Map Reading and Land Navigation

MAP READING

INTRODUCTION:
Map is a graphical representation of the earth's surface drawn to scale, as
seen from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to represent features found on
the ground. The ideal representation would be realized if every feature of the area
being mapped could be shown in true shape. Obviously this is impossible, and an
attempt to plot each feature true to scale would result in a product impossible to read
even with the aid of a magnifying glass.
Purpose. A map provides information on the existence, the location of, and
the distance between ground features, such as populated places and routes of travel
and communication. It also indicates variations in terrain, heights of natural features,
and the extent of vegetation cover. With our military forces dispersed throughout the
world, it is necessary to rely on maps to provide information to our combat elements
and to resolve logistical operations far from our shores. Soldiers and materials must
be transported, stored, and placed into operation at the proper time and place. Much
of this planning must be done by using maps. Therefore, any operation requires a
supply of maps; however, the finest maps available are worthless unless the map
user knows how to read them.
Categories:
1. Scale. Because a map is a graphical representation of a portion of the
earth's surface, it is important to know what mathematical scale has been used. You
must know this to determine ground distances between objects or locations on the
map, the size of the area covered, and how the scale may affect the amount of detail
being shown. The mathematical scale of a map is the ratio or fraction between the
distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth. Scale
is reported as a representative fraction with the map distance as the numerator and
the ground distance as the denominator.
Small.
 Those maps with scales of 1:600,000 or smaller are used for
general planning and for strategic studies
 The standard small-scale map is 1:1,000,000.
 This map covers a very large land area at the expense of detail
Medium.
 Those maps with scales larger than 1:600,000 but smaller than
1:75,000 are used for operational planning
 They contain a moderate amount of detail, but terrain analysis is
best done with the large-scale
 The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000.
Large.
 Those maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for
tactical, administrative, and logistical planning
 These are the maps that you as a soldier or junior leader are
most likely to encounter

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-1

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
 The standard large-scale map is 1:50,000;

2. Types:
a. Planemetric Map. This is a map that presents only the
horizontal positions for the features represented. It is distinguished from a
topographic map by the omission of relief, normally represented by contour lines.
Sometimes, it is called a line map.

b. Topographic Map. This is a map that portrays terrain features

in a measurable way (usually through use of contour lines), as well as the horizontal
positions of the features represented. The vertical positions, or relief, are normally
represented by contour lines on military topographic maps. On maps showing relief,
the elevations and `contours are measured from a specific vertical datum plane,
usually mean sea level.

c. Photomap. This is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon

which grid lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations,
boundaries, and approximate scale and direction have been added.
d. Joint Operations Graphics. These maps are based on the
format of standard 1:250,000 medium-scale military topographic maps, but they
contain additional information needed in joint air-ground operations. Along the north
and east edges of the graphic, detail is extended beyond the standard map sheet to
provide overlap with adjacent sheets. These maps are produced both in ground and
air formats. Each version is identified in the lower margin as either Joint Operations
Graphic (Air) or Joint Operations Graphic (Ground). The topographic information is
identical on both, but the ground version shows elevations and contour in meters
and the air version shows them in feet. Layer (elevation) tinting and relief shading
are added as an aid to interpolating relief. Both versions emphasize air landing
facilities (shown in purple), but the air version has additional symbols to identify aids
and obstructions to air navigation.
e. Photomosaic. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is
commonly called a mosaic in topographic usage. Mosaics are useful when time does
not permit the compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic
depends on the method employed in its preparation and may vary from simply a
good pictorial effect of the ground to that of a planemetric map.
f. Terrain Model. This is a scale model of the terrain showing
features, and in large-scale models showing industrial and cultural shapes. It
provides a means for visualizing the terrain for planning or indoctrination purposes
and for briefing on assault landings.
g. Military City Map. This is a topographic map (usually at
1:12,550 scale, sometimes up to 1:5,000), showing the details of a city. It delineates
streets and shows street names, important buildings, and other elements of the
urban landscape important to navigation and military operations in urban terrain. The
scale of a military city map depends on the importance and size of the city, density
of detail, and available intelligence information.
h. Special Maps. These are maps for special purposes, such as
traffic, communications, and assault maps. They are usually in the form of an
overprint in the scales smaller than 1:100,000 but larger than 1:1,000,000. A special

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-2

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
purpose map is one that has been designed or modified to give information not to
create confusion.
MARGINAL INFORMATION
A map could be compared to any piece of equipment, in that before it is
placed into operation the user must read the instructions. It is important that you, as
a soldier, know how to read these instructions. The most logical place to begin is the
marginal information and symbols, where useful information telling about the map is
located and explained. All maps are not the same, so it becomes necessary every
time a different map is used to examine the marginal information carefully.

