1

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction

Climate change, a phenomenon of the Earth, has grown to be the topic of

multiple controversies in contemporary environmental science. For the past few

years, even with multiple studies proving otherwise, there are still some people in

denial, questioning the occurrence of this phenomenon. However, the present

study does not dwell in an idealistic world; one ill-conceived on uninformed

opinion. Rather, it is one based on fact, including the fact that ignoring the

problem will not make it go away. Acknowledging this and moving forward, as a

whole society, is the only way that they could get even close to solving this

problem.

Climate change, in a nutshell, is the rapid changing and intensifying of

climate caused by global warming, a product of an enhanced greenhouse effect.

This enhancement is the result of increased greenhouse gas (GHG)

concentrations in the atmosphere. Human activity, in the effort of economic

growth, has largely yet unintentionally driven this increase, as it led to copious

GHG emissions polluting the atmosphere. On one hand, economic growth, in any

country, is simply not possible without a transportation sector. On the other hand,

as stated by World Resources Institute (2014), transportation, in the Philippines,

is the one of the largest contributing subsectors to GHG emissions under the

energy sector, second only to the electricity and heat subsector.

Transportation takes on a vital role in the daily function of the Philippine

society. It is a necessity for the Filipino people, as it allows them to transition

 2
quickly from their rural to urban lives, and vice-versa. Furthermore, it caters to

the needs of workers and students, whom without it, cannot proceed to

accomplishing their daily tasks and to working for their aspirations, as it usually

takes place somewhere far away from their homes. And as stated before, it is

essential in the progress of the country’s economy.

The transport system of the country comes in the forms of water, air, rail

and road transport. Road transport, as found out by a study from the Asian

Development Bank (2012), is the most dominant transport subsector, accounting

for 98% of passenger traffic and 58% of cargo traffic. Vehicles in road transport

are classified into two types based on utility, private and public. Hence, the latter

being more commonly known as “Public Utility Vehicles” or PUVs. Public road

transport, as proven by the research of the Japan International Cooperation

Agency (2014), composes 69% of daily trips in Manila, the capital of the country,

with the Public Utility Jeepneys (PUJs) and Public Utility Buses (PUBs)

comprising 71% of it.

The Public Utility Jeepney is the most dominant form of public road

transport in the country. PUJs are common and have very affordable fares,

making it a popular mode of mass transport and a source of livelihood for many.

It also has a set of features that are convenient for Filipinos, such as its usual

seating capacity range, varying from model to model, of usually 12 to 32 people,

excluding the driver, with the open air as its ventilation, and an open rear door for

easy access into the vehicle. It is also known for providing unrestricted pick-up
 3
and drop-off points along their designated routes, as the passengers simply have

to signal the driver if they wanted to ride or get off the vehicle.

The jeepney, alone, is an archetype of Philippine transportation and is a

cultural icon of the Filipino people. It symbolizes the inventiveness and

adaptability of the citizens throughout history. Known for its colorful designs

reflecting the country’s traditions and origins, it is hard to miss when you glance

at almost any given road in the nation.

Public Utility Jeepneys may utilize one of the following fuels: diesel or

gasoline. These, being made and distilled from fossil fuels, are more cheap and

abundant compared to the other types of fuel in the market, making it the

preferred choice for PUJ drivers. These are also treasured by many, as no other

fuels are able to generate as much energy as these, with the added functionality

of being portable. Since these have been used for a long time, even in fields

other than transportation, people have already come to be familiar with it, and

were able to create technology for its extraction, distillation and use.

However, diesel and gasoline are notorious for creating a lot of GHG

emissions, the majority of which is carbon. In fact, PUJs are classified as mobile

sources of emissions by the Republic Act No. 8749 or the Clean Air Act of 1999,

as it combusts carbon-based fuels. Noting this, the Act declared in Article 4,

Section 21, that the Department of Transportation (DOT) must implement a set of

emission standards on all registered vehicles, which will be changed every two

years, thus, the introduction of the Euro 4 fuel. The Euro 4 standard for the Land

Transportation Office (LTO) registration was set last January 1, 2018, by the
 4
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), which simply meant

that all vehicles unregistered before the said date must comply with the standard,

and that not doing so meant that it cannot be registered anymore. However, this

standard does not affect vehicles previously registered to the LTO.

Today, the Philippines has been making strides to mitigate emissions,

such as signing the Paris Agreement last April 22, 2016, which binds the country,

as a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC), to limit their GHG emissions with the aim of combatting climate

change and global warming. Another example of this is the PUJ Modernization

Program, which aims to lower emissions from PUJs by phasing out jeepneys that

are 15 years and older. However, this program did cause an uproar of opinions

from transport groups like the Pinagkaisang Samahan ng mga Tsuper at

Operator Nationwide (PISTON), as phasing out these vehicles meant

unemployment for the many PUJ drivers in the country. In the name of stable

national urbanization, the Philippines is still trying, yet struggling, to be a nation of

economic and environmental sustainability.

Batangas City, being one of the fastest urbanizing cities in the Philippines,

entails that there is active transportation in its area, in both public and private

types of transport. Barangay Balagtas, especially, is known for being Batangas

City’s gateway to Manila, the capital of the country, and is also known for being

active with public transportation, as it is included in the pathways of multiple PUJ

routes in the city. In fact, it is the third in having the most registered PUJs in
 5
Batangas City, according to the data of the Land Transportation Franchising and

Regulatory Board (LTFRB, 2018).

The present study aims to determine the threats of the carbon emissions

produced by Public Utility Jeepneys, the challenges in preventing these

emissions, and the best possible solution in mitigating them. It is along this light

that the present study entitled, “Carbon Emissions of Public Utility Jeepneys

along Barangay Balagtas: Threats, Challenges and Solutions” is created.

Conceptual Framework

The figure below displays the input, process, and the output of the study.

Input Process Output

Status of PUJs’ Total Documentary
Carbon Emissions Analysis
Magazine for the
Threats of PUJs’ Gathering of data
Carbon Emissions awareness of the
relevant to the study residents of Barangay
from reference
Challenges of Balagtas on the
materials and
lessening PUJs’ interviews threats of PUJs’
Carbon Emissions carbon emissions,
and the challenges
Solutions for Finding out the and solutions for
lessening PUJs’ perceptions of the
Carbon Emissions lessening them
respondents from
Barangay Balagtas
on the stated inputs

Analyzing and
interpreting of data
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework on Carbon Emissions of Public Utility Jeepneys in
Barangay Balagtas: Threats, Challenges and Solutions

Figure 1 displays the conceptual framework utilized by the researchers,

through the IPO model. The box on the left represents the input, which included
 6
the status of Public Utility Jeepneys’ Total Carbon Emissions and their threats,

along with the challenges and solutions for lessening the said emissions. The

box in the middle represents the processes undergone by the researchers, which

entailed documentary analysis, gathering of data relevant to the study from

reference materials and interviews, the finding out of the perceptions of the

respondents from Barangay Balagtas on the stated inputs, and the analyzing and

interpreting of the gathered data. Through these processes, the output, as

represented by the box on the right, is a magazine for the awareness of the

residents of Barangay Balagtas on the threats and challenges of reducing it with

a set of proposed guidelines for the solutions of lessening PUJs’ carbon

emissions.

Statement of the Problem

This study is aimed to address the problems brought about by the

presence of carbon emissions due to Public Utility Jeepneys (PUJs) in Barangay

Balagtas, Batangas City.

1. What are the threats caused by carbon emissions on the following:

1.1 Environment;

1.2 Human’s Physical Health; and

1.3 Human’s Mental Health

2. What are the challenges faced in lessening carbon emissions produced by

Public Utility Jeepneys?

3. What are the possible solutions preferred by the respondents to lessen the

carbon emissions produced by PUJs.

 7
4. What output can be proposed by the researchers as a guide for the

residents of Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City?

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The general intent of this study was to identify the threats, challenges and

solutions to carbon emissions brought about by PUJs that are operating in the

present. The study was descriptive in nature and mainly assessed the most

evident threats that affect the physical and mental human health, and the

environment as well as the challenges that prevent people from solving the

problem.

