
on materials.

▪Chloramines, formed through reactions of ureum and chlorinated disinfectants, are

corrosive as well.
BALANCING TANK:

On any deck-level system a balance tank will be incorporated to ensure that the pool water
remains at the optimum level for effective surface water removal under all operating conditions.
This technical note details PWTAG’s recommendations for optimum balance tank specifications.
There are three factors that will affect the system operation:
• bather surge displacement
• the volume of water extracted from the pool for filter backwashing
• system hydraulics.
Design criteria
• The drawing below details the three operating levels that must be considered in balance tank
design.

• The maximum water level in the tank must be just below the base of the transfer channel
around the pool.

• The normal operating level when there are no bathers in the pool and when the surface
water system is working at maximum efficiency will extract 50-80% of the circulation system.
The extraction system from the balance tank should be sized to take the total circulation rate
when the tank is at the maximum level due to bather surge.

• The minimum level takes into account the volume of water required for filter backwashing
from the normal operating level and ensures that the pumps can still operate without drawing
air. The inclusion of a suction sump in the balance tank enables the minimum level to be as
close as possible to the base .
 UNIT - 5
HOTEL SERVICES
SPECIALITY SERVICES REQUIRED FOR
HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY:
The hospitality industry is a bustling industry with myriad categories, but customer
service is the unifying factor shared by all segments of the industry. Different sectors
of the hospitality industry ensure that traveler's needs are catered to in a holistic
manner
The different sectors of the hospitality industry.
The hospitality itself is a multi-billion-dollar industry that relies heavily on the
availability of disposable income and leisure time
 Lodging-Accommodation:
• This sector of the hospitality industry features a gamut from luxurious hotels to
lavish resorts and campgrounds.
• Accommodation is an absolutely broad sector of the hospitality industry, ranging
from bed & breakfast enterprises and hotels to other facilities that offer lodging
services.
• the customer service is indispensable in providing accommodation services. And
that isn’t all – efficiency, integrate comfort, and world-class amenities are also its
foundation.
• the three things which people need, when they travel, the most important one is
accommodation. Other two are food and transportation. It is due to this fact we
have started with lodging in our list of 5 sectors of the hospitality industry.
• If you have arranged for hotel and accommodation, you will automatically find the
other two.
• A lot of focus is being made these days to improve the lodging experience of people
travelling around the world.
• Lodging: When people travel from one place to the other, they need a place to
sleep. A shelter which will keep them safe from the atrocities of nature. This
results in people booking lodges and rooms for their stay.
• Suites: Apart from general lodges to stay, hotel sector offers luxury suites for the
stay as well. Generally, suites are suitable for formal sorts of staying and are
much expensive compared to regular room services.
• Resorts: The third type of accommodation which is popular among travellers are
resorts. These bring you close to nature and give you a necessary break from
your normal routines.

2. Food and Beverage:

• This is another crucial one of the 5 different sectors of the hospitality industry.
It’s another wide sector of the hospitality industry. Food and beverage sector
reign supreme in the industry. And, for good reasons.
• It can range from something as simple as a bistro all the way to a high-end
restaurant and every catering establishment in between. As it’s expected, the
food and beverage industry is further sub-categorized into niches.
Quick-service Establishments – These are commercial foodservice restaurants
that compete for customers who look to garner quick snacks, drinks, and meals.
Typically, they have fewer employees. In fact, self-service is the norm here. Think
of McDonald’s, KFC, Subway, Pizza Hut etc.
Catering Businesses – This category provides food and beverage catering services
for any special occasion – from weddings to birthday parties and everything in
between.
Full-Service Restaurants: These are your typical restaurants or eateries which
feature course meals, drinks, and a plethora of other food services. These
establishments usually seat you at a table and use waiters to take food orders.
From fine dining to casual dining to themed restaurants; there is a range of these
full-service restaurants.
 Themed restaurants have grown multiple folds like the wave of luxury underwater
restaurants of the world.
Such is the popularity and growth of Foodservice establishments that industry pundits
are considering Full-service restaurants as a separate category of the hospitality industry.
People are always looking forward to food when they are on the go. When in a different
country, people like to taste local cuisines.
So, food and catering make essentials of the hospitality industry. It starts with food
production and ends at food representation on the eating tables, with storage and
cooking steps resting in between.
• Food Management: It starts with the production of food. Many hotels and restaurants
serve naturally organic food. Apart from production, food transportation and storage also
make part of this division.
• Food Presentation: People like to eat food which is well represented. So, a lot of focus
should be made on food representation to improve hospitality experience.
• Beverages: Apart from general food items, beverage storage, and representation also
make it into the list of food and catering services.
• Restaurant Management: Restaurant management is a science which is being taught in
colleges these days. With proper skills to manage a restaurant, you can manage food,
beverages, and maintain a quality representation of food, so that customers will come
again to eat at your place.
• 3. Travel and Tourism

Travel and tourism industry is a vast sector of the hospitality industry with several
key players across the globe. Most of them include trains, airlines, cruise ships,
and several crew members in their service.
On the whole, players in the travel and tourism segment are in the business of
moving people from one destination to another.
It would not be an exaggeration if we make a statement that the most important
segment of the hospitality industry is travel and tourism as others depend on it.
Without profound levels of travelling and tourism in a region, the hospitality
industry of the region won’t grow.
So, the Travel and tourism domain makes the backbone of our hospitality industry.
4. Entertainment Industry

Entertainment is a significant part of our travel these days. If your travelling

experience lacks fun and entertainment then you might not be able to enjoy your
time up to the fullest.
 Some of the activities which can elevate your experience when it comes to
entertainment are:
• Marinas: Marinas are one of the most popular places to go when it comes to
partying. You can get along with your friends on a private yacht where you can
dance, play games, and enjoy the best of your life.
• Sports and Gaming: Sports and gaming is a basic thing which people are looking
for on their travel. As a result, Casinos, swimming pools, and other similar
activities are becoming an indispensable part of the hospitality sector.
• Cruise: Apart from marinas, cruise services are also becoming an essential
component of the hospitality industry. Now, people like to spend their days on
luxury ships which sail across the blue oceans under the clear sky.
• Nightclubs: Who doesn’t love to dance to their favourite song when on a break?
We all do. This is why hotels have nightclubs services in them.
• Bars: Sitting around a table and having a couple of drinks with your friends is
always a refreshing experience. This is why bars make an important part of the
entertainment sector of the hospitality industry
5. Timeshare

• An emerging yet vastly important sector of the

hospitality industry is vacation ownership of a
place. In this scheme, people, either individuals
or parties, own the rights to a place for a specific
time period during the year.
• We have placed Timeshare on our list of 5
different sectors of the hospitality industry
because of the raised interest of hospitality
enthusiasts for Timeshare.
• Timeshare gives us an option to own our choices
and to enjoy facilities by either buying a part of
a facility or getting into a membership plan.
• There are many places which people can own for the time being, under the timeshare rule.
• Convention Centers: Convention centers make the base of the hospitality industry as they offer a place
where people can gather in bulks for seminars, conventions, expos, and other similar things.
• Villas and Resorts: You can own villas and resorts under the timeshare rule, for some time of the year and
can go and enjoy with your friends or family
LAUNDRY SERVICES
Laundry operation in Hotel
In any hotel establishment , a lot of dirty linens accumulates in
the various units and departments . It is essential to ensure a
continuous supply of linen, which is well laundered, so that
operation can be carried out smoothly and efficiently. Linen is
an expensive item, so how it will be laundered, required
serious consideration. People involved in handling of linen
should have some knowledge of process. The house-keeper
and the linen keeper should have good relation with the
laundry manager.

Principle of Hotel laundry

1. Removal of dirt and stain from the linen articles.
2. Restoring linen articles to their original appearance as far as
possible.

Qualities of good laundry

1. Careful handling of linen articles when laundering
2. Correct process of use of suitable agent.
3. While materials are kept white, excessive bleach is not used.
4. Proper counting and records maintains to avoid shortage of
linen.
5. Sound policies regarding damage or loss property.
Categories of Hotel laundry
Laundry can be divided into two types
On -premises – Off premises
laundries which are situated inside the hotel premises
known as on premises laundry.
A commercial or off premises laundry refers to the
laundering outside the establishment. ie. given on a
contract basis., to the specialize person who are
particular in this field.
Advantages of on premises Hotel laundry
1. Time taken for laundering is reduced because
transportation is reduced.
2. Linen is readily available especially in the case of
emergency requirements.
3. Pilferage reduced.
Disadvantages of on premises laundry
1. Cost of equipment and its maintenance is fairly high.
2. Must be justified by an adequate amount of linen.
3. More staff who are technically qualified and adiquet
space is required.
Advantages of off premises Hotel laundry
1. An huge investment behind the purchase of machines and
equipment's are saved.
2. Salary for staff are saved.
3. Hotel spaces are saved which can be used for other
purpose.
Disadvantages of off premises Hotel laundry
1. The hotel have to compromise with the quality of washing.
2. Chances of pilferage is more.
3. During the emergency, fresh linen may not be available.
Disadvantages of off premises Hotel laundry
1. The hotel have to compromise with the quality of washing.
2. Chances of pilferage is more.
3. During the emergency, fresh linen may not be available.
Process of laundering
Details of various process in laundering is explained below
1. Collection and transportation- Collection of linen may be done in the linen room, if it is off premises, but
usually in the laundry itself, if it is on premises. Certain linen items are collected separately , such as kitchen
uniforms, dusters, etc. The linens are usually packed in the canvas bag called skips for transportation.
2. Arrival- On arrival the lines must be dealt quickly as possible to ensure fast turn around time for linen. There
must be a separate section for guest laundry.
3. Marking – Marking may be temporary or permanent. For guest laundry initials of the guest as well as room no
helps provide a clear identification and helps in correct billing.
4. Sorting- Sorting is carried out according to the types of fabrics and items, color and type of soil. Sorting is done
to separate those articles that needs dry cleaning from those that will go through the normal wash process..
Those that need mending and stain removal must be separated so that separate action will be taken.
5. Weighing- Weighing is carried out to conform to the capacity of the washing machine, and to avoid of the
overloading. Repeated overloading can cause the machine to breakdown. Underloading will lead to the wastage
of detergent and water.
6. Loading is often done manually or with a certain degree of full or partial automation.
7. Washing-
The process is designed to perform three basic functions
• Removal of soil dirt
• Suspension of soil
• Discharge of soil from the machine and drain.
8. Rinsing- Once the wash cycle is completed. Rinsing is carried out at least twice. The purpose of this is
to remove the residue of laundry agent and reagent.
9. Hydro-extraction- It is the process of removal of excess water and moisture from the linen which has
been washed.
10. Tumble drying- This process is capable of making the linen absolutely dry , by blowing hot air. For
articles that are likely to be damaged by heat there is an option of simple air drying.
11. Finishing- After washing and drying of all the articles needs proper finishing like folding properly, or
hanged in hangers.
12. Folding- Folding can be done in machines hands and in most cases carried out manually.
13. Airing- Airing is very much needed to protect the linens from mildew.
14. Storage- Storage should be properly done before delivering. Linens should be allowed to keep in
specific period in the store for distribution.
15. Distribution- Now the lines are ready for distribution . The fresh linens are distributed to various
departments through house-keeping.