1. Sheet Name. The sheet name is found in bold print at the center of the
top and in the lower left area of the map margin. A map is generally named for the
settlement contained within the area covered by the sheet, or for the largest natural
feature located within the area at the time the map was drawn.

2. Sheet Number. The sheet number is found in bold print in both the
upper right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the center box of the adjoining
sheets diagram, which is found in the lower right margin. It is used as a reference
number to link specific maps to overlays, operations orders, and plans. For maps at
1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers are based on an arbitrary system that
makes possible the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and
1:25,000

3. Series Name. The map series name is found in the same bold print as
the sheet number in the upper left corner of the margin. In the new series, the name
given to the series is generally that of a major political subdivision. A map series
usually includes a group of similar maps at the same scale and on the same sheet
lines or format designed to cover a particular geographic area. It may also be a
group of maps that serve a common purpose, such as the military city maps.

4. Scale. The scale is found both in the upper left margin after the series
name, and in the center of the lower margin. The scale note is a representative
fraction that gives the ratio of a map distance to the corresponding distance on the
earth's surface. For example, the scale note 1:50,000 indicates that one unit of
measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

5. Series Number. The series number is found in both the upper right
margin and the lower left margin. It is a sequence reference expressed either as a
four-digit numeral (1501) or as a letter, followed by a three- or four-digit numeral
(S711, S701, etc). In the regional grouping of allied mapping projects, our map
series was designated “S”.

6. Edition Number. The edition number is found in bold print in the upper
right area of the top margin and the lower left area of the bottom margin. Editions are
numbered consecutively; therefore, if you have more than one edition, the highest
numbered sheet is the most recent. Military maps are now published by the ISAFP,
but older editions of maps may have been produced by the US Army Map Service,
or AFP Mapping Center (AFPMAC). The credit line, telling who produced the map, is
just above the legend. The map information date is found immediately below the

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-3

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
word "LEGEND" in the lower left margin of the map. This date is important when
determining how accurately the map data might be expected to match what you will
encounter on the ground.

7. Index to Boundaries. The index to boundaries diagram appears in the

lower or right margin of all sheets. This diagram, which is a miniature of the map,
shows the boundaries that occur within the map area, such as provincial and city
boundaries.

8. Adjoining Sheets Diagram. Maps at all standard scales contain a

diagram that illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at 1:100,000 and larger
scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale, the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets.
It consists of as many rectangles representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to
surround the rectangle that represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram
usually contains nine rectangles, but the number may vary depending on the
locations of the adjoining sheets. All represented sheets are identified by their sheet
numbers. Sheets of an adjoining series, whether published or planned, that are at
the same scale are represented by dashed lines. The series number of the adjoining
series is indicated along the appropriate side of the division line between the series.

9. Elevation Guide. This is normally found in the lower right margin. It is

a miniature characterization of the terrain shown. The terrain is represented by
bands of elevation, spot elevations, and major drainage features. The elevation
guide provides the map reader with a means of rapid recognition of major landforms.
The guide is developed exclusively for a particular map. It may not fit with the guide
of adjoining map whose elevation guide is developed independently on the basis of
each map’s terrain characteristics.

10. Declination Diagram. This is located in the lower margin of large-

scale maps and indicates the angular relationships of true north, grid north, and
magnetic north. On maps at 1:250,000 scales, this information is expressed as a
note in the lower margin. In recent edition maps, there is a note indicating the
conversion of azimuths from grid to magnetic and from magnetic to grid next to the
declination diagram. Ideally, diagram can be used within 5 years from date imprinted
therein. The diagram should not be used beyond 10 years; updated diagram should
be obtained from our topographic unit.