It was plausible that number of limitations could have influenced the

results obtained. To begin with, participants were identified via purposive

sampling. The non-probability sample that took place caused the decrease in the

generalizability of the findings. The researchers found it necessary to limit the

sampling to the respondents whom are at most 30 meters away from the national

highway along Barangay Balagtas. Also, this study focused only on Public Utility

Jeepneys as the contributor of emissions. Thus, this study is not generalized in

all areas involving transportation in the vicinity of Batangas City, as it only

focused on Barangay Balagtas, since it is the City’s gateway to Manila, the

nation’s capital, and it is through this area that the researchers of the present

study found to be the biggest area and PUJ number that they, as students, could

cover, as it is also included in numerous routes in the said city.

In this study, other kinds of vehicles and those who are not registered are

delimited. This also not tackled the specific parts of the jeepney that caused the
 8
emission of the carbon. Moreover, this study did not cover other areas outside

Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City which is affected by the said problem.

Significance of the Study

This study will evaluate the threats and challenges brought by the

presence of carbon emissions released by jeepneys in Balagtas, Batangas City.

Furthermore, the study is anticipated to benefit the following diverse concerned

groups:

For the residents of Barangay Balagtas, this study shall inform them on

the degree of effects of carbon emissions in their environment, in order to guide

them in tailoring their lifestyles to the problem, and to avoid and mitigate them.

For the drivers, this will serve as their guide in knowing the things they

should do in order to act accordingly.

For the commuters, this study aims to raise awareness on the impact of

riding jeepneys to our environment.

For the traffic enforcers, for them to look out for the vehicles and to

monitor if the drivers and operators are following the standards.

For the students, this study will serve as their supplementary study

material and for them to cope with the current issues regarding to the jeepneys'

carbon emissions.

For the teachers, this will be beneficial for them in using this as a

reference material for teaching and for them to raise awareness about the

different concerns of jeepneys' carbon emission.

 9
For the future researchers, this could be used as their reference as they

undertake their researches relevant to this study.

Definition of Terms

Carbon Emissions. Majority of these emissions are produced by

electricity generation, transportation, industrial fuel combustion, residential fuel

convention and commercial fuel combustion. (Mines, 2014).

In this study, it is the release of too much carbon dioxide by the Public

Utility Jeepneys that contribute to the air pollution.

Challenges. It is the obstacle in the pursuit of attaining the final goal.

(Turner, 2017).

In this study, challenges are considered as the struggles in achieving a

sufficiently executed solution for a problem, such as the problem of lessening

carbon emissions.

Climate. It refers to average weather temperature over a long period of

time in a certain area. (Botkin & Keller, 2010).

In this study, condition of the atmosphere in a particular area for a long

period of time.

Climate Change. Any change in climate’s condition over time, whether

due to natural phenomenon or as a result of human activity. (Canziani, 2007).

In this study, it is a phenomenon that changes the atmosphere’s condition

periodically.

Global Warming. The increase in the average measured temperature,

globally since 1950. (Botkin & Keller, 2010).

 10
In this study, due to an increase in the greenhouse effect the atmospheric

and oceanic temperature is widely predicted, resulting to pollution.

Human Health. Air pollution has an effect both acute and chronic in

different systems and organs in the body. (Kampa & Castanas, 2008).

In this study, it is the health condition of the exposed to carbon emissions.

Human Activity. Alters the composition of the global atmosphere, in

addition to natural climate phenomenon observed over periods of comparable

time depending on how a change in climate attributed directly or indirectly.

(Canziani, 2007).

In this study, it is define as what humans do that affects the environment

and its surroundings.

Jeepneys. A cultural icon of transportation in the Philippines. (Nacino,

2014).

In this study, a low cost-type of public vehicle used by Filipinos in

travelling.

Public Transportation. It is a widely used term to describe the family of

transit services for urban and rural residents. (Garber & Hoel, 2015).

In this study, it includes jeepneys, tricycle and other public vehicle used by

many to be transported from one place to another.

Public Utility Jeepneys. These ply the routes from the central business

district to the suburbs passing along the major thoroughfares. They are privately

owned and ply along fixed routes painted on the side of the vehicles. (Black

Smith Institute and Clean Air Asia) (2017).

 11
In this study, these are vehicles used for mass public transit in the

Philippines.

Solutions. It is the answer to a problem. (Cavallari, 2017).

In this study, solutions are considered as courses of action which can

resolve the problem of carbon emissions by successfully lessening them.

Threats. The infliction of any wrongdoings upon a person or his or her

respective property, to attain a purpose that may be unlawful. (The Lectric Law

Library, 2018).

In this study, threats are considered as anything harmful to the living,

including humans and the environment.

Transportation. One of the factors for nation’s development, growth and

gives opportunities for engineering careers both public and private sector.

(Garber & Hoel, 2015).

In this study, it is used by many in travelling from one place to another.

 12
CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the conceptual and research literature from ideas of

writers, researchers and educators. This will serve as the basis in organizing the

theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study. This chapter also presents

the synthesis of the collated data and information from different sources,

hypothesis and definition of terms of the current study.

Related Literature

Climate. Climate, in conformity to the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration of the United States (2014), is defined as the average or typical

weather of an area. In contrast to weather, climate is long term, and it is

measured over a time frame of numerous years. In studying climate, one

observes the tendency of a place to have a specific type of weather pattern in the

context of seasons, implying differences in the weather patterns of a place per

season. This allows one to be able to predict the future conditions of an area

based on the recorded observations in the past. The Earth’s overall climate is the

average of the climates all around the globe. This sets the general condition of

the planet.

Global Cooling. Over the past few years, the world has been facing a

fast-paced transition of conditions, affecting both the environment and the people

living in it. One of these conditions is known as Global Cooling. However, as

proven by NASA (2018), the Earth has only gone through this condition in the

period between 1940 to 1970, with Serbian mathematician Milutin Milankovitch

 13
forecasting this period of cooling as a part of the planet’s regular cooling and

warming cycle due to its distance to the Sun. After that, Russian Climatologist

Mikhail Budyko predicted that the cooling would switch to warming due to rising

human emissions of carbon dioxide after the three decades of cooling. This

proved that climate change is caused by both natural and human activities, but

with the former periodically increasing and decreasing, and the latter being only

steady in increasing. This posits that its warming counterpart may be the cause

of today’s climate status.

Global Warming. The general consensus of scientists confirms that the

apparent skyrocketing of the amount of heat in the atmosphere is not normal,

and is causing drastic effects on our worldly climate, the population’s status of

health, and our overall lifestyle.

Global warming is defined as the long-term increase in the Earth’s

average temperature. According to the United States’ EPA (2016), the sudden

rise in global warming since the Industrial Revolution in the 1700’s cannot be

attributed to natural occurrences, especially around the 20th century, as they

were found out to be strongly linked to human activities instead. Though the

warming of the world’s temperature may seem harmless, it will affect everything

in the long run. One of the evident effects of global warming today is climate

change.

Based on the statistics from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration of the United States (2018), global temperature has risen from 74

to 90 degrees Celsius between the years 2014 and 2015. On the following years,
 14
the temperature has been recorded as the warmest year in the climate record

with 94 degrees Celsius and the third warmest with 84 degrees Celsius

respectively.

As stated by NASA (2011), the sudden warming since the mid-1900s were

caused by the burning of coal, oil and gas, which are all staple fuels for energy

production today. The burning emits gasses that trap heat in the Earth’s

atmosphere, otherwise known as greenhouse gasses. This includes fluorinated

gas, nitrous oxide, methane, and dominantly, carbon dioxide. In conformity to the

U.S EPA (2016), carbon emissions take up 81% of the greenhouse gasses in the

Earth’s atmosphere.

Human activities are the main cause of the increase in the concentration

of greenhouse gasses for the last 150 years, specifically, the burning of fossil

fuels for heat, electricity and transportation. As of 2014, transportation makes up

about 26% of greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S, as it required fuel, which

over 90% of it being petroleum based, including gasoline and diesel.

However, relying on the information about the United States alone is not

enough to determine the state of the Philippines, as their environmental

conditions are starkly different from one another, thus rendering the results from

the United States inconclusive of representing the true state of the country.