Lay out of laundry

The layout in terms of positioning machines should be such that there is an easy flow of traffic. Close attention
should be placed on entry and exit, drainage system ventilation etc.
• Doors – These should be large enough to get the equipment's, into the room as well as effectively enter and exit
with laundry basket.
• Ceiling- They should be impervious to moisture and have good sound absorption properties.
• 8 to 10 ft height ceiling is ideal.
• Floors- These are very important for laundry, it should be strong enough to protect it from were and tear.
• Walls- These should be constructed on the material that are durable, moisture resistant, and insulating.
Windows should be avoided so that the wall space can be used for strong shelves and bins.
• Electricity- There should be enough light and proper electric connection.
• Water supply- There should be enough water supplies in laundry.
Functions of various laundry machines-
Sophisticated machinery is needed in laundries to cope up with Laundry agents and aids
the various types of fabrics and other items to be laundered , Laundry aids are the materials used to improve
dried and pressed. give the hue amount of laundry to be the laundering result. The important laundry
complete in the given time period. agents are as follows
The various machines used in the laundry are as follows 1. Water
1. Washing machine- Those used in hotel laundries are typically a 2. Laundry soap and detergent
tumble type. The capacity varies from 7 to 2000 kg. The wash 3. Bleaches
barrels of those used in the hotel industry are stainless still. The 4. Softener
machines are used for washing clothes.
2. Hydro- extractor- These are large centrifuges ranging in
capacity from 7 to 70 kg. Clothes from washer are put into the
hydro- extractor to remove about 50 to 75% excess water. The
water is extracted from the wash linen by means of centrifugal
force or application of pressure After extraction the linens are
damp but not wet.
3. Dryers- These are the unit of tumble type equipment meant to
remove the moisture from damp. by tumbling them in rotating
cylinder through which heated air is passes. They are use for non
iron articles, and towels as these linen nether required pressing.
4. Pressing equipment's- Many types of pressing equipment's are
available for ironing different articles, such as calendar for sheets
curtains and tablecloth. , sleeve presses flatbed presses, and so
on.
LAUNDRY SERVICES
CHANNELED MUSIC
• Music is much more a strategic part of the story and branding, a driver and influencer, than people give it
credit for. It drives the guest experience and revenue when done right.

• 75% of hotel guests like to hear music in the lobbies, bars, restaurants and public spaces.78% of people who
like music in hotels agree that it makes them feel more relaxed.61% of regular hotel guests are more likely to
consume more food and drink when they hear music they like in a hotel.55% of people who like music in
hotels prefer to meet colleagues or clients where good hotel music is being played.

• In most cases I have seen with new build hotels, the music is part of the conversation after the construction
is completed. Much closer to the opening date. And that’s too late. Just as the beds or restaurant placement
cannot be an afterthought, neither can the music. There are a few forward-thinking brands that we are
currently working with in the development phase on the music architecture component and they are well
ahead on sound front. When you are spending hundreds of millions on gorgeous spaces, but the speaker
placement is an afterthought, that’s a problem. The wrong color on the walls is the equivalent to the wrong
speaker placement in the room. When done incorrectly, the sound will be bouncing all over the place. No,
you don’t have to design your space around the music, but there are subtle and smart strategies that can be
implemented in the early stages that offer the proper solution to achieve the sound quality that is needed.
What music should you play in a hotel?

The decision on what sort of music you should play in a

hotel depends largely on the hotel. For hotels that are
looking to attract a broad range of guests, whose
personal musical tastes will of course vary immensely,
generic music with mass appeal will work the best. Stay
far away from polarising styles of music such as hip hop
and metal.

Music is a massively important element in making your

guests feel comfortable enough to stay on the hotel
premises instead of wandering off to the restaurant next
door for dinner. The music played at your restaurant can
also influence restaurant sales and even dining
behaviour.
INTERNET
• Hotel Wi-Fi solutions are highly secure and reliable, providing guests
with convenience, efficiency and peace of mind. Using a proprietary
proven security protocol, HOTEL INTERNET systems and services are
continuously monitored for security to ensure data protection and
privacy, and are maintained by Hotel Internet Services, 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year.
• With a commitment to ensuring total network privacy and security,
online solutions are designed to safeguard users during the most
sensitive of data transactions. Fully PCI compliant, HOTEL INTERNET
shields information such as personal credit or banking details from
unauthorized access.
KITCHEN SERVICES
 KITCHEN SERVICES IN HOTELS

KITCHEN DESIGN FOR RESTAURANTS

➢ The heart of every restaurant is the kitchen. Here raw ingredients are prepared for cooking (washing,
peeling, chopping etc) and cooked for service. The quality of food and speed of service depend on
efficiency, hence planning, kitchen design and layout must be undertaken with due care and expert
advice if necessary

➢ The most qualified people in kitchen planning are experienced and successful chefs. They know from
experience the best and most efficient equipment, layout and spacing.
The first decision involves selecting fuel. There are several from which to choose:

➢ Wood
➢ Natural gas
➢ Propane gas
➢ Electric
➢ Steam
➢ Heating oil
LIGHTING

Every kitchen must be well illuminated to prevent accidents, increase efficiency,

facilitate quality control and prevent waste. Fluorescent light fixtures are advisable for
their efficiency and cool operating temperatures.

As well as having to conform to the relevant standards lighting here needs to comply with
the stipulations of ASR workplace regulations. To do so, these rooms require a glare-free
lighting system delivering 500 lx mean illuminance. Because of the steamy atmospheres
found in kitchens and laundries, luminaires here should be designed for use in damp
interiors Near cooking ranges, luminaires also need to be resistant to chemical attack.
VENTILATION

Ventilation is of great importance in any kitchen. It prevents odours

from penetrating the dining area and increase the well being of
cooks. This in turn improves quality and efficiency. Some operators
actually air condition their kitchen with laudable results. A ventilation
system consists of:

The collection device (canopy)

Vehicle to move the air (motor)

Canopies are equipped with filters, of which there are three types

Wire mesh
Baffle
Liquid
(All filters must be thoroughly cleaned at regular intervals to reduce
fire hazards, as they collect grease)

The size of the canopy and motor depend on the size of the kitchen.
Canopies must overhang cooking equipment on both sides by at
least 8" (20 cm) in most jurisdictions.
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

All kitchens and restaurants must have an appropriate

sprinkler system.
There are two types:

Water releasing
Carbon dioxide mixed with fire extinguishing chemicals

Water releasing sprinkler systems are inappropriate for

kitchens.
Carbon dioxide mixed with extinguishing chemicals
type systems are recommended.
WALL COVERINGS

After aforementioned decisions are made, the planner can proceed to selecting and specifying
equipment:
Cooking equipment, brands, capacity requirements, and sources
Stationary equipment i.e. mixers, bank saws, food processors
Work table sizes, heights, finishes and locations
Widths of aisles for traffic between stationary equipment
Refrigeration units and freezers, types and sizes

Storage areas' size and shelving, for foodstuffs, china, cutlery and glassware
Dishwashing area equipment, location capacity
Receiving area, location, layout, size, equipment i.e scale, running water, lighting, security
Garbage disposal area, location, size, and type

FLOOR COVERINGS

Kitchen floors must be non-slip to prevent accidents. Tile coverings are prone to cracking and warping
due to constant moisture present. If tiles are used, cover them with a non-slip coating. Continuous non-
slip floor covering containing stone chips is the most suitable. It can be applied quickly and
inexpensively. They are easy to clean and prevent insect
 EQUIPMENTS
REFRIGERATORS
Refrigerators prevent bacterial growth and prolong the shelf life of perishable foods. There are electricity or gas fuelled, reach-in, roll-in, drawer
and walk-in refrigerators. Electricity powered refrigerators are the most common.

Reach-in and walk-in refrigerators are readily available in a variety of sizes and configurations. Walk-in refrigerators can be specified modular or
custom made. Drawer and roll-in refrigerators are practical and save labour but must be custom manufactured and expensive.

All commercial refrigerators must be equipped with thermostats both inside and out. Interiors of all must be easy to reach, clean, and well lit..
Walk-in refrigerators must have non-slip floors and equipped to open from inside and outside. All doors must be airtight and equipped with self-
closing mechanisms to minimize cold air loss.

A well-designed compressor maintenance programme will help prolong usable life. Wooden storage shelving is not recommended. Tempering
refrigerators to re-thermalize plated frozen food is practical in hospital and correctional institutions.

PREPARATION EQUIPMENT

Constitute all equipment employed in food preparation (chopping, dicing, cubing, peeling, slicing, mixing, processing). They speed up all these
functions, reduce labour, facilitate quality control and promote consistency.