11. Bar Scales. These are located in the center of the lower margin. They
are rulers used to convert map distance to ground distance. Maps have three or
more bar scales, each in a different unit of measure. Care should be exercised when
using the scales, especially in the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.

12. Contour Interval Note. This note is found in the center of the lower
margin normally below the bar scales. It states the vertical distance between
adjacent contour lines of the map. When supplementary contours are used, the
interval is indicated. In recent edition maps, the contour interval is given in meters
instead of feet.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-4

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
13. Spheroid Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin.
Spheroids (ellipsoids) have specific parameters that define the X Y Z axis of the
earth. The spheroid is an integral part of the datum.

14. Grid Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It
gives information pertaining to the grid system used and the interval between grid
lines, and it identifies the UTM grid zone number.

15. Projection Note. The projection system is the framework of the map.
For military maps, this framework is of the conformal type; that is, small areas of the
surface of the earth retain their true shapes on the projection; measured angles
closely approximate true values; and the scale factor is the same in all directions
from a point. The projection note is located in the center of the lower margin.

16. Vertical Datum Note. This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. The vertical datum or vertical-control datum is defined as any level surface
(for example, mean sea level) taken as a surface of reference from which to
determine elevations. Map readers should habitually check the vertical datum note
on maps, particularly if the map is used for low level aircraft navigation, naval gunfire
support, or missile target acquisition.

17. Horizontal Datum Note. This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. The horizontal datum or horizontal-control datum is defined as a geodetic
reference point (of which five quantities are known: latitude, longitude, azimuth of a
line from this point, and two constants, which are the parameters of reference
ellipsoid). These are the basis for horizontal-control surveys. The horizontal-control
datum may extend over a continent or be limited to a small local area. Map readers
should habitually check the horizontal datum note on every map or chart, especially
adjacent map sheets. This is to ensure the products are based on the same
horizontal datum. If products are based on different horizontal-control data,
coordinate transformations to a common datum must be performed. UTM
coordinates from the same point computed on different data may differ as much as
900 meters.

18. Control Note. This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It
indicates the special agencies involved in the control of the technical aspects of all
the information that is disseminated on the map.

19. Preparation Note. This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. It indicates the agency responsible for preparing the map.

20. Printing Note. This note is also located in the center of the lower
margin. It indicates the agency responsible for printing the map and the date the
map was printed. The printing data should not be used to determine when the map
information was obtained.

21. Grid Reference Box. This box is normally located in the center of the
lower margin. It contains instructions for composing a grid reference.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-5

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
22. Unit imprint and Symbol. The unit imprints and symbol is on the left
side of the lower margin. It identifies the agency that prepared and printed the map
with its respective symbol. This information is important to the map user in
evaluating the reliability of the map.

23. Legend. The legend is located in the lower left margin. It illustrates
and identifies the topographic symbols used to depict some of the more prominent
features on the map. The symbols are not always the same on every map. Always
refer to the legend to avoid errors when reading a map. Symbols of all features
presented on a map should appear in the legend or they should be labeled, in
position. Or a note referring thereto, should be seen on the margin of the map.

Topographical map
STANDARD COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
a. Black. Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and
roads, surveyed spot elevations, and all labels.
b. Red-Brown. The colors red and brown are combined to identify
cultural features, all relief features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation,
such as contour lines on red light readable maps.
c. Blue. Identifies hydrographic or water features such as lakes, swamps,
rivers, and drainage. Features that constitute obstacles are included in this group.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-6

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
d. Green. Identifies vegetation features with military significance such as
woods, orchards, and vineyards. They are features that will affect troop movement.
e. Brown. Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on
older edition maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps.
f. Red. Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads,
and boundaries on older maps. Usually combined with brown, and screen is used to
vary tonal shades.
g. Purple. Indicates new information superimposed on an existing map.
Sometimes, maps with this color are referred to as Magenta Map.
h. Other. Occasionally other colors may be used to show special
information. These are indicated in the marginal information as a rule.