Climate change. Climate change, as the name implies, is the changing of

the climate of an area over time. This includes the Earth’s general climate. The

Earth’s climate goes through different phases, varying between warm and cool

temperatures. Subtle and gradual climate change is normal, as this type of

 15
change comes from natural factors, such as the variations of the energy

discharge from the Sun reaching the Earth, oceanic and volcanic activeness, the

concentration of greenhouse gases, etcetera. However, the recent activity of our

worldly climate does not trace back to these natural causes alone, as the

climates across the globe are changing at an abnormally fast pace, showing

signs of the climate patterns being disrupted and interfered with by something

unprecedented.

In conformity to the U.S Global Change Research Program (2016), climate

change has an enormous impact on the world in all of its aspects. This involves

human health, which can be affected in two ways: by altering the severity of

weather related health problems, and by creating new and unprecedented health

problems. As of 2016, there has been an increase in deaths in the United States

caused by temperature extremes, most of which are from heat than from cold.

Air Quality. According to the article by Rinkesh (2008), the quality of the

air has been degraded every single day by means of either natural or man-made

activities. Focusing on the man-made sources, different pollutants coming from

factories, power plants, smelters and mobile vehicles contributes to this for the

noticeable air quality degraders’ they produce. This includes sulfur dioxide SO 2,

hydrocarbon (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO), carbon monoxide (CO) dust and

smoke.

As stated by Cunningham, W. & Cunningham M. (2015), there are

numerous natural sources of air quality degradation. Despite this many sources,

our primary concern is the avoidable pollutants we produce, particularly when

 16
they occur in high concentration in cities or industrial regions. Effects of these

contamination include asthma, hypersensitivities, and heart and lung afflictions,

as well as climate impact.

Carbon emission. Myers & Spoolman (2014) mentioned that another

major contributor to atmospheric warming is the carbon dioxide, which absorbs

heat and releases it into the atmosphere. It was produced from inefficient coal-

burning power and industrial plants without up-to-date air pollution controls, and

millions of motor vehicles and locomotives that burn diesel fuel inefficiently.

Rising levels of carbon dioxide are contributing to climate change and other

organisms, it is classified as a pollutant.

As stated by Aguinaldo et al. (2013), the rising of temperature of the world

may be caused by the burning of petroleum, deforestation, and industrialization.

The smoke emitted by petroleum creates carbon dioxide, which contributes to the

concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, trapping more heat in it.

In accordance with the concept of Khitoliya (2005), the emissions from

jeepneys fall under vehicular pollution, which is considered to be the most

dangerous form of pollution, as it is a line source, meaning that it continuously

pollutes the environment through which it operates in. In addition, these

emissions increase as the number of jeepneys heighten, since it directly

corresponds to an increase in the usage of fuel.

As stated in the concept of Botkin & Keller (2005), the public has been

affected by carbon emission from incomplete combustion of fuels. Most of these

 17
came from the tailpipes of different automobiles. The concentration of carbon

monoxide can build up and can cause serious health problems within the area.

Pollutants in the urban air other than from tobacco have been researched

as potential causal agents in the epidemic rise of lung cancer in industrialized

nations as stated by Carbone et al. (2010). The products of fossil fuel combustion

have been a concern. Other sources of ambient air pollution are motor vehicle

and diesel engine exhaust, power plants, and industrial and residential

emissions. Exposure to these has been associated with declining pulmonary

function, and increased rates of hospitalization for respiratory illnesses

Threats. According to the Lectric Law Library (2018), a threat can be

defined as an expressed or unexpressed possibility of harm to be or is presently

but unknowingly inflicted upon other people. However, threats can be made

unintentionally, as it can be created unknowingly in a biological sense, which

posits that a greater area can be threatened through making its environment

harmful for those who inhabit it.

Climate change as a threat. Global temperature is the one of the most

important determinant of the distribution of plants as stated in the Botanic

Gardens Conservation International (2018). As time pass by, due to climate

change, severe effects such as the rapid changing of temperature results to a

gradual adaptation of plants. When this happens, plants, which does not have

the ability to cope up enough on the adjustments become susceptible, therefore

they tend to die. This is true for those plants with long life cycles and slow

dispersal.
 18
As mentioned by the Greenpeace International (2016), the rapid warming

events that happened for the past years led to the extinction of plants and

animals. The main reason for this is that, as the temperature rises, the plants and

animals are also trying to adapt. When the animals adapt, they usually shift to

other landscapes, however, other factors of stress and pollutions caused by

humans has weakened their ability to do this.

As mentioned in an article by the Patterson and Verchot (2015),

intensified air pollution triggers the symptoms of respiratory diseases such as

asthma. The possible reasons behind this could be due to the unpredictable

seasons and irregular weather patterns brought about by climate change. When

this happens, the tendency of plants is to release more pollen earlier than it is

supposed to be and stays for a longer period of time. Another is the increasing

number of vehicles in the country. Taking into account the levels of carbon

emissions that these vehicles produce, the use of cleaner fuels and strict

emission standards were suggested in America to prevent the spread of

aggravated asthma.

Effects of climate change in human’s respiratory systems are expected to

worsen over time as climate change embody an enormous threat to the public’s

respiratory health. Cecchi et al. (2014) mentioned that this take effect by directly

building up or aggravating cardiopulmonary diseases or by increasing exposure

to risk factors for respiratory diseases to develop. The temperature variability,

extreme weather events and increased heat formed by the increased

 19
concentration of greenhouse gases not only worsens those with pre-existing

respiratory diseases but also harms those who are unaffected before.

The study of Turrill (2017) revealed the link of diesel exhaust to the

development of lung diseases such as asthma, cancer and chronic cough.

According to them, diesel exhaust has variety of components like nitrogen,

carbon dioxide and water, also the submicron and fine particles which can lead to

different respiratory effects. The increased presence of common cough, phlegm

production and dyspnea (difficulty in breathing) are some of the non-malignant

effects of exposure to the diesel exhaust.

Jeepneys. In the Philippines, the jeepney, also known as the “King of the

Road,” is the epitome of Filipino public transportation and is a cultural icon of the

Filipino people. These jeepneys were originally made from U.S military jeeps left

behind after World War II and were known for being functional for crowded

seating. Today, the jeepney is a popular vehicle for affordable public

transportation. Modern jeepneys are presently produced in independent factories

in the Philippines, which, however, use Japanese engines.

In agreement with Crisostomo (2013), the Philippine jeepney, using

inexpensive Japanese engines, require the burning of diesel fuel, which creates

black carbon as its byproduct. This implies that the jeepney, which is used all

around the country, is a contributor to the increase of greenhouse gasses, and is

a contributor to climate change. The technology of the used Japanese engine is

considered as outdated when put against an environmental standard. This has

put the safety of the continuous use of the vehicle into question.
 20
According to LTFRB (2018), a total of 3991 jeepneys that are plying

along Batangas City were registered. The routes are Alangilan – Batangas City

with 212, Anilao (Mabini) – Batangas City with 11 ,Aplaya (Bauan) – Batangas

City with 4, Balagtas - Batangas City with 441,Balete – Batangas City Proper with

44,Banaba West – Batangas City with 15,Batangas City – Bauan with 810,

Batangas City – Caltex (San Pascual) with 19,Batangas City – Capitolyo

Hosprital with 318,Batangas City – Conde with 24,Batangas City – Dagatan

(Taysan) with 101,Batangas City – Dumantay with 23,Batangas City - Gasang

(Mabini) with 16,Batangas City – Gulod with 37,Batangas City – Ilijan with

15,Batangas City – Lemery with 249,Batangas City – Libjo with 138,Batangas

City - Lipa City with 417,Batangas City – Lobo with 117,Batangas City –

Mabacong with 38,Batangas City – Mabini with 293,Batangas City - Mahacot with

5,Batangas City – Malibayo with 17,Batangas City – Pinamucan with

21,Batangas City – Rosario with 159,Batangas City – San Isidro with

53,Batangas City – San Miguel with 8,Batangas City – Simlong with 20,Batangas

City – Soro Soro Ilaya with 35,Batangas City – Soro – Soro Ibaba with

3,Batangas City – Santa Clara Pier with 113,Batangas City – Sto. Domingo

(Batangas) with 11,Batangas City – Sto. Niño with 15,Batangas City – Tabangao

with 97,Batangas City – Tabangao – Dao with 3,Batangas City – Talaga (Mabini)

with 29,Batangas City – Talumpok with 9.Batangas City – Taysan with

16,Batangas City Proper – Brgy. Cumba with 3 and Batangas City – Dela Paz

Pulot via Pagkilatan Ilijan DelaPaz TP with 32.