Specify sturdy brands, backed up by a good supply of spare parts, warranties, guarantees and service. Foreign suppliers should be specified
only if local manufacturers are inadequate or do not exist.

COOKING EQUIPMENT

• All equipment used in cooking fall under this category, and may be fuelled by electricity, propane, natural gas, oil, wood, or steam.
The fuel must be selected with due care according to availability and style of cooking being envisaged.
Steam generators are available, so are cooking equipment with self steam generating installations.
• Always specify cooking equipment with the least number of moving parts.

THE FOLLOWING COOKING EQUIPMENT IS STANDARD:

Ranges: -hot top Deep fryers:- electric or gas Broilers:- ceramic brackets Salamanders: -(top heat) electric
- open burners - radiant - infrared
- infra red - gas
- open
STEAM FUELLED EQUIPMENT

Steam jacketed kettles- Floor, counter top, tilting or non-tilting, with or without spout in various sizes are available.
Pressure steamers are suitable for quantity batch cooking. Combi-ovens combine steaming and roasting, and are
popular due to their space saving features.

OVENS – a wide range of ovens is available. They can be under ranges, freestanding, electric or gas, steam injected or
not. Convection ovens are practical for roasting and rotate hot air speeding up cooking time. Conveyor type ovens are
appropriate in high volume pizza operations or in very busy bakeries. Micro wave ovens are used mostly for re-
thermalizing.

GRIDDLES – consist of a stainless steel non-stick surface fuelled either by gas or electricity, equipped with appropriate
grooves and grease collectors. They are versatile and very much in demand in short order kitchens and cafeterias.

TILTING FRYING PANS- may be gas or electric fuelled. They are practical in large banquet halls or hotel banquet
kitchens catering to huge banquets. Cooking equipment is rated either in units per hour or BTU's (British Thermal Unit)
One British Thermal Unit is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit. The rating is important to calculate power requirements.

ACCESSORIES – Electronic thermostats, energy load levelers (reduce peak electricity demand) and automatic shut off
switches fall under this category. Service equipment – helps keep prepared foods hot. Steam tables, flambé carts,
guerdons, coffee machines, small wares (pots, pans, whips, scoops) self leveling plate dispensers, dishwashers,
compactors, filtering devices fall into this category.
Once the equipment selection is completed, and the layout determined, the planner must contact utilities and advise
them to ensure timely hook up to main supply lines.
 KITCHEN STOVE
• A kitchen stove, often called simply a stove or
a cooker, is a kitchen appliance designed for the
purpose of cooking food.
• Kitchen stoves rely on the application of direct
heat for the cooking process and may also
contain an oven, used for baking.
• In the industrialized world, as stoves replaced open fires
and braziers as a source of more efficient and reliable heating,
models were developed that could also be used for cooking, and
these came to be known as kitchen stoves.
• When homes began to be heated with central heating systems,
there was less need for an appliance that served as both heat
source and cooker and stand-alone cookers replaced them.
• Cooker and stove are often used interchangeably.
 EVOLUTION
OF STOVE
• The fuel-burning stove
is the most basic design
of kitchen stove.
• Early clay stoves that A major improvement in fuel
enclosed the fire technology came with the
completely, These advent of gas.
stoves were fired by The first gas stoves were
wood The 18th-century developed as early as the 1820s,
or charcoal through a Japanese merchant's but these remained isolated
hole in the front. kitchen, Kamado experiments.
(Hezzui) made of Gas stoves only became
copper widespread on the European
Continent and in the United
States in the early 20th century.
 • As a heat storage stove, it worked on
the principle that a heavy frame
made from cast iron components can
absorb heat from a relatively low-
intensity but continuously-burning
source, and the accumulated heat
can then be used when needed for
cooking.
• Microwave ovens were developed in
the 1940s, and use microwave
radiation to directly heat
the water held inside food.
An electric stove or electric range is
a stove with an integrated electrical
heating device to cook and bake.
Electric stoves became popular as
replacements for solid-fuel (wood or
coal) stoves which required more
labor to operate and maintain. Some
modern stoves come in a unit with
built-in extractor hoods.
HOW GAS AND ELECTRIC
STOVES GET HOT
• Gas stoves contain one of two types of
ignition systems: a pilot light or an
electronic ignition system. A pilot light is a
constantly burning blue flame near the
burner. Because it’s always on, a pilot light
uses a lot more gas than an electronic
ignition system. An electronic ignition
system creates a spark (you'll hear this as
a clicking noise) only when you turn the
burner on.
• When you use an electric stove, electricity
runs to a wire inside the coils on the cook
top. Smooth top stoves have an internal
5 ADVANTAGES TO GAS STOVES
TYPES
• Electric Coil Cooktop
1 Ease of cleaning • Electric Smooth Top
2 Heat temperature control • Induction Cooktop
3 Long-term costs
4 Convenience during power outages • Gas Cooktop
5 Heating speed • Downdraft Cooktop
• Modular Cooktop
• Gas Cooktops
• Gas cooktops operate on
natural gas or propane. ...
DISADVANTAGES • Electric Cooktops
• Induction Cooktops
Much loss of heat: no efficient energy consumption.
Cleaning is difficult due to pan supports and burners.
• Cooktops with Overhead
Hood
You cook with an open flame and therefore cooking
with gas is not the safest way.
• Downdraft Cooktops
• Coil Type Cooktops
• Smooth top Cooktops
KITCHEN BURNERS
• An apparatus in which electricity
or a fuel is used to furnish heat,
as for cooking or warmth.
• A device that produces heat for
specialized, especially industrial,
purposes.
WHAT IS A BURNER
OR STINGER?
A burner or stinger is a stinging or
shocking sensation felt in the back of
the neck or shoulder. It is caused when
a nerve in the neck or shoulder is
pinched by either the bones, muscles,
or other neck tissues.
HOW DOES A
BURNER WORK?
The oxygen-gas mixture then
flows into the burner. The burner is
simply a hollow metal disk with
holes punctured through its
perimeter. ... By turning the knob
to a higher heat setting, you
increase the flow of gas and air,
and the flame gets larger.
Gas burners can work with either
natural gas or propane.
 UNIT -6
-1. WASTE GENERATION
IN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
 SOURCES OF VARIOUS HAZARDOUS WASTES
INDUSTRIAL WASTES IN INDIA
Hazardous Waste Source
Component
Thousands of small scale and bigger industrial units simply dump
Heavy Metals
their waste, more often toxic and hazardous, in open spaces and
Arsenic Mining, non anthropogenic geo-chemical
nearby water sources. Over the last three decades, many cases of formation
serious and permanent damage to environment by these industries Cadmium Mining, fertilizer industry, battery waste
have come to the fore.
Rapid industrialization has resulted in the generation of huge Chromium Mining areas, Tanneries
quantity of wastes, both solid and liquid, in industrial sectors such as Lead Lead acid battery smelters
sugar, pulp and paper, fruit and food processing, sago / starch, Manganese Mining areas
distilleries, dairies, tanneries, slaughterhouses, poultries, etc. Mercury Chlor-alkali industries, healthcare
Despite requirements for pollution control measures, these wastes institutes
are generally dumped on land or discharged into water bodies, Nickel Mining, metal refining
without adequate treatment, and thus become a large source of Hydrocarbons
environmental pollution and health hazard. Benzene Petrochemical industries, solvents
Management of Industrial Solid Waste (ISW) is not the responsibility Vinyl chloride Plastics
of local bodies. Industries generating solid waste have to manage Pesticides Insecticides
such waste by themselves and are required to seek authorizations Organic chemicals
from respective State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under Dioxins Waste incineration, herbicides
relevant rules. However, through joint efforts of SPCBs, local
bodies and the industries, a mechanism could be evolved for better PCBs Fluorescent lights, e-waste, Hydraulic
management. fluid
POTENTIAL FOR RECOVERY OF ENERGY FROM INDUSTRIAL
WASTES

Sector Potential CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

(MW) In a broad sense, industrial wastes could be classified into two types.
Dairy 49 1. Hazardous industrial waste
2. Non-hazardous industrial waste
Distillery402
Sugar 290 AZARDOUS INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Pulp & 46 Hazardous wastes, which may be in solid, liquid or gaseous form, may cause danger to
health or environment, either alone or when in contact with other wastes. Various agencies
Paper have defined hazardous wastes in different ways and as such, there is no uniformly
Starch 103 accepted international definition so far. It is presumed that about 10 to 15 percent of
wastes produced by industries are hazardous and the generation of hazardous wastes is
Poultry 52
increasing at the rate of 2 to 5 percent per year.
Slaughterh 75 Hazardous industrial wastes in India can be categorized broadly into two categories.
ouse i) Hazardous wastes generated from various industries in India
ii) Hazardous industrial wastes imported into India from Western Countries for re-
Tannery 5 processing and recycling.
Total 1022 Envenomization of hazardous wastes generating units and quantification of wastes
generated in India are being done by the respective State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs).
Hazardous waste in particular includes products that are explosive, flammable, irritant,
harmful, toxic, carcinogenic, corrosive, infectious, or toxic to reproduction.
2.TYPES OF WASTE
VARIOUS TYPES OF WASTES
WASTE :
• WASTE IS DEFINED AS ANY UNWANTED OR USELESS MATERIAL.
• IT IS ALSO KNOWN AS RUBBISH,TRASH,GARBAGE OR JUNK.

TYPES OF WASTE:
1) SOLID WASTE 2) LIQUID WASTE 3) GASEOUS WASTES

1) SOLID WASTE : IS DEFINED AS “NON-LIQUID, NON-SOLUBLE MATERIAL RANGING FROM MUNICIPAL GARBAGE
TO INDUSTRIAL WASTES THAT CONTAIN COMPLEX AND SOMETIMES HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES”.