GRID COORDINATES.
Division of the earth’s surface into 6-degree by 8-degree quadrangles, and
covered these with 100,000 meter squares. The military grid reference of a point
consist of the numbers and letters indicating in which of these areas the point lies,
plus the coordinates locating the point to the desired position within the 100,000-
meter square. The next step is to tie in the coordinates of the point with the larger
areas.

GRID LINES. Division of the 100,000-meter square; the lines are spaced at
10,000 or 1,000 meter intervals. Each of these lines is labeled both ends of the map
with its false easting or false northing value, showing its relation to the origin of the
zone.
GRID SQUARES. The North-south and the east-west grid lines intersect at 90*
forming grid squares. Normally the size of one of these grid squares on large-scale
maps is 1,000 meters (1 kilometer)
GRID COORDINATES SCALE. The primary tool for plotting grid coordinates is
the grid coordinates scale. The grid coordinates scale divides the grid square more
accurately than can be done by estimation and the result are more consistent. When
used correctly, it provides less chance of errors.

SCALE AND DISTANCE.

A map is scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth’s surface. The
scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to the distance on
the ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on
the earth’s surface, is an important factor in planning and executing military missions.

Representative Fraction- The numerical scale of a map indicates the

relationship of distance measured on a map and the corresponding distance.
Example:
The map scale is 1:50,000
RF = 1/50,000

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-7

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
GRAPHIC (BAR) SCALES. A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and
is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances. The graphic scale
is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units to
measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided
into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most map have three or more graphic
scales, each using a different unit of measurement. When using the graphic scale, be
sure to use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.

Graphic (bar) scale

DIRECTION.
Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate, is
adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of measurement.
Directions are express as units of angular measurement.
1. Degree. The most common unit of measurement is the degree ( O) with
its subdivision of minutes (‘) and seconds (“).
1 degree – 60 minutes 1 minute – 60 seconds
2. Mil. Another unit of measurement, the mil (abbreviated m), is mainly
used in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery. The mil express the size of an angle
formed when a circle is divided into 6,400 angles with the vertex of the angles at the
center of the circle. A relationship can be established between degrees and mils. A
circle equals 6,400 mils divided by 360 degrees or 17.78 mils. To convert degrees to
mils, multiply degrees by 17.78.

3. Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measurement found on some foreign

maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (90 degree right angle equals 100 grad). The
grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes (centigrade) and the minute into 100
centesimal seconds (milligrads).

BASE LINES.
In order to measure something, there must be a starting point or zero
measurement.
To express direction as a unit of angular measure, there must be starting point or zero
measure and a point of reference. These two points designates the base or reference
line. There are three base lines – true north, magnetic north, and commonly used are
magnetic and grid.

a. True North. A line from any point on the North Pole. All lines of
longitude are true north it is usually represented by a star.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-8

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
b. Magnetic North. The direction to the north indicated by the north
seeking needle of a Magnetic North is usually symbolized by a arrow head
c. Grid North. The north that is established on the grid lines by the
map. The grid north may be a GN or the letter y

Three types of North

AZIMUTH.
An azimuth is defined as the horizontal angle measured from a north base line.
This north base line it could be true north or grid north. The azimuth is the most
common direction. When using an azimuth, the point from which it originates is the
center of an imaginary circle and it is divided into 360 degrees.
a. Back azimuth.
b. Magnetic azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by using
magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M-2 compasses.
c. Field expedient methods. Several field expedient method to
determine direction.
GRID AZIMUTH.
When an azimuth is plotted on a map between two points. A (starting point)
and point B (ending point), the points are joined together by a straight line. A
protractor is used to measure the angle between grid north and the drawn line, and
this measured azimuth is the grid azimuth
PROTRACTOR.
There are several types of protractors – full circle, half circle, square and
rectangular. All of them are divide the circle into units of angular measures, and each
has scale around the outer edge and an index mark. The index mark is the center of
the protractor circle from which all direction are measured
DECLINATION DIAGRAM
1 Declination – is the angular difference between true north and either
magnetic or grid north. There are two declinations, a magnetic declination and a grid
declination.
2 Diagram – shows the angular relationship, represented by prongs,
among these three north. The angles between the prongs, however, are seldom
plotted exactly to scale. The relative position of the direction is obtained from the
diagram, but the numerical value should not be measured from it.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-9