 21
Among the said routes, only those who are operating along Barangay

Balagtas Batangas City specifically, Alangilan – Batangas City, Balagtas -

Batangas City, Balete – Batangas City Proper, Batangas City - Lipa City

Batangas City – Rosario, Batangas City – Soro Soro Ilaya, and Batangas City –

Soro – Soro Ibaba were chosen for the classification, if newly- registered or

renewed and if using diesel or gasoline that served as a concrete basis for

estimating the carbon emissions from PUJs along Barangay Balagtas. Based on

the data gathered from the LTO, all of these jeepneys with a sum of 1311 were

renewed and are utilizing diesel as their fuel.

Fuels of Public Utility Jeepneys. As stated by Brain (2018), diesel fuel

evaporates more slowly than gasoline fuel because more carbon atoms is

accommodate and typically diesel fuel is C14H30. This fuel takes less refining

and cheaper that is used by diesel trucks, boats, school buses, city buses, trains,

cranes, farming equipment and various emergency response vehicles and power

generations. Using diesel fuel releases only small amounts of carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide that lead to global warming. But it discharge

large amounts of nitrogen compounds and particulate matter from burning of this

fuel which is resulted to acid rain, smog, and other poor health conditions.

In accordance to U.S. Energy Information Administration (2017), gasoline

is commonly used as engine fuel in vehicles. It is a fuel that is made from crude

oil and other petroleum liquids. To make the gasoline cleaner and comply with

the air pollution control standards and requirements, the companies and

refineries who produce the finished motor gasoline that was sold to gasoline
 22
fueling station may put some liquids. It is stated also that in the United States,

most of the motor gasoline sold there was about to 10% fuel ethanol by volume

which this ethanol is primarily added to gasoline to conform to the requirements

of Renewable Fuel Standard.

Law regarding vehicles’ carbon emission. In accordance to the article

of Alunan (2017), section 21 of the Clean Air Act, the Department of

Transportation is mandated to conduct a regular inspection and maintenance of

motor vehicles emissions, wherein emission standards are implemented. It

considers the maximum limits for all major pollutants to ensure substantial

improvement in air quality for the health, safety and welfare of the general public.

Based on the Clean Air Act (1999), drivers and operators who exceeds the

emission standard of the vehicles will be subjected to attend a pollution control

management seminar by the Department of Transportation and Communication.

According to Paje (2015), the shifting of fuel to Euro 4 can be done

through the help of oil players, car manufacturers and transport groups with their

fair share to lessen air pollution and its effects. It was also mentioned that

DENR-Environmental Management Bureau should release Certificates of

Conformity (COC) only to Euro 4 vehicles starting 2016 to comply with the

emission standards and also for the initial registration of their vehicles on Land

Transportation Office. As added, Department of Energy ensures the supply of

Euro 4 fuels for the new emission standards by July 1 which is coherent with

Republic Act No. 8749 or the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.
 23
Challenges. In conformity to an article by the Turner (2017), a challenge

may be anything that comes in the way of success, an obstacle, perhaps,

however it still leads to success, as it points the person in which way to go in

order to succeed. The challenge prevents the person in pursuit from immediately

getting the results they wanted, but rising up to the challenge and eliminating it

will let the person have their desired results in any situation.

According to InterAksyon News 5 (2017), Land Transportation Office was

unable to examine or inspect most of the jeepneys because the office cannot

handle its massive number, taking a single inspection such as visual and

emission test for hours that outcomes to the annoyance of the people lining up

and made them ignore and disregard the said inspection.

From an article from Balancio (2017), Land Transportation of the

Philippines admitted that the inspections they are conducting were not that

effective for they lack of enough equipment. The inspection takes a lot of time to

be completed since they are confined to do it manually.

Costly replacement of jeepneys to a newer and more environment friendly

technology has been a concern in the Philippines. In an article by Marasigan

(2016), the current market price of the E-jeepneys ranges from 1 million to 1.5

million which is too high for the ordinary drivers and operators to afford.

Implementation of the E-jeepneys would cost the drivers to pay Php800 per day

or Php24, 000 per month which is basically higher than what an average jeepney

driver earns for a day. This means that there will be no profit on the side of the

drivers and the operators as well.

 24
Based on Xinhua (2017), different transport groups have complained

about the outlined jeepneys modernization. Rather than replacing the present

Public Utility Jeepneys into E-jeepneys, the Pagkakaisa ng Tsuper at Opereytor

Nationwide (PISTON) prefer the remodeling of existing PUJ units so that they will

not be obligated to spend more money in acquiring a new vehicle.

The Modernization plan of the Philippine Government. As of August

22, 2017, the Philippine government, along with numerous countries, has signed

the Paris Climate Accord, an agreement to make an effort to mitigate global

warming by consciously reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions from

each country.

Even before the Paris Agreement, the Philippines has already been taking

steps in transforming the country into a cleaner, greener one. As reported by

BBC (2013), Sarao Motors, one of the pioneers in the production of Philippine

jeepneys, has proposed to start making an electronic jeepney model to solve the

problem. The E-Jeepney Company has also started with 10 electronic jeepneys

in 2013. However, this “solution” may actually do more harm than good.

As reported by Slate (2013), electronic vehicles are clean, as they don’t

actually burn gas. This means that they’re zero emissions vehicles. This almost

seems too good to be true. But with no engine and fuel, the vehicle has to be run

with some other form of energy. As the e-vehicles’ name implies, it is to be run by

electricity. This entails that if you switch to using an electric vehicle, you’ll be

changing your power supply from a gasoline station, to a power plant.

Furthermore, the production of more vehicles to replace existing ones also

 25
requires fuel, producing even more carbon emissions. This makes sticking to

your already existing vehicle better than buying a whole new one. With this

“solution”, even if every vehicle was replaced, it will only make a small difference

in the amount of emissions, small enough to be unjustifiable. This takes everyone

back to square one.

As stated by Francisco and Sy (2017), the present administration has

considered to use more environment friendly vehicles known as E-jeepneys,

instead of the old Public Utility Jeepneys. Jeepneys should be replaced by those

powered with Euro four engines or with electrically-powered engines with solar

power roofs. The modern jeepneys should also be equipped with safety features,

such as speed limiter, closed-circuit television camera (CCTV), GPS and

dashboard camera. As they acknowledged the need to upgrade PUJs to make

them safer for drivers and commuter, backlash was returned, stating the high

cost for drivers to replace their old jeepneys.

According to the article of Uy (2018), the planned jeepney’s modernization

will have a great effect not only to the drivers but also to the students and

workers. Used as the traditional mode of transportation in the community, the

banning of PUJ’s is said to disrupt the economy.

Solutions. As defined by Cavallari (2017), solution is something that

satisfies a problem in any given situation. It may also be a course of action, taken

in order to correct the wrongs of a system.

Related Studies Changes involving the atmosphere and the climate have

impacts on the biosphere and our environment. Air quality has been a problem
 26
these days in most of the world for the massive increase in pollutants due to the

economic and industrialized growth. The study of D’ Amato et.al (2016) shows

that people living in an urbanized area is more prone in acquiring respiratory

allergy problems compared to those living in rural places. This is due to the fact

that in urban places, people are exposed to high levels of carbon emissions

produced by vehicles.

Most of the people have misperceptions with regards to CO 2 emissions

and climate change as explained by Ghazali et.al (2016), in accordance to this,

the awareness of the public about carbon emissions is a must in order to

alleviate the harmful effects of the said problem.