TYPES OF SOLID WASTE :

BROADLY THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF WASTE WHICH ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1.HOUSEHOLD WASTE IS GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS MUNICIPAL WASTE
2. INDUSTRIAL WASTE AS HAZARDOUS WASTE
3. BIOMEDICAL WASTE OR HOSPITAL WASTE AS INFECTIOUS WASTE

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE CONSISTS OF:

• HOUSEHOLD WASTE
• CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION DEBRIS
• SANITATION RESIDUE
• WASTE FROM STREETS
HOUSEHOLD WASTES THAT CAN BE CATEGORIZED AS HAZARDOUS WASTE INCLUDE:
• OLD BATTERIES
• SHOE POLISH
• PAINT TINS
• MEDICINE BOTTLES.

HAZARDOUS OR INDUSTRIAL WASTE:

• INDUSTRIAL IS CONSIDERED HAZARDOUS AS THEY MAY CONTAIN TOXIC SUBSTANCES.
• HAZARDOUS WASTES COULD BE HIGHLY TOXIC TO HUMANS, ANIMALS, AND PLANTS.
• THEY ARE CORROSIVE , HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE, OR EXPLOSIVE
• REACT WHEN EXPOSED TO CERTAIN THINGS E.G. GASES.
• IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR, THE MAJOR GENERATORS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE ARE THE METALS,
CHEMICALS, PAPER, PESTICIDES, DYE, REFINING, AND RUBBER GOODS INDUSTRIES.

HOSPITAL WASTE:
• IS GENERATED DURING THE DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT, OR IMMUNIZATION OF HUMAN BEINGS OR
ANIMALS.
• IT MAY INCLUDE WASTES LIKE SHARPS,DISPOSABLES,DISCARDED MEDICINES,CHEMICAL WASTE.
• THIS WASTE IS HIGHLY INFECTIOUS AND CAN BE A SERIOUS THREAT TO HUMAN HEALTH IF NOT
MANAGED IN A SCIENTIFIC AND DISCRIMINATE MANNER .
2) LIQUID WASTE :
• LIQUID WASTE INCLUDES SEWAGE AS WELL AS WASTEWATER FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES SUCH AS FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING, AND
MANUFACTURING.
• LIQUID WASTE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO OTHER WASTE TYPES BASED ON THE NATURE OF THE LIQUID WASTE AND THE RISKS IT POSES.
• FOR EXAMPLE, WASTEWATER MAY CONTAIN ORGANIC SUBSTANCES AND NUTRIENTS THAT ARE OF VALUE TO AGRICULTURE, OR MAY BE HAZARDOUS DUE TO
THE CHEMICALS OR PATHOGENS IT CONTAINS.

3) GASEOUS WASTE :
• GASEOUS WASTE IS A WASTE PRODUCT IN GAS FORM RESULTING FROM VARIOUS HUMAN ACTIVITIES, SUCH AS MANUFACTURING, PROCESSING, MATERIAL
CONSUMPTION OR BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES. GASEOUS WASTE THAT IS HELD IN A CLOSED CONTAINER FALLS INTO THE CATEGORY OF SOLID WASTE FOR
DISPOSAL PURPOSES.
• THE GASEOUS WASTES INCLUDE CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2), METHANE (CH4), CHLOROFLUOROCARBON (CFC), OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOX), CARBON
MONOXIDE (CO), OXIDES OF SULPHUR (SOX) ETC.
• THESE WASTES ARE RELEASED IN THE FORM OF GASES FROM AUTOMOBILES, FACTORIES, BURNING OF FOSSIL FUELS ETC AND GET MIXED IN THE
ATMOSPHERE.
3.TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE
Solid-waste treatment, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful.
Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and
to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases spread by rodents and insects.

Garbage: many broad categories of garbage are:

Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
Hospital waste such as cloth with blood

• There are two methods of treating solid waste

• Landfill method.
• Compositing.
Method 1. Landfill:
This approach is used to treat solid wastes, like garbage, and the solids remaining after waste treatment. The wastes are
used for landfill in which a natural or man-made pit or hollow is filled with the waste, covered with soil and often
landscaped.
The site of landfill is carefully selected to avoid subsequent problems; it is highly desirable that landfills are located in an
unused area or a derelict land. The waste is collected and may be pre-treated in some way before being placed in the pit.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The pre-treatment may be:

(i) Sorting of the wastes,
(ii) Mechanical pulverization or even
(iii) Incineration.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The landfill practice may be divided into two classes on the basis of the type of pit used:
(i) Cell emplacement and
(ii) Trench method or ‘cut and fill’ method.

(i) Cell Emplacement Method:

In this method 2.5 m deep cells of suitable size are excavated at the site of landfill, their size depending on the amount of
garbage to be dumped each day. Everyday the waste dumped in the cell is compacted and covered with about 20 cm deep
layer of soil. The cells may be designed to be single or multi-layered.
A single layered cell is filled to the top by the solid waste of a single day and covered with soil. In contrast, multi-layered cells
accommodate the waste of two or more days; each day, the waste is compacted and covered with 30-40 cm soil, and when
the cell is full it is covered with 60-90 cm soil layer.
• (ii) Trench Method:
• In this method, long trenches are dug, filled with waste and covered with soil. In both cell emplacement and trench
methods the soil for covering the waste is dug from the site of the next trench/cell.
• However, since about only 20% of the cell/trench volume is occupied by soil, 80% of the soil excavated from the second
and subsequent cells/trenches will have to be moved away, unless the level of landfill site is to be raised above the
ground level.

Method # 2. Composting:
Composting is a self-heating, substrate-dense, managed microbial system, and one solid-phase biological treatment
technology. This technology is suitable to the treatment of large amount of contaminated solid materials. However, many
hazardous compounds prove resistant to microbial degradation due to their complex chemical structure, toxicity and
compound concentration that hardly support growth.
Process of Composting: Gradual colonization of organic materials is done by indigenous micro-flora, but hazardous
chemicals may inhibit microbial growth. Therefore, bio-augmentation (i.e., use of commercial or genetically engineered
microorganisms, i.e., GEMs) of wastes is also recommended.
To provide experimental proof of biodegradation during composting, a common hazardous contaminant pesticide, 14C-
labelled Carbaryl was added in sewage sludge-wood chip mixture at 1.3-2.2. ppm concentration. After 18-20 days in
laboratory composting apparatus, 1.6-4.9 per cent of Carbaryl was recovered as 14CO2 and remaining bound to soil organic
matter.
• Method # 3. Vermicomposting:
• Vermicomposting is the phenomenon of compost formation by earthworms. Obviously,
earthworms play an important role in the cycling of plant nutrients, turnover of organic matter
and maintenance of soil structure. The earthworms can consume 10-20 per cent of their own
biomass per day.
4.TREATMENT OF LIQUID
WASTE
 INTRODUCTION
• Liquid wastes mainly consist of waste water from residential, commercial and industrial areas in towns
and cities. This waste water contains many dissolvable unwanted and rejected substances. In cities and
towns, waste water is transported through sewerage system having a network of underground pipes
called sewers.
• Sewage is waste water containing solid and liquid excreta coming from houses, streets, industries etc.
Silage is another term applied to waste liquid not containing excreata. Sewage water mainly has 99.9
percent of water and rest 0.1 percent of organic and inorganic substances.
• This waste water carries many bacteria which cause diseases. Organic matter decomposes to give
different colour to the water and it also gives bad odour to the liquid. The sewage water is managed to
get it free from pollution and can be reused for agricultural and other uses.
• The treatment to such sewage mainly focused on three things. They are:
• (a) Remove the suspended matters
• (b) To reduce the organic matter through decomposition by bacterial action.
• (c) To produce germ free water safe for environment.

Management of liquid waste through sewage treatment:

There are three stages for treatment of sewage water. They are:
1. Primary or physical treatment.
2. Secondary or Biological treatment.
3. Tertiary or chemical treatment.
• 1. Primary treatment:
• It is the process of mechanically removing the solid materials present in water through metal
screening. Grit chambers and sedimentation. Metal screening removes large floating objects such
as small piece of woods, rags, masses of garbage and death insects and animals.
• The Grit chamber allows the settlement of heavier solids such as sand into the bottom layer. The
waste water is then allowed to pass into a big sedimentation tank where the liquid spends about 6-
8 hours. During this time about 50 to 70 percent of the solids settle down under the influence of
gravitational force.
• During this process a small amount of decomposition takes place by the microorganisms present in
sewage breaking down the organic matter present. The organic matter after breaking down settles
down into a layer called sludge.
• This sludge is removed mechanically. Primary treatment removes about 60 percent of floating solid
bodies, 30 percent of oxygen demanding wastes, 20 percent of nitrogen compounds, and 10
percent of phosphorous compounds.
• 2. Secondary Treatment:
• It is a biological oxidation of organic matter. It is achieved by filter method or by sludge process. In
the filter method, the waste water is sprinkled over the surface of a bed of small stones of one to
two metres deep. When the water percolates through the stone bed, a very complex biological
growth of algae, fungi, protozoa and bacteria occurs. By these formation, the waste water gets
oxidised. The oxidised waste water is then passed into the sedimentation tanks.
• The sludge process is a modem method of management of waste water. The liquid from the
sedimentation tank is mixed with sludge collected from the final tank. This sludge is called activated
sludge as it is rich in aerobic bacteria (bacterial which can survive only in presence of oxygen). This
activated sludge is then subjected to aeration. By aeration the organic matter of waste liquid gets
oxidized into carbon dioxide, water and nutrients. Organisms causing diseases like typhoid, cholera
are destroyed is the stage.
• The oxidized waste liquid is then passed into a secondary sedimentation tank where activated
sludge is collected. The volume and characteristics of the sludge is reduced through anaerobic
(devoid of oxygen) auto digestion. In this process, complex compounds are broken down into water,
carbon dioxide, methane and ammonia. This substance works as a good fertilizer.
• 3. Tertiary Treatment:
• The residue from earlier two treatment process still leave about 10 percent of suspended solid
bodies, 10 percent of the oxygen demanding wastes, 30 percent of toxic metal compounds, 50
percent of Nitrogen and 70 percent of phosphorous. This Tertiary Treatment method is an
advanced form of chemical and physical process.
• The most common methods in this treatment is precipitation of suspended particles, filtration
with carbon to resolve dissolve organic compounds and reverse osmosis by passage through a
membrane to remove dissolve organic and inorganic materials. Chlorination is also required at
the end to remove disease causing bacteria and other germs.
• Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes for the management of waste liquid:
• The algae are a unicellular plant mostly grows in water upper layer or on stones present in the
water. These all are very useful for waste liquid purification. Algae and bacteria used together is
an efficient method for recovery of waste water over bacterial action. This process is also very
inexpensive. In the algae-bacteria combination, an alga provides oxygen to remove nutrients
and other toxic elements. Bacteria on the other hand degrade organic matter aerobically.
• The aquatic plants are also used in the treatment of wastewater. These plants when grown in
high nutrient water grow well and double their population in two weeks time. It thus able to
clean waste water containing various organic materials.
5.TREATMENT FOR GAS WASTE
BURN/ WET TECHNOLOGY

The combination of the two operating procedures burning &

scrubbing in the smallest possible space is basing on our ES-
CAPE technology which has been continuously developed fur-
ther since the foundation of DAS. Waste gases are fed into a
ring-shaped burner apparatus. Depending on the chemical com-
position of the waste gases, various reactions take place (oxida-
tion, reduction, pyrolysis). In the subsequent scrubbing process,
soluble, gaseous and solid compounds generated by combustion
are absorbed and cooled down by a suitable scrubbing liquid.