 Map Reading and Land Navigation
3. Location. A declination diagram is a part of the marginal information
under the lower margin on larger maps. On the medium scale maps, the declination
information is shown by a note in the map margins.
4. The grid magnetic angle. The G-M angle value is the angular size that
exists between grid north and magnetic north and the year it was prepared. It is an arc
indicated by a dashed line, which connects the grid north and magnetic north prongs.
This value is expressed to the nearest ½ degree, with mil equivalent shown to the
nearest 10 mils. The G – M angle is important to the map reader/land navigator
because it will affect the accuracy of navigation skills in the field.
5. Grid Convergence. An arc indicated by a dashed line connects the
prongs for true north and Grid north. The value of the angle for the center of the sheet
is given to the nearest full minute with its equivalent to the nearest mil. These data are
shown in the form of a grid-convergence note.
6. Conversion. There is an angular difference between the grid north and
the magnetic north that is caused by the attraction of the earth magnetic field
(Northern Canada) on all compasses. Since the location of these magnetic field does
not correspond exactly with the grid-north lines on the maps, a conversion from
magnetic to grid or vice versa.

WAYS OF LOCATING POINTS

1. Intersection
Intersection is the location of an unknown point by successively
occupying at least two (preferably three) known positions on the ground and then map
sighting on the unknown locations. It is used to locate distant or inaccessible points or
objects, such as enemy targets, danger areas, and so forth. There are two methods of
intersection

a. Map and compass method.

1) Orient the map using the compass
2) Locate and mark using the compass

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
10
 Map Reading and Land Navigation
3) Determine the magnetic azimuth to the unknown position
using the compass.
4) Convert the magnetic azimuth to grid azimuth.
5) Draw a line on the map from your position on this grid
azimuth.
6) Move to a second known point and repeat steps 1, 2, 3, 4,
& 5.
7) The location of the unknown position is where the lines
cross on the map. Determine eight digit-digit grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

b. Straightedge Method. (When compass is not available).

1) Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association
method
2) Locate and mark your position on the map.
3) Lay a straightedge on the map with one end at user’s
position (A) as a pivot point; rotate the straightedge until the unknown point is sighted
along the edge.
4) Draw a line along a straightedge.
5) Repeat the above steps at position (B) and check for
accuracy.
6) The intersection of the lines on the map is the location of the
unknown point (C). Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.
2. RESECTION
Resection is the method of locating one’s position on a map by
determining the grid azimuth to at least two well-defined locations that can be
pinpointed on the map. For greater accuracy, the desired method of resection would
be to use three well-defined locations

a. Map and Compass Method

1) Orient the map using the compass.
2) Identify two or three distant location on the ground and mark
them on the map.
3) Measure the magnetic azimuth to the known position from
your location using a compass.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
11
 Map Reading and Land Navigation
4) Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.
5) Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using a protractor
scale the back azimuth on the map from the known position and a third position if
desired.
6) The intersection of the lines is your location. Determine the
grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

b. Straightedge method
1) Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association
method
2) Locate at least two known distant location or prominent
features on the ground and mark them on the map
3) Lay a straightedge on the map using a known position as a
pivot point. Rotate the straightedge until the known position on the map is aligned with
the known position on the ground.
4) Draw a line along a straightedge away from the known
position on the ground toward your position.
5) Repeat 3 and 4 using a second known position.
6) The intersection of the lines on the map is your location.
Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.
3. MODIFIED RESECTION
Modified resection is the method of locating one’s position on the map
when the person is located on a linear feature on the ground, such as road, canal,
stream, etc. The steps are as follows.
a. Orient the map using a compass or by terrain association
b. Find a distant point that can be identified on the ground and
on the map.
c. Determine the magnetic azimuth from your location to the
distant known point.
d. Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.
e. Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using protractor,
scale the back azimuth on the map from the position back toward your unknown
position.
f. The location of the user is where the line crosses the linear
features. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.
4. POLAR PLOT
A method of locating or plotting an unknown position from a known point
by giving a direction and a distant along that direction line is called a polar plot or
polar coordinates. Three elements must be present when using polar coordinates.
a. Present known location on the map.
b. Azimuth (grid or magnetic)
c. Distance (normally in yards or meters).