Temperature affects the lifespan of animals. A study by Munch and

Salinas (2009) revealed that the life expectancy of species especially those

coldblooded animals such as fish, amphibians and crustaceans depends upon

the temperature. This leads to the belief that with the rise in temperature, shorter

lifespan of animals can be expected.

There is a greater risk of migraine attacks during poor air quality days. As

stated by Loder (2010), one of the usual reported triggers of changes in weather

is migraine. The study linked outdoor pollution to a population prone in

experiencing headache.

As stated in the study of Barnett et al. (2018), the level of stress acquired

by the public depends upon their concerns with the environment. Their study

used three samples (egoistic, social-altruistic, biospheric) and find out people

who are biospheric or those who have high concerns in plants and animals or
 27
generally in nature, perceived to be more stressful compared to those who are

social-altruistic or those who are concerned for others and future generations.

Social altruistic people just become involved in ecological coping while those who

have concern for themselves neither engaged in any of the two.

Exposure to a natural disaster is one of the factors for the occurrence of

depression as shown in the study of Galea et al. (2011). After this kind of event,

people are more likely to accumulate severe post-traumatic stress as they

become prone to other kind of stressors like the death of loved ones, damage of

sentimental possessions and financial loss. When experiencing this, people

turned out to be too sensitive thus the start of the association of the symptoms of

depression.

Based on the study of Balbus et al. (2016), children are to be more

affected by climate change as the impact is more visible on them. They are more

likely to possess more emotional and behavioral responses especially right after

experiencing a natural disaster.

Moreover, anxiety is one of the psychological effects of climate change

affects the way people live and their overall perceptions. This may seem unusual

to happen but when acted upon other social and environmental stressors, can

worsened the level of anxiety.

Aggression has a correlation with the rising of temperature. In accordance

to the study of Ranson (2014), increased criminal activities in the United States

have been recorded for the past 30 years and it was proven that temperature has

a strong effect on the behavior of the criminals.

 28
As shown in the study of Bacero & Vergel (2009), the assembling of motor

vehicles such as jeepneys has no specific standards in terms of environment and

safety regulations. The public are most likely unaware in terms of how the

materials were made, and what they are truly capable of. The absence of

development standardization leads to the importation of low quality materials

used in manufacturing jeepneys. Due to this, the quality of assembled vehicles

may cause danger to the users. Requiring PUJ development standardization

focuses on patronizing local products and lessen the imports from other country.

Synthesis

The literature cited in the study provided the researchers knowledge and

information to conduct an assessment of the threats, challenges and solutions

of the carbon emission brought about by PUJs. Some studies were also

presented in the research literature that serves as an additional information

and basis for data gathering.

The study of Ghazali et al. (2016) is similar to the present study as it

discusses the awareness of the people about carbon emissions and the possible

solutions for preventing its production from PUJs. However, the prime difference

of the research undertaken to the study of Ghazali et al. (2016) is that the latter

assessed the awareness of the Malaysians on carbon emissions, while the other

assessed the awareness of the Filipino people.

The researchers reviewed the study of Bacero and Vergel (2009), which is

deemed to be closely similar to the present study since he also strongly

emphasized the need for jeepney development standardization. The study of

 29
Bacero and Vergel (2009), on one hand, differed from the present research

undertaken, since it leaned more on the evaluation of the various designs of the

components of jeepneys based on their manufacturer, while the present study,

on the other hand, does not tackle such designs but focuses on the threats,

challenges and solutions of carbon emission. Moreover the former developed

their own standards based from their acquired data while the latter just

suggested having standardization in the process of developing jeepneys.

. The studies of Loder (2010), Ranson (2014), Galea et al (2011) and D’

Amato et.al (2016) are connected to the present study as it proved the

relationship between declining air quality and the development of psychological

respiratory and problems in the same area, respectively.

The ideas or study of Loder (2010) and the present study differ since the

past employed systematic review, meaning they provided a complete summary

applicable to research questions of existing studies while the present decided to

embark on a new study.

The present study and the study of Ranson (2014) are mainly dissimilar,

for the latter made use of different basis in completing the study like semi

parametric bin estimator and controller for state by month and county by year

fixed effects while the study being conducted utilized the most common

instrument which is the questionnaire survey. Also, the location of the present is

in the Philippines while the other is in United States.

The studies of Galea et al. (2011) and Balbus et al. (2016) are different

from the present study because the two conducted their research in different
 30
regions in the United States while the present eyed only on a specific location in

the Philippines.

D’ Amato et al. (2016) deviates from the present study, as they made an

in-depth analysis of climate change’s threat to respiratory health, while the

present study made a general analysis of not only its threat to physical health

problems, but also to mental health, and the environment.

. The study of Munch and Salinas (2009) and the study being conducted

are similar, as they both elaborated on the negative effects of rising temperatures

on the life expectancy of animals. However, these studies differ on some aspects

because the study of Munch and Salinas utilized the experimental method of

research using real life examples and field observations of over 90 species of

animals, while the present used descriptive method with the questionnaire survey

as their research gathering instrument having 383 respondents.

The study of Barnett et al. (2018), and the present study clearly stated and

emphasized the development of mental problems such as higher level of stress

with those who has concerns with the environment. Moreover, both ideas

showed the need for efforts and creative ways to effectively promote awareness

by means of environmental campaigns. The study of Barnett et al. (2018),

however differed in a way that they classified their respondents into three main

categories and focused on a particular set of interindividual difference variables

unlike the present who utilized general respondents. Also, the study being

conducted revolves around the country, especially the concerned citizens in

Barangay Balagtas, and the other one was centered in the United States.
 31
Generally, the conceptual literature as well as the previous research works

contributed vital information and insights relevant for the completion of this study.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY
 32
This chapter presented the research design, respondents of the study,

data gathering instrument used, data gathering procedures done and the

statistical treatment of data of the present research undertaking.

Research Design

This study entitled "Carbon Emissions of Public Utility Jeepneys along

Barangay Balagtas: Threats, Challenges and Solutions" utilized the descriptive

survey method of research. According to Aggarwal (2008), the descriptive

method of research is about the gathering of information of the existing

conditions for the interpretation and description of the study's subject. It does not

only focus on tabulating facts but it also includes proper analysis, comparison,

and identification of trends and relationships. This method merely aims to

discern, verify and characterize the state of the research problem.

As the chosen method was specified to be under descriptive survey, this

entailed that the study employed a questionnaire survey to attain the desired

data. Since the data from the survey came in a numerical form that had a

corresponding verbal implication, it made use of a quantitative approach. The

quantitative data was derived from the researcher-made questionnaire which is

classified as primary data as it was directly sought by the researchers. This was

the research design used by the researchers of the present study because it was

the most appropriate method in generating the data that was used to achieve the

objectives of the study.

Population and Sample

 33
Using the Slovin’s formula as the statistical tool, with a designated margin

of error of 0.05 or 5%, there were 383 residents drawn from the total population

of 9244 whom has active roles in public transportation from Barangay Balagtas,

Batangas City as the respondents of the present study. According to L.

Quenneville (2017), calculating the right sample size is crucial to gain accurate

information. Setting a confidence level describes how sure you can be that your

results are accurate, whereas the margin of error shows the range the survey

results would fall between if our confidence level held true. A standard survey will

usually have a confidence level of 95% and margin of error of 5%.

The respondents answered the questionnaire given by the researchers to

supply the needed information on the study being taken. The data were obtained

through purposive sampling to get the needed respondents. This means that the

researchers use good judgment in selecting who best meets the purposes of the

study undertaken and they are expected to participate actively, upon giving

consent.

Research Instrument

The questionnaire survey was the primary data-gathering tool used in this

investigation. The researchers utilized this tool to determine to what extent the

carbon emission-influenced climate characteristic seemed to be evident for the

common folks of Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City.

Construction of Questionnaire. The questionnaire itself was made by the

researchers of this study, to specifically attain the required information to which

the success of this study was dependent upon. It was composed of three
 34
sections. The first part covers the threats, confirming if the given effects were that

severe to be noticeable for them. The second part includes the challenges that

discuss the reasons why Public Utility Jeepney drivers, manufacturers and

operators cannot meet the measures set by the government to lessen the carbon

emissions. The latter part consisted of solutions in which the respondents choose

from, reflecting their preference based on their first-hand experience with the

effects of carbon emissions and their perception of the system of PUJ

maintenance.