WASTE GAS TREATMENT – PYROLYSIS

The process waste gases are burnt in a decomposition zone. If

required, a fuel gas can be applied. Depending on the chemical
composition of the waste gases, various reactions take place,
such as oxidation, reduction or pyrolysis.
The Burner Product Family LARCH was especially designed for
MOCVD processes in the LED industry. It is capable of treating
large flows of the typical gases’ hydrogen and ammonia.
Waste gas treatment system (WGTS) utilizes EST method of
chemical destruction technology. The system can be easily
modified, calibrated and installed into any industrial organic gas-
polluting production line. The process is continuous and
connected to the production line on site. Our WGTS is connected
directly to the source of the gases and evacuates them as CO2,
water vapor, and halogen acids.Systems have an ability to treat a
wide range of hazardous organic compounds including
halogenated carbon

The waste gas treatment system (WGTS) supplied by EST

Ecological systems using thermal plasma technology a high
efficiency, flexible and cost-effective alternative to thermal
treatment technologies. The system can handle fluctuations in
your process- spikes or continuous flow. Whether your current
treatment system is limiting production based on applicable
emission limits has increasingly high operating costs.
By utilizing high-temperature thermal plasma technology, the
gaseous organic waste including halogen acids vapor is
transformed into a non-hazardous gas and, in some cases, to a
usable by-product.
6 .DISPOSAL FACILITES FOR
SOLID WASTE
 DISPOSAL FACILITES FOR SOLID WASTE
The final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where
associated risks are minimised.There are four main methods for
disposal of solid waste:
1. Land application: burial or land filling
2. Composting
3. Burning or incineration

ON SITE DISPOSAL OPTIONS

COMMUNAL PIT DISPOSAL
• The simplest solid waste management system is where
consumers dispose of waste directly into the communal pit. The
size of the this pit will depend on the number of people it
serves.
• The pit should be fenced off to prevent small children falling in
and should generally not be more than 100m from the dwelling
to be served. Ideally waste should be covered at least weekly
with a thin layer of soil to minimize flies and other pests
ADVANTAGES : it is rapid to implement; and requires little
operation and maintenance.
CONSTRAINTS : the distance to communal pit may cause
indiscriminate disposal; and waste workers required to manage pits
FAMILY PIT DISPOSAL
• Family pits may provide a better long-term option where there is
adequate space.
• These should be fairly shallow and families should be
encouraged to regularly cover waste with soil from sweeping or
ash from fires.
ADVANTAGES : families are responsible for managing their
own waste
No external waste workers are required
And community mobilisation can be incorporated into hygiene
promotion programme
CONSTRAINTS : involves considerable community mobilisation for
construction
Operation and maintenance of pits, and considerable space is
needed

COMMUNAL BINS
• Communal bins or containers are designed to collect waste
where it will not be dispersed by wind or animals, and where it
can easily be removed for transportation and disposal.
ADVANTAGES : bins are potentially a highly hygienic and sanitary
management method
And final disposal of waste well away from dwelling areas
CONSTRAINS : significant collection,
Transportation and human resources are required COMMUNAL BIN
System takes time implement
And efficient management is essential
INCINERATION
• Although burning or incineration is often used for disposal of combustible waste.
• This should generally only take place off-site or considerable distance downwind of dwellings.
• Burning refuse within dwelling areas may create a significant smoke or fire hazard, especially if several fires
are lit simultaneously.
• Burning may be used to reduce the volume of waste and may be appropriate where there is limited space for
burial or landfill.
• Waste should be ignited within pits and covered with soil once incinerated, in the same manner as landfilling .
ADVANTAGES : burning reduces volume of combustible waste considerably
And it is appropriate in off-site pits to reduce scavenging
CONSTRAINTS : there can be smoke or fire hazards.
A reasonably large area is required

COMPOSTING
• Simple composting of vegetables and other organic waste can be applied in many situations.
• Where people have their own gardens vegetable plots, organic waste can be dug into the soil to add humus
and fibre.
• This makes the waste perfectly safe and also assists the growing process.
• Properly managed composting requires careful monitoring of decomposing waste to control moisture and
chemical levels and promote microbial activity.
• This is designed to produce compost which is safe to handle and which acts as a good fertiliser.
ADVANTAGES : composting is environmentally friendly and beneficial for crops.
CONSTRAINTS : intensive management and experienced persons are required for large-scale operations
7.DISPOSAL FACILITES FOR LIQUID
WASTE
LIQUID WASTE/SEWAGE DISPOSAL FACILITES
Disposal of Liquid Waste
Disposal of liquid waste includes dumping on land; underground to
rivers or to the sea, some pretreatment of waste may be necessary
before disposal in order to comply with the legislation. Destruction,
for example by incineration is also included. There are many
sewage disposal methods. Some are very expensive and some need
a sophisticated technology. These methods are the simplest and
cheapest to dispose sewage.

1.DISPOSAL BY DILUTION
Disposal by dilution is a common practice in some communities to
discharge raw sewage into near by water bodies such as rivers,
streams, etc., so that it is diluted or reduced in strength by the
water.
➢ Unsanitary:
•creating offensive condition
• Water and soil pollutions (a aquatic life start to die off)
• Spread of infectious organisms greatly increases.

2. Cesspool
A cesspool is a pit dug in the ground in order to receive waste
water/sewages from kitchen, toilet or barns. Cesspool can be
classified in to two kinds by its removal mechanisms.
These are:
1. The leaching type of cesspool
2. The watertight cesspool
• Leaching type of cesspool or Seepage/soakage or absorption pit
The leaching type cesspool, otherwise known as a seepage pit,
soakage pit or absorption pit, is a pit dug in the ground to receive
sewage from kitchen, toilet, or barns, and to allow the liquid to
seep, leach or percolate into the ground.
• The liquid portion seeps or leaches off into the surrounding soil,
while the solid component (sludge) is retained in the pit.
• The side of the pit is constructed with open joints in order to
facilitate seepage of the liquid portion, while the top most part (60-
90 cm) is plastered to make it watertight.
• A concrete slab cover with a man-hole is provide to permit access
to the pit, and an outlet pipe takes the effluent into another pit or
serious of pits.
• A depth of 2 to 3 meters and a diameter of 90 to 120 cm will give a
reasonable capacity, provided the soil is adequately porous, and
can let the liquids.
• The cesspool should be sited at least 30 meters away from and on
a lower level than water wells or other sources of drinking water.
• The height of the ground water table should be at least 1.20 meters
below the bottom of the cesspool.

• Improperly used cesspool may create:

• Fly-breeding
• Objectionable odour
• Nuisances
Leaching type of cesspool
• WATERTIGHT CESSPOOL

• Similar to leaching type except made water proof in order

to receive and store sewage .Inside water tight tank sewage
undergoes anaerobic decomposition but should not
considered sewage treatment.
• Problem: periodic emptying and disposal of contents

• 3.SEPTIC TANK

• Septic tanks are commonly used for wastewater treatment

for individual households in low-density residential areas,
for institutional such as schools and hospitals, and for small
housing estates.
• The wastewater may be waste from toilets only, or may
also include Sullage.
• The septic tank, in conjunction with its effluent disposal
system, offers many of the advantages of conventional
sewerage.
• However, septic tanks systems are more expensive than
other on-site sanitation systems and are unlikely to be
affordable by the poorer people in society.
• They also require sufficient piped water to flush all the
wastes through the drains to the tanks.

Watertight cesspool
7.DISPOSAL FACILITIES FOR GAS
WASTE
MANAGEMENT OF GASEOUS WASTES:

The gaseous wastes are generated in to environment

mainly due to anthropogenic activities. The gaseous
wastes include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides
of sulphur (SOx) etc. These gaseous wastes can cause
serious environmental hazards. Therefore, it is
highly essential to take appropriate steps for the
proper management and control of gaseous wastes in
the environment.

DISPOSAL OF GASEOUS WASTES:

The gaseous wastes are the main source of air

pollution. As air pollution is most dangerous to
human health, the gaseous wastes must be properly
treated before they are disposed of into the
atmosphere. The following techniques are
undertaken for the management and disposal of
gaseous wastes.
FILTERS:

Filters are employed to remove the particulate

matter in the gaseous wastes. The filters remove the
particles by trapping them into porous bags which
allow only air to pass through. Such filters are also
called bag filters. The bags are prepared from
cotton, polyester, spun glass fibers, etc. The bags are
10-15 m long and 2-3 m wide. When the gaseous
wastes are blown into the bottom of the bag, gases
escape through the pores and the particulate matter
is trapped. After regular intervals the bags are
cleaned to remove the accumulated particles. Such
filters are commonly used in textile, glass and
asbestos industries.