LAND NAVIGATION
Land or ground navigation is the movement between two points where an
individual, using terrain features to guide upon, knows his map and ground location

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
12
 Map Reading and Land Navigation
throughout the movement. Ground navigation demands a thorough knowledge of
terrain features as they appear on the map and on the ground. Since terrain features
are used as reference points throughout the movement, the use of the compass
becomes minimal. In the military, the type of a compass that is issued and
commonly used is called the LENSATIC COMPASS. This useful item finds the north
and the azimuths for us. In other words, lensatic compass is our direction finder, and
it has everything to help us find our way.

Briefly, we shall discuss how a compass works. The compass can tell us the
azimuth in degrees toward a given object, or it can tell us the direction of an object
whose azimuth is known. To find a given magnetic azimuth, hold the compass level
and turn the compass and yourself until the correct magnetic azimuth is under the
stationary index line. If you are going to travel along this azimuth, look up at the
skyline and pick out some prominent terrain features on this line that you can use to
guide on while moving. As much as possible, take the back azimuth, which is the
reverse of the forward azimuth.

In order to be assured of the accuracy of the lensatic compass, observed the

two general rules as follows:

1. Keep away from metal objects and high-tension wire. Lines of force in
the earth magnetic field control the north arrow of the compass. Since these force
lines are disturbed locally by small amount of iron and electric fields, these things will
produce error in the compass, and the effect will be greater as the mass of the
object or strength of the increases.

2. Keep the compass closed when not in use. The compass is a delicate
instrument and can be damaged easily. It should always be properly closed and
returned to its carrying case when not actually use.

THE COMPASS

The Magnetic Compass is the most commonly used and simplest instrument
for measuring direction and angles in the field. Two varieties of magnetic compass
are standard for military use today, the lensatic compass

CARE AND USE OF COMPASS:

1. Handle the compass with care. The dial is set at a delicate balance
and a shock could damage.
2. Close and return the compass to its special container when not in use.
In this way, it is not only protected from possible damage, but is readily available for
use when needed.
3. When the compass is used in the dark, an initial azimuth should be set,
it possible, while light is still available. With this, initial azimuth set, any other azimuth
can be established using this as a base.
4. Compass reading should never be taken near visible masses of iron or
electrical circuits. The following is the table of approximate safe distances to insure
proper functioning of the compass.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
13
 Map Reading and Land Navigation

a. High tension power lines - 55 meters

b. Field Gun, truck or tank - 18 meters
c. Telegraph and telephone wires or barbwire - 10 meters
d.. Machine Gun - 1 meter
e.. Helmet or Rifle - 2 meters

PARTS OF LENSATIC COMPASS

1. Luminous Dot 10. Eye Piece

2. Cover 11. Holding Ring
3. Front Sight (Hair Line) 12. 90 Degrees Dot
4. Dial 13. 13. 180 Degrees Dot
5. Stationary Index 14. 270 Degrees Dot
6. Movable Brass Rim 15. Movable Crystal
7. Scale 16. Rim Holder
8. Rear Sight 17. Long Luminous Line
9. Lens 18. 45 Degrees Luminous Line

ELEVATION AND RELIEF

A knowledge of map symbols, grids, scale and distance gives enough

information to identify two point, locate them, measure between them and determine
how long it would take to travel between them. But what happens if there should be
a 300-foot cliff between the two points? The map user must also become proficient
in recognizing the various landforms and irregularities of the earth’s surface and be
able to determine the elevation and differences in height of all terrain features.

1. Datum Place – this is a reference from which vertical measurement

are taken. The datum plane for most maps is mean or average sea level.
2. Elevation – this is defined as the height (vertical distance) of an object
above or below a datum plane.
3. Relief – is the representation of the shape and height of landform and
the characterization of the earth surface.
MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
14
 Map Reading and Land Navigation

The elevation of points and the relief of an area affect the movement and
deployment of units by limiting the route along which they may travel their speed of
movement and the ease of difficulty of attacking or defending an area. Also affected
are observation, fields of fire, cover and concealment and the selection of key terrain
features.