Administration of Questionnaire. The researcher sought for the approval of

the barangay captain and asked assistance from the counselor of the barangay

hall of Balagtas regarding the distribution of the questionnaires among the

residents. The researcher administered the survey personally in order to collect

the data directly from the barangay hall. This procedure was used to increase the

chance of obtaining high response rate for the survey questionnaire.

Scoring Responses. The questionnaire was structured using the Likert

scale format with a four-point response scale that required the respondents to

state their opinion on how evident or not evident the stated threats and

challenges are. The respondents also gave their insight on how effective or

ineffective the stated solutions are.

Option Interval Verbal Interpretation

 35
4 3.50 - 4.00 Highly Evident

3 2.50 - 3.49 More Evident

2 1.50 - 2.49 Less Evident

1 1.00 - 1.49 Not Evident

Option Interval Verbal Interpretation

4 3.50 - 4.00 Strongly Effective

3 2.50 - 3.49 Effective

2 1.50 - 2.49 Ineffective

1 1.00 - 1.49 Strongly Ineffective

Validation of Instrument

In order to examine the evidence of content validity, the instrument was

initially reviewed by the English teacher, Research I in Biology teacher, as well

as the Science teachers of the department. They examined the instrument to

assist in the development and accuracy of the test items, specifically the wording,

grammar and other technical flaws. Following this review, a Chemistry professor

from the Batangas State University judge whether the test items covered the

content that the test purports to measure and then determined how well the

content domain is sampled by the test items. The validation of the instrument

was then affirmed.

 36
Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers employed two types of data, the primary data and

secondary data. The primary data were derived from the answers of the

respondents from the self-administered questionnaire prepared by the

researchers of the present research undertaking. Meanwhile, the secondary data

were gathered through requesting information from the Land Transportation

Office of the Philippines about the number of registered PUJs in Barangay

Balagtas, Batangas City and their classifications in terms of gasoline used.

For the primary data, the researchers sought for the approval of the

principal of the University of Batangas Junior High School Department to

administer the questionnaire to the respondents of the study. In distributing the

questionnaires, the researchers personally retrieved the copies. The data

gathered were tallied and presented for statistical treatment.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The information acquired were counted, tallied and tabulated. Frequency,

Ranking, Weighted Mean and Slovin‘s Formula are the measurable instruments

that were utilized to investigate the information.

Frequency. This is the measure of the quantity of events of a specific

score in a given arrangement of information.

Ranking. This was used to indicate the positional importance of

responses based on the magnitude of each weighted mean.

 37
Weighted Mean. Answers of the respondents for the particular inquiries

will be subjected to mean measurements for legitimate outcome introduction and

exact conclusion.

The formula for the weighted mean:

X=
∑ Xi
n

Where:
X - Weighted mean

∑ - Summation of

X i - Values the x has

n - Number of values the x has

Slovin’s Formula. This was a random sampling technique formula to

estimate the sample size.

The Slovin’s formula:

N
n=
1+N e2

Where:
n - Sample Size

N - Population Size

e - Margin of Error
 38
CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter covers the researchers’ presentation, interpretation and

analyses of the data gathered from the respondents through a questionnaire

survey. The data are presented in the sequence of the research questions raised

in the study.

1. Threats of Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions

Public Utility Jeepneys registered in Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City,

produce carbon emissions that pose numerous threats against the said

barangay’s environment and human population, and listed below are those

threats which are believed to be affecting them.

Table 1
The Threats of Public Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions on the
Environment
Statements Weighted Verbal Ranking
Mean Interpretation
1. Weakening of animals due 3.07 More Evident 5
to heat.
2. Faster withering of plants. 3.13 More Evident 3

3. Shorter life span of animals 3.11 More Evident 4

4. Degradation of the air’s 3.36 More Evident 2

quality.
5. Rising of global 3.44 More Evident 1
temperature.
Composite Mean 3.22 More Evident

Table 1 presents the threats of Public Utility Jeepneys’ carbon emissions

on the environment. From the table, it can be inferred that the rising of global

temperature is perceived to be the leading threat to the environment, as it ranked

 39
first with a weighted mean of 3.44 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As

pointed out by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the

United States (2017), global temperature fluctuated between 2014 to 2015,

jumping from 74 to 90 degrees Celsius, peaking in 2016 with 94 degrees, making

it the warmest year, and subsiding slightly in 2017 with 84 degrees, entailing that

it is the third warmest year since the United States’ national records started in

1895. Though the worldly temperature has shown progress in lowering, it is still

far off from going back to its most stable state before the rise of industrial human

activity started.

Second in rank is the degradation of the air’s quality, which has a

weighted mean of 3.36 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As stated in

an article by Rinkesh (2018), emissions which are toxic air pollutants themselves,

can come from mobile sources like vehicles, which will increase the

concentration of these pollutants at a fast rate, making the said pollutants remain

longer, in a certain part of the atmosphere, affecting the people residing in its

area.

The faster withering of plants ranked third with a weighted mean of 3.13

and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As explained by the Botanic Gardens

Conservation International (2018), climate change adversely affects the Earth’s

biogeography, since the rapid changing of conditions gives different species of

plants a small amount of time to adapt, some species can be vulnerable and die

out entirely if they don’t adapt fast enough, especially those with long life cycles

and slow dispersal.

 40
The shorter life span of animals was fourth in rank, with a weighted mean

of 3.11 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. To support this, a study by

Munch and Salinas (2009), found out that ambient temperature is the leading

factor causing geographic variation of lifespan within species, concluding that

minor changes in temperature result in major changes in animal lifespan. Cold-

blooded animals, specifically such as fish, amphibians and crustaceans, are

more prone to shorter lifelines in today’s constantly warming environment.

Last in rank is the weakening of animals due to heat with a weighted mean

of 3.07 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As mentioned by the

Greenpeace International (2016), the rapid warming events is set to take place

ten times faster than any change recorded in the past times that may lead to the

extinction of plants and animals. The way of life of all plants and animals to adapt

depend upon the temperature and climate.

The composite mean of 3.22 and verbal interpretation of more evident

implies that the respondents clearly observed the aforementioned threats of

jeepneys’ carbon emissions on the environment of Barangay Balagtas.

Table 2
The Threats of Public Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions on Humans’
Physical Health
 41
Statements Weighted Verbal Ranking
Mean Interpretation
1. Allergy 2.97 More Evident 5
2. Cough 3.47 More Evident 1
3. Migraine 3.05 More Evident 4
4. Asthma 3.24 More Evident 2
5. Decreased Lung function 3.13 More Evident 3
Composite Mean 3.17 More Evident
Table 2 shows the threats of public utility jeepneys’ carbon emissions on

humans’ physical health. From the table, it can be said that cough is the most

observed threat against humans’ physical health, as it came first in rank with a

weighted mean of 3.47 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. Supporting

this is an article by the Turrill (2017), which states that the most immediate and

common effect of air pollutants is cough, as it is a triggered reflex due to the

presence of the pollutants in lungs’ nerve endings.

Followed by asthma, being second in rank with a weighted mean of 3.24

and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As pointed out in an article from the

Patterson and Verchot (2015), climate change causes erratic weather patterns

and unpredictable season durations, causing plants to release more pollen

earlier and for a longer period of time, and also causing heat waves. This led to a

jump in diagnoses for the chronic lung disease called asthma from 2001 to 2009,

with over 4.3 million patients in America, making it also the leading cause of

school absences in the said nation.

Decreased lung function ranked third, with a weighted mean of 3.13 and a

verbal interpretation of more evident. As published by Cecchi (2014), climate

change adversely affects humans’ respiratory system, and that its effects will
 42
grow stronger over time. These air pollutants, including emissions, spread and

worsen chronic lung diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease. The temperature variability, extreme weather events, and increased

heat, which are associated with climate change, does not only worsen those with

already declining lung function, but it will also impair those who were unaffected

before.