SCRUBBERS:

Scrubbers are devices that are installed to separate

particulate matter as well as gaseous pollutants. It
consists of a device in which the gaseous wastes
are passed through a space containing wet
packing. Therefore, these are also called wet
scrubbers . Water is most commonly used for wet
packing, while some other liquids may also be
used to remove the pollutants.
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS:

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) are electrical devices for

controlling particulate matter from smoke and other gaseous
pollutants. The gaseous wastes are passed through a collection
plates at high voltage (30,000 to 1, 00,000 volts) whereby
negative electrical charge is imparted to the suspended particles.
These negatively charged particles migrate towards the collection
plates which are positively charged.
During collection, the charge is neutralized and the particles
are removed by washing or by gravity action. Electronic
precipitators are extremely efficient (99%) as they can remove
micron size particles and are also simple to maintain. However,
these precipitators consume large amount of electricity.

CATALYTIC CONVERTERS:

Air pollution from the automobiles is quite common in the

urban areas. Automobiles emit
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, etc. that are a constant health
hazard. The control of these gases is
of considerable importance, not only for human health, but
also for controlling the greenhouse effect and ozone
layer depletion. Catalytic converter is the most common device
installed in the automobiles that convert carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water.
SOME IMPORTANT CONTROL MEASURES ARE DESCRIBED BELOW:

(i) The gaseous pollutant like SO2, H2S, HC1, Cl2, NH3, etc. can be removed by absorption in (using
appropriate liquid) wet scrubbers.
(ii) The use of smokeless chulhas, solar cookers and biogas can reduce the production of smoke.
(iii) The industries should use precipitators, scrubbers and filters to check production of particulate
matter.
(iv) The emission of hydrocarbons from vehicles can be checked by the use of unleaded petrol.
(v) There should be large scale of plantation which will reduce CO2 level and increase O2 level of
atmosphere.
(vi) There should be large chimneys in industries.
(vii) The automobile emission can be controlled by:
(a) Control of exhaust emission,
(b) Control of evaporation emission,
(c) Control of crank case emission,
(d) Using engine alternative to gasoline engine,
(e) Use of CNG instead of diesel.
(viii) Air cleaning devices like gravity settlers, cyclone separators, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators
etc. should be used for the cleaning of air before their discharge into atmosphere.
(ix) Public awareness should be created regarding hazards of air pollutant accumulation in environment.
(x) Adequate legislation (Air act) should compel to control air pollution. Severe punishment should be
specified for the defaulters.
8.WASTEG ENERATION
IN HOSPITAL
INTRODUCTION
• Waste is almost anything that has served its original intended
purpose and is being discarded or stored prior to being discarded.
• Hospital waste includes all the waste generated by health-care
establishments, research facilities, and laboratories.
• In addition, it includes the waste originating from “minor” or
“scattered” sources such as that produced in the home ( dialysis,
insulin, injections, etc.)
• Between 75% and 90% of the waste produced by health-care
providers is non-risk or general health care waste, comparable to
domestic waste.
• It comes mostly from the administrative and housekeeping
functions of health-care establishments and may also include
waste generated during maintenance of health-care premises.
• The remaining 10-25% of health care waste is regarded as
hazardous and may create a variety of health risks.
• Hospital waste is the second
most hazardous waste after
radioactive waste.
• The improper management of
hospital wastes causes serious
environmental problems in terms
of air, water and land pollution.
• The nature of pollutants can be
classified as:
➢ Biological
➢ Chemical
➢ Radioactive

• Environment problems can arise

from the mere generation of
hospital waste and from the
process of handling, treatment
and disposal.
 CLASSIFICATION
• Hospital wastes are categorized according to their weight, density
and constituents. The WHO has classified medical waste into
following categories.
1.Infection: material-containing pathogens in sufficient
concentration or quantities that, if exposed, can cause diseases.
E.g. laboratory cultures, waste from isolation wards, tissues,
materials, or equipment that have been in contact with infected
patients etc.
2.Sharps: disposable needles, syringes, infusion sets, saws, blades,
broken glasses, nails or any other item that could cause a cut.
3.Pathological: tissues, organs, body parts, human flesh, fetuses,
blood and body fluids.
4.Pharmaceuticals: drugs and chemicals that are returned from
wards, spilled, outdated, contaminated, or are no longer required.
5.Genotoxic waste: waste containing substances with genotoxic
properties. E.g. waste containing cytostatic drugs, genotoxic
chemicals.
6. Chemical waste: waste containing chemical substances.
E.g. laboratory reagents, film developer, disinfections
that are expired or no longer needed.
7. Radioactive: solids, liquids and gaseous waste
contaminated with radioactive substances used in
diagnosis and treatment of diseases. E.g. unused
liquids from radiotherapy or laboratory research,
contaminated glassware, packages, or absorbent
paper.
8. Wastes with high content of heavy metals: batteries,
broken thermometers, blood-pressure gauges etc.
9. Pressurized containers: gas cylinders, gas cartridges,
aerosol cans
10. Others: waste from the offices, kitchens, rooms,
including bed linen, utensils, paper etc.
 Sources of hospital waste
• The sources of health-care waste
can be classified as MAJOR or
MINOR according to the quantities
produced.
MAJOR SOURCES Hospitals
• University hospital
• General hospital
• District hospital
Other health-care establishments
• Emergency medical care services
• Health-care centers and
dispensaries
• Related laboratories and research centers
• Obstetric and maternity clinics
• Medical and biomedical laboratories
• Outpatient clinics
• Dialysis clinics • Biotechnology laboratories and institutions

• First-aid posts • Medical research centers

• Transfusion centers • Mortuary and autopsy centers

• Military medical services • Animal research and testing

• Blood banks and blood collection services
• Nursing homes for the elderly
MINOR SOURCES

Small health-care establishments

• Physicians offices

• Dental clinics

• Acupuncturists
The composition of wastes is often
• Chiropractors characteristic of the type of source. Example:
Specialized health-care establishments and institutions
the different units within a hospital would
with low waste generation generate waste with the following
characteristics:
• Convalescent nursing homes

• Psychiatric hospitals ➢Medical wards: mainly infectious waste such

• Disabled persons institutions
While minor and scattered sources may produce some
health-care waste in categories similar to hospital
waste, their composition will be different.
Example
• They rarely produce radioactive or cytostatic waste
as dressings, bandages, sticking plaster, gloves,
disposable medical items, used hypodermic
needles contaminated packaging .
➢Operating theatres and surgical wards:
mainly anatomical waste such as tissues,
organs, fetuses, and body parts, other
infectious waste and sharps.

• Human body parts are generally not included

• Sharps consist mainly of hypodermic needles

9.DESIGN PROVISION FOR THE DISPOSAL OF
WASTE GENERATED IN HOSPITALS
DEVELOPMENT OF A WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
Waste management plan should address the following issues:
• Existing situation (waste management practices, personnel and equipment involved)
• Quantities of waste generated
• Possibilities for waste minimization, reuse, and recycling
• On-site handling, transport, and storage practices
• Training for personnel involved
• Estimation of costs relating to actual situation and proposed options
DEVELOPMENT OF A WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
• A good waste management plan shall include but not restricted to the following;
• Waste segregation: careful segregation (separation) of waste matter into different categories helps to minimize
the quantities of hazardous waste.
• Segregation is one of the most important steps to successfully manage Hospital wastes.
• Given the fact that only about 10-25% of the hospital wastes is hazardous, treatment and disposal costs could be
greatly reduced if a proper segregation were performed. Segregating hazardous from non-hazardous waste
reduces also greatly the risks of infecting workers handling hospital wastes.
• Cytotoxic waste, most of which is produced in major hospital or research facilities, should be collected in strong,
leak-proof containers clearly labelled “Cytotoxic wastes”.
Small amounts of chemical o pharmaceutical waste may be collected together with infectious waste.
WASTE MINIMIZATION
May be encouraged by the implementation of certain policies and practices, including the following:
• Source reduction: measures such as purchasing restrictions
to ensure the selection of methods or supplies generate less
hazardous waste.
• Recyclable products: use of materials that may be recycled,
either on-site or off-site.
• Good management and control practices: apply particularly
to the purchase and use of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
RECYCLING AND REUSE
Medical equipments used in a health-care establishment may be
reused provided that they are designed for that purpose and will
withstand the sterilization process. E.g. scalpels and hypodermic
needles, syringes, glass bottles.
HANDLING, STORAGE, AND TRANSPORTATION
• Appropriate handling, storage, transportation, and treatment of waste by type reduces costs and does much to
protects public health.
• The best way to manage safe and cost-effective waste disposal is through segregation of wastes into
“contaminated” and “general” wastes.
• The general waste can be disposed of cost-effectively through normal means and taken to landfill, and
contaminated waste can be handled and treated safely before disposal in landfill.
• If a product has become soiled with blood or other body fluids, it’s treated as ‘contaminated waste’, and either
incinerated or treated chemically and landfilled as general waste
MANAGEMENT OF HOSPITAL WASTES
• On-site collection
• Storage of waste
• Transportation to a disposal site
COLLECTION
• Wastes should not be allowed to accumulate at the point of production
• No bags should be removed unless they are labeled with their point of production (hospital and ward or
department) and contents
• A supply of fresh collection bags or containers should be readily available at all locations where waste is
produced
ON-SITE TRANSPORT
• Health-care waste should be transported within the hospital or other facility by means of wheeled trolleys,
containers, or carts that are not used for any other purpose and meet the following specifications:
• easy to load and unload;
• no sharp edges that could damage waste bags or containers during loading and unloading;
• easy to clean.
• The vehicles should be cleaned and disinfected daily with an appropriate disinfectant.
• All waste-bag seals should be in place and intact at the end of transportation
STORAGE
• A storage location for health-care waste should be designated inside the health-care establishment.
• The wastes should be stored in a separate area, room, or building of a size appropriate to the quantities of waste
produced and the frequency of collection.
REQUIRED STORAGE CONDITIONS.
• The storage area should have an impermeable, hard standing floor (easy to clean and disinfect) with good
drainage system.
• There should be adequate water supply for cleaning purposes.
• Easy access for waste-collection vehicles is essential.
• The storage area should be inaccessible to animals, insects, and birds.
• There should be good lighting and at least passive ventilation.
• The storage area should not be situated in the proximity of fresh food stores or food preparation areas.
• A supply of cleaning equipment, protective clothing, and waste bags or containers should be located conveniently
close to the storage area.
• Off-site transportation is required when hazardous hospital wastes is treated outside the HCF. The waste
producer is then responsible for the proper packaging and labeling of the containers that are transported..
OFF-SITE TRANSPORTATION
The transportation should always be properly documented and all vehicles should carry a consignment note from the point of collection
to the treatment facility.