CONTOUR LINE

There are several ways of indicating elevation and relief on the maps. The
most common way is by contour lines. A contour line is a line representing an
imaginary line on the ground along which all points are at the same elevation.
Contour lines indicate a vertical distance above or below a datum plane starting at
sea level. The vertical distance between adjacent contour lines is known as the
contour interval and the amount of the contour interval is given in the marginal
information. On most maps the contour lines are printed in brown. Starting at zero
elevation, every fifth contour line is drawn in heavier line. These are known as index
contours and some place along each index contour the line broken and its elevation
is given. The contour lines falling between the index contours are called intermediate
contours. They are drawn in a finer line than the index contour and usually do not
have their elevation given.

HOW TO DETERMINE THE ELEVATION USING THE CONTOUR LINES

1. Finding the contour interval from the marginal information and noting
both the amount and the unit of measure.
2. Finding the numbered contour line or given elevation nearest the point
which the elevation is being sought.
3. Determining the direction of the slope from the numbered contour line
to the desired point.
4. Counting the number of contour lines that must be crossed to go from
numbered line to the desired point and noting the direction up or down. The number
of lines crossed multiplied by the contour interval is the distance above or below the
starting value.

a. If the desired point is contour line, its elevation is that of the

contour.
b. To estimate the elevation of the top of an unmarked hill, add half
the contour interval to the elevation of the highest contour line around the

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
15
 Map Reading and Land Navigation

THE SPACING OF THE CONTOUR LINES INDICATES THE NATURE OF THE

SLOPE

1. Contour lines evenly spaced and wide apart indicate a uniform, gentle
slope.

2. Contour lines evenly spaced and closed together indicate a uniform,

steep slope. The closer the contour lines to each other, the steeper the slope.

3. Contour line closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the bottom
indicates a concave slope. Considering relief only an observer at the top of a
concave slope can observe the entire slope and the terrain at the bottom.
Conversely, a unit attacking up such slope would no cover and concealment from
observers or weapons at or hear the top, also the farther top the slope the more
difficult is to climb.

4. Contour lines widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the
bottom indicate a convex slope. An observer at the top of a convex slope has no
observation of most of the slope or of the terrain at the bottom. Conversely, a unit
attacking up such slope has a greater degree of cover and concealment than on a
concave slope, also the farther up the slope the easier is the climb.

MAJOR RELIEF FORMATION

1. Hill – a point or small area of high ground. When you are located on a
hilltop, the ground slopes down in all direction.

2. Valley – a stream course which has at least a limited extent of

reasonably level ground bordered on the sides by higher ground. Contours indicating
a valley are Unshaped and tend to parallel a major stress before crossing.

3. Ridge – a line on high grounds, with normally minor variation along it.
The ridge is not simply a line of hills, all point of the ridge crest are appreciably
higher than the ground on both sides of the ridges.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
16
 Map Reading and Land Navigation

4. Spur – a usually short, continuously sloping line of higher ground

normally jutting out from the side of a ridge. A spur is often formed by two roughly
parallel streams cutting draws down the side of ridge.

5. Saddle – a dip or low point along the crest of a ridge. A saddle is not
necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops, it may be simply a dip or break
along and otherwise level ridge crest.

6. Depression – a low point or sinkhole, surrounded on all sides by

higher grounds.

7. Cuts and Fills – man made features by which the bed of a road or a
railroad is graded or leveled off by cutting through high areas and filling in low areas
along the right-of-way.

8. Cliff – a vertical of near vertical slope. When a slope is so steep that it

cannot be shown at the contour interval without the contour coalescing, it is shown
by a ticked “carrying” contour or contours. The ticks always point towards lower
ground.

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
17
 Map Reading and Land Navigation

HILL
CONCAVE SLOPE

RIDGE CONVEX SLOPE

DEPRESSION
OVERHANGING CLIFF

VALLEY SADDLE

FILL
FINGERS

MILITARY SCIENCE 3 8-
18