Fourth in rank is migraine, with a weighted mean of 3.05 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. As proven by a study by the Dumas (2010), air

pollutants are environmental irritants that shift the severity curve in a migraine-

susceptible population, stating that although the effects may come in small

increments, over time, it will become a prevalent condition, altering lifestyles of

affected communities, especially for those who work daily while exposed to the

open air.

Allergy ranked last, with a weighted mean of 2.97 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. In accordance with this, a study by D’Amato et.al

(2016) states that emissions by motor vehicles pose great respiratory problems,

like heightening occurrences of allergic respiratory diseases, since these

emissions mediate climate change. This makes emissions threaten humans not

only as pollutants themselves, but this also leads them to orchestrating climate

change as the grand effect, stacking one problem atop the other.

All in all, the composite mean of this table is 3.17 with verbal interpretation

of more evident. This means that respondents affirmed to the stated effects of

PUJs emissions to the humans’ physical health

 43
Table 3
The Threats of Public Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions on Humans’
Mental Health and Well-being
Statements Weighted Verbal Ranking
Mean Interpretation
1. Emotional Instability 2.73 More Evident 4
2. Higher level of Stress 2.98 More Evident 1

3. Anxiety 2.85 More Evident 3

4. Depression 2.93 More Evident 2

5. Aggression 2.71 More Evident 5

Composite Mean 2.84 More Evident

The threats of public utility jeepneys’ carbon emissions on humans’

mental health and well-being are shown in table 3. From the table above, it can

be concluded that having a higher level of stress is the most perceived threat

against humans’ mental health, ranking first with a weighted mean of 2.98 and a

verbal interpretation of more evident. As revealed by a study from Barnett et.al

(2018), people who are experiencing and seeing the progression of climate

change are prone to heightened levels of stress, and those who are aware of the

environment’s condition are stressed at the mere fact of climate change.

Next in rank is depression, with a weighted mean of 2.93 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. As proven by a study by Galea et.al (2011),

extreme weather, which is a product of climate change, can cause severe post-

traumatic stress, and during those moments of personal vulnerability combined

with exposure to stressors, people are at a higher risk of falling into depression.

Anxiety came third in rank, with a weighted mean of 2.85 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. In line with this is a study by the Balbus et.al
 44
(2016), which states that anxiety is one of the mental health consequences of

climate change, and that this anxiety may affect people’s everyday lives and their

overall perceptions. This is said to rarely occur in isolation and is pushed further

when it interacts with other social and environmental stressors.

Emotional instability ranked fourth, with a weighted mean of 2.73 and a

verbal interpretation of more evident. As pointed out by a study of Balbus et.al

(2016), the impact of climate change as a stressor is even more apparent within

children, as they are found to elicit and switch between more emotional and

behavioral responses rapidly, like going from clinginess to sudden social

withdrawal, especially right after experiencing a natural disaster.

Aggression came last, with a weighted mean of 2.71 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. To support this, a study by Ranson (2013) states

that the rise in temperature has a strong effect on aggression, as it correlated

with the prevalence of criminal activity in the United States. Heat, as an

environmental stressor, triggers aggression.

Composite mean of the results gathered is 2.84 with its verbal interpretation of

more evident shows that the respondents agreed to the said threats on humans’

mental health and well-being that was brought by emissions from PUJs in

Barangay Balagtas.

2. The Challenges of Preventing Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions

With the aim of resolving the problems caused by the presence of carbon

emissions by preventing them from the source, the researchers have to keep in
 45
mind the different challenges of attaining this prevention. The table below states

these challenges.

Table 4
The Challenges in Lessening Public Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions
Statement Weighted Verbal Ranking
Mean Interpretation
1. High cost of replacing with 3.11 More Evident 1
better technology.
2. Lack of orientations for PUJ 3.04 More Evident 3
manufacturers and operators
on carbon emission.
3. Impracticality of banning 2.76 More Evident 4
PUJs.
4. Absence of effective PUJ 3.03 More Evident 5
inspection.
5. Lack of standard PUJ 3.06 More Evident 2
maintenance systems.
Composite Mean 3.00 More Evident

Table 4 shows the results of gathering data in the challenges of preventing

public utility jeepneys’ carbon emissions. Based on the gathered data, the

respondents found the high cost of replacement technology to be the greatest

challenge in preventing PUJs’ carbon emissions, ranking first with a weighted

mean of 3.11 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. To support this, an

article by the Marasigan (2016) reports that the uproar on the topic of Public

Utility Jeepneys in the Philippines is not about being against modernization,

rather, it is about the expensiveness of the replacement technology for the

jeepneys, and how mere drivers should not be expected to pay such a sum just

to be allowed to operate.
 46
Second in rank is the lack of standard PUJ maintenance systems, with a

weighted mean of 3.06 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As stated by

an article of Alunan (2017), section 21 of the Clean Air Act requires the

Department of Transportation to implement inspections and maintenance to keep

an eye on motor vehicles’ emissions. On one hand, it already has a Motor

Vehicle Inspection Service. On the other hand, it does not state any policy on

motor vehicle maintenance. This reveals the fault of the modernization program,

which fails to recognize that maintenance is the most immediate temporary

solution that it should and can afford.

Followed by the lack of orientations for PUJ manufacturers and operators on

carbon emission, ranking third with a weighted mean of 3.04 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident. As stated in section 46 of Republic Act 8749 or the

Clean Air Act (1999), which covers the case of violation of standards for motor

vehicles, any vehicle suspected of exceeding emission standards will be tested

for it, and if confirmed, will subject the driver and operator of the apprehended

vehicle to attend a pollution control management seminar by the Department of

Transportation and Communications. The said seminar is not mentioned

anywhere else in the document, entailing that the seminar is only for those who

did not follow the emission standards. This also leaves out those who break the

emission standards but are not caught. This posits that there is no preliminary

seminar or orientation on the matter for all drivers and operators, and mere

testing upon registration is the only assurance of abiding the standard.

 47
Fourth in rank is the impracticality of banning PUJs, with a weighted mean of

2.76 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As pointed out by an article of

Uy (2018), the decisions on how to implement jeepney modernization puts the

livelihood of drivers at stake, and it puts the community into a domino effect

wherein students and workers are also greatly affected by this implementation.

This made the banning of PUJs appear impractical, as it is currently of great use

to the community. Stopping these for the sake of modernization is said to disrupt

the economy.

Fifth in rank is the absence of effective PUJ inspection, with a weighted mean

of 3.03 and a verbal interpretation of more evident. As revealed by an article from

Balancio (2017), the Land and Transportation Office of the Philippines confessed

that they do not have enough equipment to administer effective PUJ inspections

at the rate that they need. This entails that the LTO has to manually examine

multiple aspects of the PUJs, which takes a long time.

With the composite mean of 3.00, the average verbal interpretation of more

evident. The respondents’ perceptions on the challenges in preventing PUJs

emission was fully observed.

3. The Preferred Solutions by the Respondents for the Lessening of Public

Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions

The researchers aim to identify the best possible solution to prevent

carbon emissions from jeepneys, taking into account the opinion of those

affected residents in Barangay Balagtas themselves on what they think will be

most effective of the solutions stated in the table below.

 48
Table 5
The Preferred Solutions by the respondents for the Lessening of Jeepneys’
Carbon Emissions
Statement Weighted Verbal Ranking
Mean Interpretation

1. Regulating of PUJ engine 3.27 More Effective 3.5

check-up.