• Furthermore, the vehicles used for the collection of hazardous / infectious hospital wastes should not be used for any other
purpose.

• Treatment and disposal technologies for healthcare waste

• . INCINERATION

• It is used to be the method of choice for most hazardous healthcare wastes and is still widely used. However, recently developed
alternative treatment methods are becoming increasingly popular. The final choice of treatment system should be made carefully, on
the basis of various factors, many of which depend on local conditions:

The combustion of organic compounds produces mainly gaseous emissions, including steam, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and solid
residues in the form of ashes.

• This process is usually selected to treat waste that cannot be recycled, reused,

or disposed off in a landfill site.

• Incineration is done at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C.

• Incineration has been the treatment method of choice for medical waste for two important reasons.

• First, incineration has always been thought to be the best method of eliminating any infectious organisms that are present in medical
waste.

• Second, incineration has been economical for hospitals because it substantially reduces the volume to be disposed of in a landfill
WASTES SUITABLE FOR INCINERATION
• Low heating value: above 2000 kcal/kg (8370 kJ/kg)
• Combustible matter above 60%.
• Non-combustible solids below 5%.
• Moisture below 30%.
WASTE TYPES NOT TO BE INCINERATED
• Pressurized containers; Explosion may occur and cause damage to the equipment.
• Halogenated plastics (e.g. Poly Vinyl Carbon) release gases that contain hydrogen chloride and may contain
dioxins.
• Wastes with high content of heavy metals (e.g. thermometers, batteries). Incineration will cause emission of toxic
metals (e.g. lead, cadmium, mercury) into the atmosphere.
• Radioactive waste :treatment does not affect radioactive properties and may disperse radiation.
CHEMICAL DISINFECTION
• Chemicals used for disinfection of health-care waste mostly are aldehydes, chlorine compounds, ammonium salts,
and phenolic compounds.
• The use of ozone (O3) for disinfection of waste is currently being investigated. This disinfectant is strong and
relatively safe.
• Disinfectants are often hazardous and toxic; many are harmful to skin and mucous membranes.
• Disinfectants are also aggressive to certain building materials and should be handled and stored accordingly.
• Treatment nonlimited quantities of waste and are therefore commonly used only for highly infectious waste, such
as microbial cultures or sharps. Effectively inactivates all vegetative microorganisms and most bacterial spores.
Requires a 60-minute cycle at 121°C (minimum) and 1 bar (100kPa).This allows for full steam penetration of waste
material.
MICROWAVE IRRADIATION
• Most microorganisms are destroyed by the action of microwaves of a frequency of about 2450 MHz and a
wavelength of 12.24cm. The water contained within the wastes is rapidly heated by the microwaves and the
infectious components are destroyed by heat conduction.
LAND DISPOSAL
• Municipal disposal sites If a municipality or medical authority genuinely lacks the means to treat
wastes before disposal, the use of a landfill has to be regarded
• Open dumps Health-care waste should not be deposited on or around open dumps.
• Sanitary landfills are designed to have at least four advantages over open dumps: geological isolation
of wastes from the environment, appropriate engineering preparations before the site is ready to
accept wastes, staff present on site to control operations, and organized deposit and daily coverage of
waste.
• Safe burial on hospital premises The burial site should be lined with a material of low
permeability, such as clay, if available, to prevent pollution of any shallow groundwater
that may subsequently reach nearby wells
ENCAPSULATION
• Encapsulation is recommended as the easiest technology for the safe disposal of sharps.
Sharps are collected in puncture-proof and leak-proof containers, such as high-density
polyethylene boxes, metallic drums, or barrels. When a container is three-quarters full,
a material such as cement mortar, bituminous sand, plastic foam, or clay is poured in until the container
is completely filled. After this material has dried, the container is sealed and may be land filled, stored, or
buried inside the hospital premises. It is also possible to encapsulate chemical or pharmaceutical residues
together with sharps.
Advantages
• Simple and safe.
• Low costs.
• Also applicable to chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
Drawbacks
• Not recommended for non-sharp infectious waste.
Alternative energy sources for buildings

Advance services
Unit -7
 Renewable energy sources are literally found in sunlight, in the air, deep underground and in our
oceans. They are part of the planet’s physical structure, which means they are constantly being renewed by
natural means. They simply cannot run out.
These sustainable energy sources are often called “alternative energy” because they’re considered to be an
alternative to traditional fossil fuels such as oil and coal.
Just because an energy source is renewable doesn’t mean it’s 100 percent environmentally safe. For
instance, dams harness the power of moving water, but they can also harm fish and wildlife. Wind turbines
use the sun’s energy to generate clean electricity, but there are environmental impacts from the
manufacturing process.
All told, though, alternative energy resources pack a much lighter environmental footprint than fossil fuels.
This is why renewable energy sources are so important – they are our ticket to a less polluted world. Even if
we did not face the threat of climate change, minimizing pollution is basic for good health.
Green and Clean: Sustainable Energy Sources
Five types of alternative energy are generated by harnessing a natural process, like sunlight or waves. They are
generally the most sustainable forms of energy.

Solar Energy

Capturing the Wind

Geothermal: Power from the Earth

From Waterwheels to Hydroelectricity

Power from the Ocean

Hydrogen: High Energy/Low Pollution
Buildings account for approximately 40% of the worldwide annual energy consumption (WBCSD 2009).
Reducing existing building energy consumption consists of two synergistic approaches: (1) to reduce the need for
energy through implementation of energy efficiency measures and (2) to offset the remaining building energy needs
through use of renewable energy systems.
Renewable energy resources commonly used for building applications include solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass.
Before selecting an appropriate renewable energy technology to apply to an existing building retrofit project, it is important
to first consider a number of factors.
Available renewable energy resource at or near the building site • Available area for siting of
the renewable energy technology • Cost of energy purchased from the electrical or thermal
energy provider for the building • Available incentives for offsetting the installation cost of
the renewable energy system • Local regulations affecting renewable energy systems •
Desire to preserve or not alter existing architectural features • Characteristics of the energy
profiles to be offset by the renewable energy installation.
SOLAR WATER HEATING
• Solar water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into heat
for water heating using a solar thermal collector. A variety of
configurations is available at varying cost to provide solutions in
different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for residential
and some industrial applications.
• A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage
system for later use. SWH are active (pumped) and passive
(convection-driven). They use water only, or both water and a
working fluid. They are heated directly or via light-concentrating
mirrors. They operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas
heaters. In large-scale installations, mirrors may concentrate sunlight
into a smaller collector.
What is the advantage of using solar hot water
systems?
• Solar thermal energy has use widely in Australia for heating water for
domestic use. This is an excellent and economic solution. By using the
sun’s heat for generating our hot water, we reduce the amount of
fossil fuels needing burning (and the associated greenhouse gas
emissions generated) to supply electricity to do the same thing.
Types of Solar Hot
Water

• There are 3 types of solar hot

water system to choose from:
• Flat plate collector
• Evacuated tube collector
• Heat pump systems
Components

• Collector
• Solar thermal collectors capture and retain heat from the sun and use it to heat a
liquid. Two important physical principles govern the technology of solar thermal
collectors:
• Any hot object ultimately returns to thermal equilibrium with its environment, due to
heat loss from conduction, convection and radiation. Efficiency (the proportion of heat
energy retained for a predefined time period) is directly related to heat loss from the
collector surface. Convection and radiation are the most important sources of heat loss.
Thermal insulation is used to slow heat loss from a hot object. This follows the Second
law of thermodynamics (the 'equilibrium effect').
• Heat is lost more rapidly if the temperature difference between a hot object and its
environment is larger. Heat loss is predominantly governed by the thermal gradient
between the collector surface and the ambient temperatures. Conduction, convection
and radiation all occur more rapidly over large thermal gradients (the delta-t effect).
• Flat plate
• Flat plate collectors are an extension of the idea to place
a collector in an 'oven'-like box with glass directly facing
the Sun.[1] Most flat plate collectors have two horizontal
pipes at the top and bottom, called headers, and many
smaller vertical pipes connecting them, called risers. The
risers are welded (or similarly connected) to thin
absorber fins. Heat-transfer fluid (water or
water/antifreeze mix) is pumped from the hot water
storage tank or heat exchanger into the collectors'
bottom header, and it travels up the risers, collecting
heat from the absorber fins, and then exits the collector
out of the top header. Serpentine flat plate collectors
differ slightly from this "harp" design, and instead use a
single pipe that travels up and down the collector.
However, since they cannot be properly drained of
water, serpentine flat plate collectors cannot be used in
drain back systems.
• The type of glass used in flat plate collectors is almost
always low-iron, tempered glass. Such glass can
withstand significant hail without breaking, which is one
of the reasons that flat-plate collectors are considered
the most durable collector type.
• Evacuated tube
• Evacuated tube collectors (ETC) are a way to reduce the
heat loss, inherent in flat plates. Since heat loss due to
convection cannot cross a vacuum, it forms an efficient
isolation mechanism to keep heat inside the collector
pipes. Since two flat glass sheets are generally not strong
enough to withstand a vacuum, the vacuum is created
between two concentric tubes. Typically, the water
piping in an ETC is therefore surrounded by two
concentric tubes of glass separated by a vacuum that
admits heat from the sun (to heat the pipe) but that
limits heat loss. The inner tube is coated with a thermal
absorber. Vacuum life varies from collector to collector,
from 5 years to 15 years.
• Flat plate collectors are generally more efficient than ETC
in full sunshine conditions. However, the energy output
of flat plate collectors is reduced slightly more than ETCs
in cloudy or extremely cold conditions. Most ETCs are
made from annealed glass, which is susceptible to hail,
failing given roughly golf ball -sized particles. ETCs made
from "coke glass," which has a green tint, are stronger
and less likely to lose their vacuum, but efficiency is
slightly reduced due to reduced transparency. ETCs can
gather energy from the sun all day long at low angles due
to their tubular shape
Pump