2. Replacing of current PUJ 3.27 More Effective 3.5

units with E- Jeepneys.
3. Requiring of PUJ 3.85 Highly Effective 1
development standardization.
4. Raising of PUJ 3.30 More Effective 2
manufacturers’ and operators’
awareness on carbon
emission through orientation.
5. Remodeling of existing 3.21 More Effective 5
PUJs.
Composite Mean 3.38 More Effective

The solutions for the effects of jeepneys’ carbon emissions are shown in

table 5. From the gathered data, the requiring of PUJ development

standardization is the perceived to be the best solution for preventing Public

Utility Jeepneys’ carbon emissions, ranking first with a weighted mean of 3.85

and a verbal interpretation of highly effective. As proven by a study by Bacero

et.al (2009), there are no national standards for the assembly of customized local

road vehicles such as jeepneys, especially with abiding to environment and

safety regulations. This lack of standard opens the Philippine jeepney to be made

with substandard materials, which are usually imported, making the Filipino

assembler most likely to be unknowledgeable in terms of how the material was

made, and what it is truly capable of. This does not reassure the quality of the

assembled vehicle itself, as is poses a threat with its parts alone, which may be
 49
unsafe for users. Requiring PUJ development standardization will not only

eliminate that problem, but it will also aid the Philippine economy in focusing on

more local products. This way, people can determine the emissions and effects

of each vehicle before they even hit the market. Putting those imported parts off

the table will also add a touch of true Filipino pride to the country’s iconic vehicle.

Next in rank is raising of PUJ manufacturers’ and operators’ awareness on

carbon emission through orientation, with a weighted mean of 3.30 and verbal

interpretation of more effective. Supporting this is a study by Ghazali et.al (2016),

which found out that the mitigation of carbon emissions is highly dependent on

the awareness of the public on the negative effects of these carbon emissions on

the environment.

The regulating of PUJ engine check-up and the replacing of current PUJ

units with E- Jeepneys tied at rank 3.5 with the same weighted mean of 3.27 and

verbal interpretation of more effective. As reported in an article by InterAksyon

News 5 (2017), the Land and Transportation Office, though it tries, it cannot fully

go through and inspect all of the jeepneys as it is simply too much for their small

office. It also takes a lot of time, making the people wait too long for a single

inspection consisting of an emission test and a visual inspection. This results in

irritation among the people lining up, and they turn out dismissing and ignoring

the need for inspection altogether. As pointed out by an article from Francisco

and Sy (2017), the Philippine government aims to replace all old Public Utility

Jeepneys with environmentally-friendly ones under their Public Utility Vehicle

modernization program.
 50
For the best possible solution, the remodeling of existing PUJs came last in

rank with its weighted mean and verbal interpretation of 3.21 and more effective,

respectively. As revealed in an article by Xinhua (2017), George San Mateo, the

head of Piston, a transport group notorious for holding strikes against

modernization, wanted the government to just remodel and modernize the

already existing PUJ units, so as to spare the drivers and operators from

spending so much on a new vehicle.

Composite mean of Table 5 is 3.38 having verbal interpretation of more

evident. It was indicated that the solutions mentioned is supported by the

respondents to prevent the emissions produced by PUJs.

4. The Proposed Output by the Researchers as a Guide for the Residents of

Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City

The researchers decided to make a magazine with the proposed

guidelines that will be beneficial especially to drivers and residents within the

area. This product was chosen so as to comply to the preferred solutions of the

respondents and researchers to solve the problem. The magazine consists of

different information for the awareness about carbon emissions emphasizing the

guidelines which was constructed based on the data gathered and interpreted by

the researchers. This includes the findings of the study, most importantly the

leading threats, challenges and solutions about the carbon emissions of jeepneys

in Barangay Balagtas Batangas City.

 51
CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summary, findings, conclusions and

recommendations obtained from the results gathered by the researchers.

Summary

This study entitled "Carbon Emissions of Public Utility Jeepneys in Barangay

Balagtas: Threats, Challenges and Solutions" aimed to address the problems

brought about by the presence of carbon emissions in Barangay Balagtas,

Batangas City. This study answered the following questions:

1. What are the threats caused by carbon emissions on the following:

1.1 Environment;

1.2 Humans’ Physical Health; and

1.3 Humans’ Mental Health

2. What are the challenges faced in lessening carbon emissions produced by

Public Utility Jeepneys?

3. What are the possible solutions preferred by the respondents to reduce the

effects brought by the carbon emission of Public Utility Jeepneys?

4. What output can be proposed by the researchers as a guide for the residents

on Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City?

The study covers the period of 1 school year commencing from June 2017 to

March 2018. The study utilized the descriptive survey method of research. The

questionnaire survey was the primary data-gathering tool used in this

investigation. The researchers utilized this tool to determine to what extent the
 52
carbon emission-influenced climate characteristic seemed to be evident for the

common folks of Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City.

The researchers used the Slovin‘s formula to determine the number of

respondents to be surveyed. There were 383 persons whom have active roles in

public transportation from Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City as the respondents

of the present study. The data were obtained through purposive sampling to get

the needed respondents. The information acquired were counted, tallied and

tabulated. Frequency, Percentage and Ranking are the measurable instruments

that were utilized to investigate the information.

Findings

1. The Threats of Jeepneys' Carbon Emissions on:

1.1 Environment. It was found out by the researchers that the rising of

global temperature ranked first among the Threats of Jeepneys' Carbon

Emissions on Environment in Barangay Balagtas, Batangas with a weighted

mean of 3.44 and a verbal interpretation of more evident because of the human

activities that may contribute to the release of carbon emissions in the

atmosphere. Last in rank was weakening of animals due to heat with a weighted

mean of 3.07 and a verbal interpretation of more evident.

1.2 Humans' Physical Health. It was obtained from the results that cough

ranked first in the threats of jeepneys' carbon emission on human's physical

health with a weighted mean of 3.47 and a verbal interpretation of more evident

since they are breathing oxygen along with the emitted carbon emissions from
 53
public utility jeepneys. Last in rank was allergy with a weighted mean of 2.97 and

a verbal interpretation of more evident.

1.3 Humans' Mental Health and Well-being. Derived from the results of the

study, it was determined that higher level of stress ranked first in the threats of

jeepneys' carbon emissions and humans' mental health and well-being with a

weighted mean of 2.98 and a verbal interpretation of more evident due to the fact

that it can affect their mental health specifically the moods of the public.

Aggression was last in rank having a weighted mean of 2.71 and a verbal

interpretation of more evident.

2. Challenges of Lessening Jeepneys' Carbon Emissions

The results showed that the high cost of replacing with better technology was

dominant among other challenges having the weighted mean of 3.11 and a

verbal interpretation of more evident because the income that the jeepney drivers

and owners earn is not enough to afford the new jeepneys. However, absence of

effective PUJ inspection ended at the last rank having a weighted mean of 3.03

and a verbal interpretation of more evident.

3. The Preferred Solutions by the Respondents for the Lessening of Public

Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon Emissions

PUJ development standardization was first in rank in the solutions for the

effects of jeepneys' carbon emission with a weighted mean of 3.85 and a verbal

interpretation of highly evident since most of the people perceived this as one of

the most convenient solutions instead of the modernization of public utility

 54
jeepneys. Then, Remodeling of existing PUJs was last in rank with a weighted

mean of 3.21 and a verbal interpretation of more evident.

4. The Proposed Output by the Researchers as a Guide for the Residents of

Barangay Balagtas, Batangas City

The researchers made a magazine with the proposed guidelines for the

drivers and residents within the area. This product was chosen so as to raise

awareness about carbon emissions since the researchers included the findings

of the study, specifically the threats, challenges and solutions of the carbon

emissions of jeepneys in Barangay Balagtas Batangas City.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Rising of global temperature, cough and higher level of stress are the

leading threats of jeepneys’ carbon emissions in Barangay Balagtas Batangas

City.

2. The challenges of preventing jeepney's carbon emissions in Barangay.

Balagtas is the high cost of replacing with better technology.

3. Requiring of PUJ development standardization is the most preferred

solution by the respondents for the lessening of Public Utility Jeepneys’ Carbon

Emissions

4. The proposed output by the researchers was magazine with proposed

guidelines.
 55

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following

recommendations are herein endorsed.

1. The government should conduct a seminar or orientation for the

manufacturers, jeepney drivers and other concerned staffs.

2. Regular inspection of public utility jeepneys must be strictly implemented.

3. The government should improve and standardize the development of

public utility jeepneys.

4. For the drivers, they should observe proper maintenance of PUJs.

5. The present researchers must create a form of reference material to

further educate the public on carbon emissions from PUJs’, along with the effects

of their threats, and the challenges and possible solutions for preventing them.

6. For future researchers, similar study with an in-depth analysis of the

structure of PUJs can be conducted.