• PV pump
• One way to power an active system is via a photovoltaic (PV) panel. To ensure
proper pump performance and longevity, the (DC) pump and PV panel must be
suitably matched. Although a PV-powered pump does not operate at night, the
controller must ensure that the pump does not operate when the sun is out, but
the collector water is not hot enough.
• PV pumps offer the following advantages:
• Simpler/cheaper installation and maintenance
• Excess PV output can be used for household electricity use or put back into the
grid.
• Can dehumidify living space.
• Can operate during a power outage.
• Avoids the carbon consumption from using grid-powered pumps.
• Bubble pump
• A bubble pump (also known as geyser
pump) is suitable for flat panel as well as
vacuum tube systems. In a bubble pump
system, the closed HTF circuit is under
reduced pressure, which causes the liquid to
boil at low temperature as the sun heats it.
The steam bubbles form a geyser, causing an
upward flow. The bubbles are separated
from the hot fluid and condensed at the
highest point in the circuit, after which the
fluid flows downward toward the heat
exchanger caused by the difference in fluid
levels. The HTF typically arrives at the heat
exchanger at 70 °C and returns to the
circulating pump at 50 °C. Pumping typically
starts at about 50 °C and increases as the
sun rises until equilibrium is reached
• Controller
• A differential controller senses temperature differences between
water leaving the solar collector and the water in the storage tank
near the heat exchanger. The controller starts the pump when the
water in the collector is sufficiently about 8–10 °C warmer than the
water in the tank, and stops it when the temperature difference
reaches 3–5 °C. This ensures that stored water always gains heat
when the pump operates and prevents the pump from excessive
cycling on and off. (In direct systems the pump can be triggered with a
difference around 4 °C because they have no heat exchanger.)
PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL
Photovoltaic (PV) cell is the technical term for solar cell, which is used to convert sunlight directly into
electricity.
Scientists coined the term photovoltaics to refer to this process of converting light (photons) to electricity
(voltage).
The process has come to be known as the PV effect.
Scientists at Bell Telephone were the first to discover the PV effect in 1954 when they noticed that silicon,
when exposed to sunlight, could produce an electric charge.
Nowadays PV technology is being used to power homes and commercial buildings, and
even in large power stations of several utility companies.
For an average home, it would take about 10 to 20 solar panels to satisfy its complete
power requirement.
These panels are made from solar cells that are combined to form modules holding
about 40 cells.
To absorb maximum sunlight through the day, the panels are either assembled at a
fixed angle facing south or they are fixed on a tracking device that follows the sun.
When several solar panels are grouped together to form a system, it is termed as a solar
array.
For large industrial/commercial usage, several solar arrays are combined to form a
large-scale PV system.
Photovoltaic Technology

PV cells are the basis of photovoltaic technology and are made up of semiconducting
materials such as the often used single-crystal silicon.

In case polycrystalline silicon is used, it is a thin film on the base of glass or plastic that is
not expensive.

Materials such as indium, tellurium, gallium, cadmium, copper, and selenium are used in
combinations in the manufacturing of PV devices.

Size of the PV cell, intensity of light source, and conversion efficiency of the cell will reflect
upon the quantity of electricity produced.

TYPES OF PV CELLS

Commonly available PV module technologies use one of the following:

•Mono-crystalline silicon
•Polycrystalline silicon
•Flexible amorphous thin film
•Copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGS) thin film.
As PV technologies are used in applications of varying sizes, a PV system may contain the following components based
on the load:

•Solar trackers
-for tracking the sun and ensuring optimal solar gain of the PV array Battery-charge controllers
-for controlling overcharge and over- discharge of the batteries

•Batteries
- for storing electricity for later use when the sun is not shining

•Converters
- for converting the voltage of the PV system to a higher or lower voltage

•Engine generators
– mainly found in hybrid systems for providing backup power as well as charge for the batteries

•Inverters
- for converting direct current (dc) electricity to alternating current (ac) electricity.
Possible locations for panel installation are listed below:

•Roof – PV panels can be laminated into the roof membrane or mounted above the roof
•Walls
•Skylights
•Covered parking

The following factors play a vital role in the successful installation of any PV system:

•Solar arrays and inverters must have appropriate thermal management design
•Relevant panel tilt and orientation is required so as to enhance sunlight capture and lessen soiling
effects
•Proper fusing, switching, and related safety measures
•Superior quality wire and conduit must be used with no exposed wiring or wire connections
•Efficient system design to ensure functionality and serviceability
•Use of proper tools and professional installation
•Suitable attachment details and assembly operations
•Complete system inspection, testing, and commissioning
•Proper program management and project oversight
Type of PV Installations

The various types of PV installations are listed below:

•Grid systems - This is the most commonly used PV system. It basically is a solar system
that is connected to the utility power grid, which provides a 99% efficiency. The excess
electricity produced by the solar panels can be transferred to the grid, thus lowering the
electricity bill. It does not require batteries and generally is cheaper and simpler to
install.

•Off-grid systems – These are also called stand-alone solar systems as they are not
connected to a power grid. They require constant access to electricity, thus requiring
battery storage and even diesel backup generators. Batteries have to be replaced and
are expensive. However, this system is chosen as a cost-effective alternative to power
remote places rather than extending power lines to those places.

•Hybrid systems – These solar systems combine the benefits of the above two into one
system. They can either be a grid-tied solar system with extra battery storage, or an off-
grid solar system with utility backup power. The hybrid systems require components
such as battery bank, charge controller, DC disconnect, battery-based grid-tie inverter,
and a power meter, to work at optimal level. They are cheaper than off-grid systems.
Applications of Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics are being increasingly used in numerous applications across the globe.
Examples of some giant solar projects are the Agua Caliente Solar Project in USA with a
capacity of 247 MW, China’s 200 MW Golmud Solar Park, and the Charanka Solar Park in
India with a capacity of 214 MW.

The following are some of the key applications of photovoltaics:

•Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) – They can be located near the building, on its
roof, or integrated into the building itself.
•Cost-effective solar solutions for remote places
•Solar-powered LED lighting
•Auxiliary power for boats and cars
•As electric power for use in space
•To power calculators and novelty devices
•Solar-powered remote fixed devices - for products such as parking meters, emergency
telephones, water pumps, temporary traffic signs, trash compactors, and remote guard
posts and signals.
•Solar-powered lighting for roadways/highways
 INTRODUCTION
All plants materials produced through photosynthesis via carbon dioxide fixation is
biomass. Major source of biomass is agricultural waste, residue, fuel wood, and industrial
waste. Biomass can be use as energy source directly through combustion or converted
into gaseous, liquid and solid fuel. In present scenario of biomass conversion to useful
energy products, selection of biomass suitable for specific use.

WHAT IS BIOMASS?
Biomass is organic matter produced plants
•It includes Terrestrial Plants(which are grows on land) and Aquatic Plants(which are
grow in water). It includes forest crops and residues, crops grown for their energy
content on energy farms and animal manure.
• Coal, oil and natural gas takes millions of year for there formation but are considered
as renewable source because of plant life renews and add to it self every year.
 BIOMASS
•Biomass is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not limited. We can
always grow trees and crops, and waste will always exist.
• Biomass gets its energy from the sun. During a process called photosynthesis,
sunlight gives plants the energy they need to convert water and carbon dioxide into
oxygen and sugars. These sugars, called carbohydrates, these supply plants and the
animals that eat plants with energy.

BIOMASS
• Solar energy – Photosynthesis--Biomass Energy--Generation
DIAGRAM OF BIOMASS SOURCES
CATEGORIZED THE BIOMASS
These different type of biomass are divided into different categorizes. There
are 2 categorizes
1. Dry Biomass
2. 2. Wet Biomass
DRY BIOMASS
Dry biomass consists of tree chips, paper, various other plant matter such
as corn, soybean, sorghum, sunflower, oats, barley, wheat and hay. Tress,
bagasse, grass, municipal solid waste etc are also part of dry biomass
WET BIOMASS
Wet biomass tends to be in water or to stay moist Examples are water
plants, animal wastes, Municipal sewerage plant, industrial waste stream
plants and biodiesel oil Treated with hydrogasification at high pressure and
low temperatures to produce a gas or biofuel oil
WIND ENERGY:
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy is the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity.

Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.
A generator can convert mechanical power into electricity.
Mechanical power can also be utilized directly for specific tasks such as pumping water.

Wind energy is created by uneven solar heating of the Earth’s surface. This wind flow, or
motion energy, can be harnessed by modern wind turbines to generate electricity. Wind
turbines use rotating propeller-like blades to harness the energy in the wind and drive a
turbine that generates electricity.
As per wind resource classification :

If the site has a class 3 wind resource, consider small wind turbine (100 kW or less) or large, low wind speed
turbine opportunities.
If the site has a class 4 or greater wind resource, wind may be a good option and even larger, utility-scale
turbines may provide economic options
Most wind turbines are designed for an operating life of up to 20 years and require little maintenance during
this period.
Wind turbines require land area, so on-site wind power generation usually occurs for projects having space for
installing the turbines .
Roof-mounted wind systems are beginning to be used in some building projects. However, building designers
should carefully consider issues such as maintaining the building’s structural integrity, noise, and the added cost
before determining if building-mounted systems are appropriate for a specific project.